IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 50, NO.

3, MARCH 2002 953

Biological Effects of Radio-Frequency/Microwave

Radiation
Eleanor R. Adair, Fellow, IEEE, and Ronald C. Petersen, Fellow, IEEE

Invited Paper

Abstract—Over the past 50 years, significant advances have II. CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOLOGICAL TISSUE AND
been made in the characterization of radio-frequency/microwave ABSORPTION CHARACTERISTICS
(RF/MW) fields (3 kHz–300 GHz) and energy absorption, as well
as in the quantification of biological responses of organisms ex- The complex permittivity of a biological tissue is given
posed to this kind of electromagnetic energy. The known biological by
effects and hazards have been demonstrated to be largely thermal
in nature. This paper reviews key developments in experimental
and theoretical dosimetry, as well as confirmed biological effects
that have formed the basis of ever more sophisticated human-ex-
posure standards generated through the IEEE consensus process. where f/m, and is the conductivity. The rel-
It also suggests some potential benefits to mankind of systems
ative dielectric constant and conductivity of various tissues
based on the thermogenic character of RF/MW energy absorption.
have been tabulated by Durney [1] and Gabriel et al. [2]–[4].1
Index Terms—Comfort heating of humans, RF/microwave The penetration depth , i.e., the distance from the boundary of a
biological effects, RF/microwave exposure, RF/microwave safety,
medium to the point at which the field strengths or induced cur-
safety standards, specific absorption rate.
rent densities have been reduced to of their initial boundary
value in the medium, is given by (1) as follows for a plane-wave
incident on a planar surface:
I. INTRODUCTION

T HE study of the biological effects associated with ex-

posure to electromagnetic energy at radio-frequency/mi-
crowave (RF/MW) frequencies is a mature scientific discipline.
(1)

At present, there are well over 15 000 papers in the scientific Table I shows the approximate dielectric parameters and pen-
literature that report the results of laboratory studies of exposed etration depth for a number of frequencies for muscle tissue (tis-
animals, humans, in vitro preparations, and other relevant sues with high water content) [5].
studies. As can be imagined, the quality of the studies is As seen in this table, the penetration depth at low frequencies
uneven, ranging from poor and incomplete to excellent. The is large and decreases rapidly to 1 mm or less at millimeter-wave
expert panels of international standards committees, such as frequencies. Although the penetration depth estimated from (1)
the IEEE International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety is large at lower frequencies, the amount of energy that actually
(ICES), critically evaluate this evolving literature on a con- penetrates a conducting body the size of a human is small be-
tinual basis, deliberate, and make recommendations regarding cause of the shunting of the electric field. At 60 Hz, for example,
the possible impact on human health. This paper describes the internal -field in a small spherical object is nearly six or-
the important biological effects—separating confirmed and ders of magnitude less than the external -field [6]. Only around
understood effects and interaction mechanisms from those the “resonance” frequency of man, i.e., around 40–80 MHz, is
that are speculative and unconfirmed—and describes how this the internal -field deep in the body within one order of mag-
information is used by the standards community and expert nitude of the external field [7].
panels to develop safety criteria for human exposure. The amount and distribution of the energy absorbed in a bio-
logical object exposed to RF energy is related to the internal -
and -fields. As the incident wave penetrates a biological ob-
Manuscript received October 28, 2001. ject, the fields interact at the various tissue interfaces resulting
E. R. Adair, retired, was with the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Brooks in a complex distribution of the local fields. These internal fields
AFB, TX 78235-5324 USA. She is now at 50 Deepwood Drive, Hamden, CT
06517 USA (e-mail: [email protected]). are related to a number of parameters including frequency, di-
R. C. Peterson, retired, was with the Environmental Health and Safety Center, electric properties of the tissues, geometry and orientation of the
Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ 07974 USA. He is now at 170 Fairview
Drive, Bedminster, NJ 07921 USA (e-mail: [email protected]). 1[Online]. Available: http://www.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/dielec.sh, http://www.
Publisher Item Identifier S 0018-9480(02)01962-2. brooks.af.mil/AFRL/HED/hedr/reports/dielectric/home.html

0018–9480/02$17.00 © 2002 IEEE

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954 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 50, NO. 3, MARCH 2002

TABLE I
DIELECTRIC PARAMETERS FOR MUSCLE TISSUE AT VARIOUS FREQUENCIES

object with respect to the incident field vectors, and whether the
exposure is in the near or far field of the source. The resulting
distribution of energy can be described in terms of the specific
absorption rate (SAR), which is defined as the time derivative
of the incremental energy absorbed by (dissipated in) an
incremental mass contained in a volume element of
a given density [8], i.e.,

W/kg (2)

The SAR is related to the internal -field by

W/kg (3)

where is the conductivity of the tissue in siemens per meter, Fig. 1. Calculated whole-body average SAR versus frequency for models of
is the mass density in kg/m and is the rms electric field the average man for three standard polarizations. The incident power density is
1 mW/cm . E -, H - and K -polarization refer to the component of the incident
strength in volts per meter. The concept of SAR is meaningful wave that is aligned with the major axis of the body (K is the wave vector) (from
only in the frequency range between approximately 100 kHz Durney et al. [1]).
and 6–10 GHz, i.e., where the penetration depth is of the order
of 1 cm or more. Induced current density is the important pa-
small animals are more efficient absorbers than man, e.g., the
rameter at RF frequencies below approximately 100 kHz; at
SAR for a mouse at resonance (approximately 2 GHz), the
frequencies above approximately 6–10 GHz, the energy is ab-
peak SAR is somewhat over 1.0 W/kg per mW/cm .
sorbed superficially and incident power density is important.
SAR is a key concept in planning and analysis of experiments,
There is an extensive literature on the evaluation of
both in vivo and in vitro, and serves as the basis of contemporary
whole-body-averaged SAR and SAR distributions for various
RF/MW safety standards for human exposure. Both whole-body
models of animals, including man. Many of the earlier evalua-
average SAR and the local peak spatial-average SAR are impor-
tions are based on simple spherical and ellipsoidal models, e.g.,
tant.
Durney [1], but more recent studies use numerical simulations
of anatomically correct models of adult humans. The results
III. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
of these studies show that near resonance ( 70–80 MHz for
“standard man,” about half that frequency when standing on a The goal of much research into the biological consequences
conducting ground plane, and about 100 MHz when seated) the of exposure to RF/MW energy is the understanding of how such
SAR is greatest when the incident -field is aligned with the exposure may compromise the normal biological functioning
major axis of the body (called -polarization—see Fig. 1). For of human beings. Since many experimental maneuvers cannot
-polarization, a low- resonance is observed when the major be performed on human subjects, studies of animal subjects
axis of the object is approximately [9], where is the must often be substituted. Most studies that report biological ef-
wavelength. The SAR at resonance is equal to about 0.2 W/kg fects have involved acute (minutes to hours) RF/MW exposures
per mW/cm of incident power density. At higher frequencies, of animal subjects or in vitro preparations. Due to economic
the SAR decreases to an asymptotic “quasi-optical” value 5–6 and technical concerns, only a few studies have investigated the
times lower than the SAR peak. At very low frequencies, the consequences of long-term exposure of animals to controlled
SAR varies as , as expected. As seen in Fig. 1, the resonance RF/MW fields. Almost without exception, several recently pub-
is far less pronounced for - and -polarization. At resonance, lished long-term studies, e.g., Frei et al. [10] and [11], Toler et

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ADAIR AND PETERSEN: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RF/MW RADIATION 955

al. [12], Chou et al. [13], and Mason et al. [14], have failed this response adjustment, the internal body temperature is usu-
to demonstrate any deleterious effects, including cancer, on the ally regulated within the limits normal for the species. In addi-
exposed animal subjects. A study by Repacholi et al. [15] indi- tion, heat-loss responses of vasodilation and sweating are initi-
cated increased malignant tumors in transgenic mice exposed to ated by RF/MW exposure of nonhuman primates in thermoneu-
fields characteristic of mobile phones. A replication study using tral and warm environments. In each case, the magnitude of the
a different exposure system has been completed [16], but the re- physiological response is a direct function of the whole-body
sults are not yet available. SAR [18]–[21], [23], [24].
Over 20 recent epidemiological studies of humans chron- These studies of nonhuman primates have stimulated recent
ically exposed to assorted RF/MW sources (radar, mobile research on human volunteers exposed to assorted RF/MW
phones, etc.) have suffered from multiple technical deficien- fields. A series of experiments has been published by Adair et
cies, especially an absence of exposure assessment and, thus, al. [25]–[29] that are designed to obtain accurate knowledge
have had limited utility. Many of these studies targeted cancer of human thermoregulatory efficiency in RF/MW environ-
as an endpoint and, at best, the findings were equivocal or ments. A standard protocol, in which adult human volunteers
contradictory. The low quantum energy of RF/MW fields undergo 45-min partial-body exposures following a 30-min
would not be expected to initiate or promote carcinogenesis, equilibration to a controlled thermal environment, is always
at least in terms of classical physical principles. In general, followed. These studies have involved frequencies of 450 MHz
only a few frequencies have been studied, usually one at a time [continuous wave (CW)] and 2450 MHz (CW and pulsed) and
with limited field intensities. The worst case is believed to three ambient temperatures ( C C and C).
involve exposure at the resonant frequency, where the longest Local peak power density was set to yield the same local
body dimension is and the RF/MW energy penetrates peak SAR (watts per kilogram) at both frequencies. To date,
maximally. 15.4 W/kg has been the maximal peak surface SAR explored
(Adair et al. [29]), a level nearly double that specified in the
1999 edition of IEEE Standard C95.1-1991 [30] for human
partial-body exposure at 2450 MHz. Each study, regardless
IV. KNOWN/UNDERSTOOD EFFECTS (TISSUE HEATING) of specific variables explored, has reported that partial-body
exposures of humans, at levels at or above the maximum
A. Physiological Effects
permissible exposure (MPE) values of the standard, are mildly
Tissue heating is an important effect of RF/MW exposure thermogenic and are counteracted efficiently by normal physi-
of biological organisms that has been unequivocally demon- ological heat loss responses, principally sweating. In particular,
strated. Most of the published physiological research has con- no increase in core temperature (measured in the esophagus at
cerned thermoregulatory mechanisms that quantify the ability the level of the heart) has ever occurred in any subject under
of an organism to regulate its body temperature. These studies any condition tested. The most recent study in this series
have been conducted primarily on laboratory animals, with a involved whole-body far-field exposure at 100 MHz. Subjects
heavy emphasis on small rodents, e.g., mice, rats, and hamsters. reported no sensations of warmth, even at field strengths eight
Small mammals are poor models for human beings; their large times the MPE values of the 1999 edition of the IEEE Standard
surface-to-volume ratio requires a high metabolic heat produc- C95.1-1991 [30], yet heat-loss responses of vasodilation and
tion to maintain thermal balance in the cold. However, such an- sweating maintained the body’s thermal equilibrium. (It should
imals are at a disadvantage in warm environments because they be noted that for most of the MW range, there is perceptible
lack efficient mechanisms for heat loss. Basic information about sensation of warmth at reasonably low levels, but these sensa-
the thermoregulatory capabilities of animal models relative to tions seem to fade at the lower frequencies, e.g., 50–100 MHz,
human beings is essential to the appropriate evaluation and ex- where the energy is penetrating.) Rough calculations of the
trapolation of animal data to man. In general, reliance on data potential whole-body-averaged SAR under these conditions
collected on humans and nonhuman primates, however frag- yield a value close to 1.0 W/kg, although this number remains
mentary, yield a more accurate understanding of how RF/MW to be confirmed by dosimetric modeling of seated humans,
fields interact with biological systems, knowledge that will best a technique not yet available. In any case, although the RF
serve the needs of setting human exposure standards. exposures of human volunteers often exceeded current safety
Voluminous laboratory data, collected on rhesus and squirrel guidelines, the added heat loads to the body were dissipated
monkeys (cf. Adair [17]), have demonstrated that the autonomic easily and with no reported discomfort.
responses of heat production and heat loss will be mobilized
efficiently when these animals undergo specific RF/MW ex- B. Behavioral Effects
posures in controlled thermal environments. For example, the
metabolic heat production of endothermic mammals equili- Exposure to RF/MW energy can lead to changes in the be-
brated to cold environments will be elevated by an amount that is havior of humans and laboratory animals. These changes can
directly proportional to the ambient temperature. During acute range from the perceptions of warmth and sound to lethal body
exposure of the whole body to RF/MW fields, the elevated of temperatures that result in grand mal seizures. Between these
nonhuman primates in the cold is reduced by an amount propor- two extremes, the trained behavior of laboratory animals can
tional to the field strength or SAR (Candas et al. [18], Lotz and be either perturbed or stopped dead in its tracks. Under certain
Saxton [19], [20], Adair et al. [21], and Lotz [22]). As a result of other conditions, animals will escape and subsequently avoid

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956 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 50, NO. 3, MARCH 2002

RF fields, but they will also work to obtain a burst of RF energy of 100 p/s and pulsewidths of 50 ns and 2.8 s; the average
when they are cold. whole-body SAR was 2, 4, or 6 W/kg. Significant alterations in
Over the last 40 years, studies reporting changes in the behavioral responses, reaction time, and acquired food pellets
behavior of laboratory animals in the presence of RF fields have occurred during 4 and 6 W/kg exposure, but not at 2 W/kg. Fur-
provided substantial insight into the most probable mechanism of ther, high-peak-power pulses and normal radar pulses did not
interaction of these fields with intact organisms. This mechanism differentially alter behavioral performance, which recovered
relates to the generation of heat in the tissues that results in the rapidly after exposure ceased. It is possible that the monkeys
activation of thermal sensors in the skin and elsewhere in the could hear the pulses, but the sensation may have been the same
central nervous system. Studies of human thermal sensation, for the two types of pulses. Thus, while this study confirmed
generatedbyRF/MWexposures,e.g.,Hendleretal.[31],Justesen the earlier behavioral disruption thresholds of 4 W/kg, it did not
et al. [32], and Blick et al. [33], reinforce the conclusion that find evidence of unique high-peak-power MW hazards from
behavioral changesobservedinRFexposed animalsarethermally fields near the IEEE Standard C95.1-1991 -field limit.
motivated. Indeed, measured elevations of surface and deep From the few extant studies that have evaluated “cognitive
body temperatures often accompany specific behavioral changes performance” during or following RF/MW exposure, conclu-
demonstrated in the laboratory setting [34]. The phenomenon sions cannot easily be drawn. Some performance deficits are
of disruption of food-motivated behavior at a whole-body SAR observed at a whole-body SAR less than 4 W/kg, while an en-
of 4 W/kg, e.g., de Lorge [35], which has served as the basis hancement of performance has been observed at 13 W/kg.
for human exposure guidelines since the early 1980s ([30], The cognitive task differences, different exposure systems used,
[36]–[39]), still appears to be a very sensitive and reproducible modulation parameters employed, frequency discrepancies be-
biological effect of RF/MW exposure. Such behavioral alteration tween studies, differences in test species, and exposure duration
has been demonstrated in a variety of animal species and under all conspire to make easy interpretation of this sparse literature
many different conditions of RF exposure. difficult.
The MW-induced auditory effect, e.g., the ability to perceive Thus, thermal changes seem to account for most of the re-
certain pulsed RF/MW signals, is an example of another ported behavioral effects of absorbed RF energy across the lim-
reproducible effect with established thresholds for humans ited frequency range explored. Those studies that report changes
and a number of animal species. For example, Guy et al. [40], in animal behavior during acute RF exposure also involve tissue
[41] have shown that a number of human subjects can perceive heating, mild heat stress, and alternate behaviors that are ther-
pulsed 2.45-GHz MW energy as distinct clicks and short pulse moregulatory in nature. Certainly the demonstrated reinforcing
trains as chirps or buzzing with a tone that corresponds to the and aversive properties of RF energy are derived from tissue
prf of the signal. The threshold for humans at this frequency heating. As pointed out by Goldman [44], whether low-level RF
was consistently found to be about 40 J/cm per pulse for exposure, which characterizes the chronic studies, also involves
pulsewidths ranging from 1 to 32 s. The SAR per pulse, based tissue heating is unknown, but acclimation would surely ame-
on absorption in an equivalent spherical model of the head, liorate the impact of such heating in a short time.
was approximately 16 W/kg. The interaction mechanism is
the induction of a thermoelastic pressure wave in brain tissue
C. Nonthermal Effects?
that activates the inner ear receptors [42]. The temperature
rise associated with each pulse is of the order of 10 C. In this era of widespread use of mobile phones and other per-
Although the effect may be annoying, there is no evidence of sonal communication devices, there is much speculation over
harm at exposures at or below the peak-power limits found in the potential hazard from the low-level radiated fields from such
contemporary safety standards and guidelines such as the IEEE devices (cf. Stewart [45] and Carlo [46]). The hard body of sci-
Standard C95.1 [30]. The evoked auditory response is the only entific evidence for a thermal basis of RF/MW bioeffects seems
confirmed effect at MW frequencies with little temperature to be ignored today in favor of a low-level nonthermal interac-
rise and dependence on something other than average power tion of fields with biological tissues. Certainly, electrocution is
density or SAR. Although not behavioral in nature, the effect a true hazard that can be classified as nonthermal in nature, but
is, however, one that should carefully be considered as a is not low level. The recent controversial claims of nonthermal
potential confounder in animal experiments where the subjects effects, especially RF/MW exposures that are amplitude mod-
are exposed to pulsed RF. ulated at ELF frequencies, have neither been substantiated ex-
More recently, other behavioral studies have provided evi- perimentally, nor replicated independently. Many published pa-
dence for different kinds of behavioral alteration that may not pers report artifacts, not clean experimental data. One result of
have a thermal basis. A study by D’Andrea et al. [43] was con- the recent International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
ducted after promulgation of the IEEE Standard C95.1-1991, classification of RF energy as a possible carcinogen is the initia-
which set limits (100 kV/m peak -field) on human exposure tion of several new research programs, especially in the U.K., to
to high-peak-power, short duration MW pulses (less than search for nonthermal mechanisms of interaction. As noted ear-
100 ms). Rhesus monkeys were trained on a complex operant lier, there are valid scientific reasons why these programs will
task involving color discrimination and were exposed (or sham fail to bear positive fruit. On the other hand, as Osepchuk and
exposed) for 20 min to two types of 5.62-GHz MW pulses Petersen [47] have noted, millions of people experienced strong
while performing this task. Peak incident power densities RF/MW exposures via clinical diathermy during the last cen-
studied ranged from 56 to 277 W/cm , at a pulse repetition rate tury and with only beneficial consequences.

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ADAIR AND PETERSEN: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RF/MW RADIATION 957

V. EXPOSURE STANDARDS veloped the latest standard were mostly from academia and the
federal research laboratories.
A. History
B. Contemporary RF/MW Standards
RF/MW safety standards generally refer to regulations, The most commonly used standards throughout the world are
recommendations, and guidelines that specify exposure limits based on the IEEE C95 standards, the recommendations of the
for the purpose of protecting human health. A coordinated National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
effort to develop science-based standards and guidelines began (NCRP), and the guidelines of the International Radiation
around 1953 when Schwan recommended 10 mW/cm as an Protection Association (IRPA) International Commission on
exposure limit [48]. This value was based on a simple thermal Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Both the NCRP
model that limited the rise in core temperature of an exposed and ICNIRP are organizations with established scientific com-
individual to less than 1 C if about half of the incident energy mittees that review the literature and make recommendations
was absorbed. Further justification of this value was the absence regarding exposure to RF/MW energy. NCRP is a nonprofit
of evidence that opacities in the lens of the eye (cataracts) corporation chartered by the U.S. Congress to collect, analyze,
could be produced at power densities below 100 mW/cm . As develop, and disseminate in the public-interest information and
pointed out by Mumford [48], various organizations adapted recommendations about: 1) protection against radiation and
the 10-mW/cm value to suit their needs and limits that ranged 2) radiation measurements, quantities, and units, particularly
from about 100 W/cm to 100 mW/cm were commonly used those concerned with radiation protection; ICNIRP evolved
during the late 1950s. In 1960, the first formal standards project from the IRPA INIRC—established in 1977 and chartered as
was approved when the American Standards Association an independent Commission in 1992.
[(ASA), which later became the American National Standards The NCRP is concerned mostly with ionizing radiation,
Institute (ANSI)] approved the initiation of Radiation Hazards but in the mid-1970s, Scientific Committee 53 (SC-53–now
Standards Project C95 and the establishment of a committee SC-89-5) was established to review the scientific literature
charged with developing standards through an open consensus and recommend limits for exposure to RF/MW energy. SC-53
process. The C95 Committee, co-sponsored by the Department consisted of six members, five advisory members, and five
of the Navy and the IEEE (then the IRE), published its first consultants—eight of whom were also members of the ANSI
standard in 1966 [49]. The recommended limit, then called C95 committee at the time. In 1986, the SC-53 literature review
a “Radiation Protection Guide” was 10 mW/cm across the was published with recommendations of the NCRP Report
frequency spectrum from 10 MHz to 100 GHz. Revisions were 86 [37]. Although the recommendations were based on the
published in 1974 [50] and 1982 [36]. Each revision was more 1982 ANSI C95 exposure limits, a major departure was the
scientifically sound, albeit more complex than its predecessor. incorporation of an additional safety factor of five for exposure
For example, the 1974 standard specifies limits for both the - of the public, i.e., a lower tier. Even though the consensus of
and -fields for frequencies below a few hundred megahertz the committee was that all evidence indicated that confirmed
since by then it was recognized that many exposures in the effects related to RF/MW exposure are threshold effects, with
workplace are in the near field and both field components are established thresholds well above the limits for occupational
important. The 1982 standard was the first frequency-depen- exposure, the stated rationale for the lower tier was based on
dent SAR-based standard. In 1989, the C95 committee became the premise that the public would generally be exposed for
the IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 28 (SCC-28) longer exposure durations than the worker.
and the latest standard, the 1999 edition of the IEEE Standard The most recent ICNIRP guidelines were approved in
C95.1-1991 [30] was approved for use as an American National November 1997 and published in 1998 [38]. At the time the
Standard by the ANSI in 1992. Unlike the earlier standards, guidelines were developed, the Commission included the
the 1991 IEEE standard contains two tiers over a limited participation of 17 scientists and 11 external experts from
frequency range (between approximately 1 MHz to 3 GHz) 12 different countries, including Sweden, Australia, U.K.,
based on exposure environment. The recommendations for Germany, Poland, and the U.S. Although the ICNIRP field
exposures in uncontrolled environments, e.g., public exposure, limits in part of the RF/MW region differ from those of the
is one-fifth the limits for exposures in controlled environments. IEEE and NCRP, the standards and recommendations of all
Some feel that the lower tier is unnecessary and was more of three organizations are based on the same biological endpoint
a sociopolitical decision than one based on science—but in an and whole-body-averaged SAR threshold value, i.e., behavioral
open consensus process, all voices are heard and the majority disruption of food-motivated behavior and 4 W/kg, respec-
rules. tively. Any differences between the exposure field limits at
SCC-28 is now a committee of the IEEE ICES and is truly RF/MW frequencies are related to engineering interpretations
an international committee with over 100 members representing and mostly differences in the applied safety factors—not
over 20 countries. While the role of the main committee is to en- disagreements on the biology.
sure that the views of the stakeholders are considered, the scien-
tific expertise resides mainly on the subcommittees that develop
C. Rationale
the standards. The subcommittee that develops the RF/MW ex-
posure limits is larger than the main committee with even wider RF/MW safety standards are based on the results of crit-
representation. The 125 members of the subcommittee that de- ical evaluations and interpretations of the relevant scientific

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958 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 50, NO. 3, MARCH 2002

research—ideally, all laboratory and epidemiology research from rats through several species of monkeys, and frequency,
that relates any biological response, from short- and long-term from approximately 200 MHz to over 5 GHz. Associated with
exposure, would be included. From this evaluation, a threshold this threshold is an increase in body temperature, usually of
SAR is established for the most sensitive confirmed response approximately 1 C. The IEEE, NCRP, and ICNIRP RF/MW
that could be considered harmful to humans regardless of exposure standards and guidelines are each based on behavioral
the nature of the interaction mechanism. To account for disruption and a threshold SAR of 4 W/kg across the range of
uncertainties in the data and to increase confidence that the frequencies where SAR is the valid dosimetric parameter, i.e.,
limits are well below the levels at which adverse2 effects from approximately 100 kHz to 6–10 GHz. A safety factor of
could occur, the resulting threshold is lowered by a somewhat ten is incorporated for exposure in controlled environments,
arbitrary safety factor, usually 10–50 times below the observed e.g., the workplace, and an additional factor of five for exposure
threshold (at least for the IEEE standards and the NCRP in uncontrolled environments. Thus, the basis for contemporary
recommendations—others have much larger safety factors). RF/MW safety standards a maximum whole-body-average
The threshold SAR is sometimes called a “basic restriction”. SAR of 0.4 and 0.08 W/kg for exposures in controlled and
In the case of the IEEE standard, threshold SAR is presented uncontrolled environments, respectively. Subtle differences
as an exclusion, i.e., the incident field limits can be exceeded in the derived limits developed by different organizations are
provided the SAR limits are not. The MPEs derived from associated with the underlying engineering assumptions used
the threshold SAR—i.e., exposure field and induced current to derive the MPEs, or differences in philosophy of determining
limits—sometimes called “investigation levels” or “reference safety factors—i.e., safety margins (note that the absence of
levels”—ensure that the resulting SAR and induced current safety margin implies existence of EM sensitive people)—not
densities are below the corresponding thresholds under all with any specific biological response or its threshold.
circumstances of exposure. In the absence of any convincing The SAR distributions resulting from exposure to RF/MW
evidence for long-term effects at low levels, modern RF/MW energy are complex. When the 1982 ANSI C95 Standard was
safety standards and guidelines are based on short-term studies. developed, it was noted that many animal exposures are carried
While cancer is a major consideration in assessing risk from out under far-field irradiation conditions. Dosimetric studies at
long-term low-level exposures, the weight of the evidence does the time revealed that, under such conditions, the peak-to-av-
not support the idea that RF energy can cause cancer in animals erage value of the SAR distribution in laboratory animals was
or humans or change cells the way that known carcinogens do. typically 20 : 1. This 20 : 1 ratio was used to develop peak spa-
The scientific literature shows that at sufficiently high levels, tial-average SAR limits for exposures of small portions of the
adverse effects can occur from RF exposure. Laboratory studies body, e.g., from a wireless handset. Thus, the peak-spatial av-
have shown a continuum of effects from increases in tempera- erage SAR limits of the 1991 IEEE C95.1 Standard for ex-
ture at sufficiently high exposure levels, and the concurrent ac- posures in controlled and uncontrolled environments is 8 and
companying physiological changes, to the disruption of learned 1.6 W/kg, respectively, averaged over a rather arbitrary mass of
behavioral tasks, at moderate exposure levels. At lower expo- 1 g of tissue in the shape of a cube [30]. The somewhat less ar-
sures, there is no convincing evidence that effects deemed ad- bitrary ICNIRP peak spatial-average SAR limits are based on
verse occur, but sensitive studies can detect adaptive responses, effects to the eye. Specifically, the threshold associated with
such as increased sweating, or decreased metabolic rate. These the induction of lens opacities in the eyes of rabbits has been
responses have been observed in numerous studies in several shown to be greater than 100 W/kg. The mass of the eye is ap-
species and exposure levels, and other research and other knowl- proximately 10 g—by incorporating safety factors of 10 and 50
edge about physiology confirm the relevance of these observa- times, the resulting ICNIRP peak spatial-average values are 10
tions for humans. As indicated above, reported effects at even and 2 W/kg averaged over any 10 g of contiguous tissue for oc-
lower exposure levels, sometimes called “nonthermal” effects, cupational and exposure of the public, respectively.
have not been confirmed (other than the “auditory” effect if that Below 100 kHz, the IEEE SCC-28 is working on improved
is considered “nonthermal,” which is an arcane point). transitions to the rules based on electrostimulation, which will
Studies in laboratory animals at various frequencies help match a new standard being developed for frequencies below
to identify dose–response patterns and thresholds. The most 3 kHz. Above 6 GHz, substantial liaison with the laser stan-
sensitive and reliable confirmed biological response that could dards community in recent years has assured a scientifically de-
be considered potentially harmful to humans has been found fensible transition from the principal MW range below 6 GHz to
to be the disruption of food-motivated learned behavior. Since a standard based on surface absorption assessment that matches
this effect is modest and represents an adaptive response, laser standards at 300 GHz.
it serves to identify a threshold for potentially harmful ef-
fects. The threshold for behavioral disruption, in terms of D. IEEE Process
whole-body-averaged SAR, has consistently been found to
Guidelines and recommendations developed by the ICNIRP
lie between approximately 2–9 W/kg across animal species,
and NCRP committees is an informal and somewhat nontrans-
2An adverse biological response is considered any biochemical change, func- parent process, whereas the IEEE process is open and trans-
tional impairment, or pathological lesion that could impair performance and re- parent. Moreover, throughout their history, the C95 committees
duce the ability of an organism to respond to additional challenge. Adverse bio-
logical responses should be distinguished from biological responses in general, (and now IEEE/ICES SCC-28) have been by far the most in-
which could be adaptive or compensatory, harmful, or beneficial. novative and had the greatest influence on RF/MW safety stan-

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ADAIR AND PETERSEN: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RF/MW RADIATION 959

dards worldwide [51]. For these reasons the IEEE process will National Standard, provided all comments from the public are
be described briefly. addressed.
The process begins at the subcommittee level (which is open ICES is now international and influence of the C95 standards
to anyone with an interest) with the identification by the Liter- is now global in scope. Through the World Health Organiza-
ature Surveillance Working Group of reliable studies reporting tion’s standards harmonization effort, ICES is working closely
biological responses—from reversible effects and responses with other expert groups, e.g., ICNIRP, toward the development
of adaptation to irreversible and biologically harmful effects. a single science-based global standard.
(The Literature Surveillance Working Group has identified
over 1500 relevant citations from a number of databases and
VI. WHAT MAY THE FUTURE HOLD?
inputs from federal agencies and other organizations that are
regularly polled.) Selected papers undergo a comprehensive en- The proposal by Pound [52] that MWs be used for the
gineering review by two randomly selected reviewers from the comfort heating of humans, conceived in the aftermath of
Engineering Evaluation Working Group and by two randomly the mid-1970s energy crisis, may not be realized for decades
selected reviewers from one of the appropriate biological eval- because of continuing concern for the potential “hazards”
uation working groups, e.g., in vivo, in vitro, and epidemiology. attending such exposure. However, RF/MW heating for cancer
The reviewers are subject matter experts—many of whom are therapy, for rapid rewarming of hypothermia victims, and for
not members of the subcommittee or the IEEE. Theoretical incubation of newborn mammals is being vigorously explored
papers, e.g., papers that speculate on various mechanisms of on many research fronts. Given a frequency that will allow
interaction, are reviewed separately and judgments made as to maximal penetration of the energy well below the surface of a
their relevance for standard setting. given organism, rapid heating of the body can be accomplished
The literature evaluation has now been computerized in order far more efficiently with RF/MW energy than with radiant or
to expedite the process of handling large amounts of data (sev- convective heat sources. Buffler [53] described the standard
eral thousand evaluations) and to allow the Risk Assessment practice of immersing a hypothermic newborn lamb for hours
Working Group to search for key evaluations. The Risk Assess- in a water bath as tedious and marginally successful. Further-
ment Working Group evaluates the implied risk for human be- more, prolonged soaking removes the animal’s scent so that
ings and defines a threshold SAR for which potentially delete- the mother rejects it afterward. Heated shelters for sheep are
rious effects are likely to occur. During the review process, sev- expensive and, therefore, little used. Instead, Buffler proposed
eral concerns that have been raised regarding the 1999 edition of rewarming the lamb rapidly with RF/MW energy to enhance
IEEE Standard C95.1-1991 are now being addressed including its survival and ensure its acceptance by the mother.
a more appropriate averaging time at the higher MW and mil- Morrison et al. [54] have successfully incubated flocks of
limeter-wave frequencies, reexamination of the basis and need chicks with MWs on a demand basis, beginning on the seventh
for two tiers, reexamination of the basis for the magnitude of day of life (in a cool environment—16 C). Either 2450-MHz
the spatial peak SAR limits and the corresponding averaging MW or infrared (IR) heat was provided when a chick pecked at
volume, development of a scientific basis for the averaging time a wall panel. The birds used both sources of thermal energy ef-
at frequencies below 100 kHz and for induced current and con- ficiently for periods as long as 22 days. No difference in growth
tact current, and development of a scientific basis to protect rate between IR- and MW-heated chicks were evident, nor were
against spark discharges. any detriments in health or overall behavior measured in the
Draft standards developed by the subcommittees are sub- MW-exposed birds.
jected to a rigid, but open, balloting process before they are The potential for MW incubation of newborn rats has been
moved to the main committee for approval. Approval requires explored, with emphasis on changes that may occur in ther-
a letter ballot with at least 75% of all ballots returned. Attempts moregulatory ability when immature rats are repeatedly exposed
must be made to reconcile every negative ballot and all unrec- to MW fields. This research determined the optimal conditions
onciled negative ballots must be circulated, with a rebuttal, to (SAR and ) for the incubation of rats from 2 to 16 days of age
offer all voting members an opportunity to comment, affirm, (Spiers and Adair [55], Spiers et al. [56]). After this incubation,
or change their vote. If, after all unreconciled disapprovals the exposed animals were allowed to grow to maturity, mate,
have been circulated, 75% of the initial number of returned and produce young, while being tested for a variety of biolog-
ballots remain affirmative, the process is repeated at the main ical endpoints. No hazardous consequences of acute or repeated
committee level—usually by the IEEE Balloting Center. The exposure to MW fields at low SAR were found when the an-
requirements for approval at the main committee level are the imals were incubated under optimal exposure conditions. It is
same as those at the subcommittee level. The main committee only a short step, then, to the consideration of a MW incubation
is comprised of the stakeholders that have to apply the standard. system for premature human infants, who are so susceptible to
Once approved by the main committee, the draft is submitted the dehydrating and burning characteristics of conventional con-
to the IEEE Standards Board. The IEEE Standards Board vective and radiant incubators in use today.
has oversight to ensure that due process has been followed, Profoundly hypothermic anesthetized rhesus monkeys have
e.g., all negative ballots and appeals have been addressed been successfully rewarmed to normal body temperature by
and coordination has taken place. At the time of approval by RF/MW radiation treatment with an induction coil by Olsen
the IEEE Standards Board, the document becomes an IEEE and David [57] and Olsen et al. [58]. Deep body temperature
standard and, after public review, an approved ANSI American as low as 20 C, the point of cardiovascular collapse, were

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960 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 50, NO. 3, MARCH 2002

returned to normal within 2 h and no deleterious aftereffects [5] J. M. Osepchuk and R. C. Petersen, “Safety standards for exposure to
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have occurred over the years have mainly resulted from a in Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd ed,
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[27] E. R. Adair, S. A. Kelleher, L. G. Berglund, and G. W. Mack, “Physiolog- [52] , “Radiant heat for energy conservation,” Science, vol. 208, pp.
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of human volunteers to 2450 MHz pulsed or CW fields provokes similar “Behavioral observations and operant procedures using microwaves as
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tromagnetic Fields, IEEE Standard C95.1-1991, 1999. responses of the immature rat to warming by low-level 2,450 MHz mi-
[31] E. Hendler, J. D. Hardy, and D. Murgatroyd, “Skin heating and tem- crowave radiation,” Biol. Neonate, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 48–56, 1989.
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in Temperature. Its Measurement and Control in Science and In- warming in the rhesus monkey,” Aviation Sp. Environmental Med., vol.
dustry, C. M. Herzfeld, Ed. New York: Reinhold, 1963, pt. 3, vol. 3, 55, pp. 111–117, 1984.
pp. 211–230. [58] R. G. Olsen, M. B. Ballinger, T. D. David, and W. G. Lotz, “Rewarming
[32] D. R. Justesen, E. R. Adair, J. C. Stevens, and V. Bruce-Wolfe, “A com- of the hypothermic rhesus monkey with electromagnetic radiation,” Bio-
parative study of human sensory thresholds: 2450-MHz microwaves vs electromagnetics, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 183–193, 1987.
far-infrared radiation,” Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 117–125, [59] R. L. Hesslink, Jr, S. Pepper, R. G. Olsen, S. B. Lewis, and L. D. Homer,
1982. “Radio frequency (13.56 MHz) energy enhances recovery from mild hy-
[33] D. W. Blick, E. R. Adair, W. D. Hurt, C. J. Sherry, T. J. Walters, and J. H. pothermia,” J. Appl. Physiol., vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 1208–1212, 1989.
Merritt, “Thresholds of microwave-evoked warmth sensations in human
skin,” Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 403–407, 1997.
[34] D. O. Brown, S.-T. Lu, and E. E. Elson, “Characteristics of microwave
evoked body movements in mice,” Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 15, no. 2,
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[35] J. O. deLorge, “The thermal basis for disruption of operant behavior by
microwaves in three animal species,” in Microwaves and Thermoregu-
lation, E. R. Adair, Ed. New York: Academic, 1983, pp. 379–399.
[36] Safety Level with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Elec-
tromagnetic Fields, 300 kHz to 100 GHz, ANSI Standard C95.1-1982,
1982. Eleanor R. Adair (M’88–SM’90–F’94) received
[37] “Effects and exposure criteria for radio frequency electromagnetic the B.A. degree in psychology and physiology from
fields,” Nat. Council Rad. Protection Meas., Bethesda, MD, NCRP Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, in
Rep. 86, 1986. 1948, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in psychology
[38] “Board statement on restrictions on human exposure to static and time and physics from the University of Wisconsin at
varying electromagnetic fields and radiation documents of the NRPB,” Madison, in 1951 and 1955, respectively.
Nat. Rad. Protection Board, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon., U.K., Doc. NRPB, From 1948 to 1959, she was a Research Associate
vol. 4, no. 5, 1993. with Mount Holyoke College. From 1950 to 1953,
[39] “Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, she was a Research Assistant with the University of
and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz)—ICNIRP guidelines,” Wisconsin at Madison. From 1960 to 1966, she was
Health Phys., vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 494–522, 1998. a Research Assistant, Research Associate, Senior
[40] A. W. Guy, E. M. Taylor, B. Ashelman, and J. C. Lin, “Microwave in- Research Associate, and Senior Research Scientist with Yale University, New
teraction with the auditory system of humans and cats,” in Proc. IEEE Haven, CT. From 1966 to 1996, she was an Assistant Fellow, Associate Fellow,
MTT-S Int. Microwave Symp. Dig., Boulder, CO, 1973, pp. 231–232. and Fellow with the John B. Pierce Laboratory. From 1996 to 2001, she
[41] A. W. Guy, C.-K. Chou, J. C. Lin, and D. Christensen, “Microwave was a Senior Scientist with the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Brooks
induced acoustic effects in mammalian auditory systems and AFB, TX. Since 1996, she has been a Visiting Fellow with the John B. Pierce
physical materials,” in Biologic Effects of Nonionizing Radiation, Laboratory. Since 2001, she has been a Senior Scientist Emeritus with the U.S.
P. W. Tyler, Ed. New York: New York Acad. Sci., 1975, vol. 247, pp. Air Force Research Laboratory, Brooks AFB, TX. Her research has focused
194–218. on biological responses to electromagnetic energy from visible light, through
[42] J. C. Lin, Biological Effects and Medical Applications of Electromag- IR, through the RF/MW spectral bands.
netic Energy, O. Gandhi, Ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Dr. Adair is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of
1990, pp. 278–318. Science (AAAS), New York Academy of Sciences, the American Institute of
[43] J. A. D’Andrea, A. Thomas, and D. J. Hatcher, “Rhesus monkey Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE), and the American Psycholog-
behavior during exposure to high peak-power 5.62 GHz microwave ical Association. She served as Secretary/Treasurer of the Bioelectromagnetics
pulses,” Bioelectromagnetics, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 163–176, 1994. Society (1983–1986). She has been active in the IEEE Committee on Man and
[44] R. F. Goldman, “Acclimation to heat and suggestions, by inference, Radiation (COMAR) since 1979, having served as secretary (1988–1989), vice
for microwave radiation,” in Microwaves and Thermoregulation, E. R. chairman (1992–1993), chairman (1994–9195), past chairman (1996–1997),
Adair, Ed. New York: Academic, 1983, pp. 275–282. member (1998–present), and currently serves as editor of the second COMAR
[45] S. W. Stewart, “Mobile phones and health,” Independent Expert Group Reprint Volume. She has been a member of the American National Standards
on Mobile Phones, NRPB, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon., U.K., 2000. Institute (ANSI) C-95.1 (now the IEEE SCC-28) Subcommittee 4 since 1981,
[46] G. Carlo, Ed., Wireless Phones and Health: State of the Sci- and served as co-chairman (1989–1995), during which the current IEEE C95.1
ence. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 2001. Human Exposure Standard was promulgated (1991), and has served on the
[47] J. M. Osepchuk and R. C. Petersen, “Safety and environmental issues,” Editorial Committee since 1997. She joined the IEEE SCC28 as a member
in Modern Microwave and RF Handbook, M. Golio, Ed. Boca Raton, (1991), served as vice chairman (1995–2001), and is the currently the chairman.
FL: CRC Press, 2001, pp. 3.28–3.43. She is a charter member of the IEEE Standards Association and has been a
[48] W. W. Mumford, “Some technical aspects of microwave radiation haz- consultant to the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
ards,” Proc. IRE, pp. 427–447, Feb. 1960. (NCRP) since 1985. Her honors include Sigma Xi National Lectureship
[49] Safety Level of Electromagnetic Radiation with Respect to Personnel, (1985–1988), IEEE USAB Award for Distinguished Literary Contributions
USASI Standard C95.1-1966, 1966. Furthering Public Understanding of the Profession (1991), IEEE Standards
[50] Safety Level of Electromagnetic Radiation with Respect to Personnel, Board Award, Standards Development (1992), Connecticut Academy of Arts
ANSI Standard C95.1-1974, 1974. and Sciences (1994), James D. Hardy Memorial Lecturer (1997), IEEE USAB
[51] R. C. Petersen, “Radiofrequency safety standards-setting in the United Citation of Honor for Contributions and Service in the Area of Professional
States,” in Electricity and Magnetism in Biology and Medicine, Bersani, Activities (1999). She has also been nominated for the D’Arsonval Award
Ed. New York: Plenum, 1999, pp. 761–764. presented by Bioelectromagnetics Society.

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962 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 50, NO. 3, MARCH 2002

Ronald C. Petersen (S’59–A’91–M’89–SM’96–

F’00) received the B.S.E.E. degree and M.S.E.P.
degree in electrophysics from the Polytechnic
Institute of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, NY, in 1968 and
1970, respectively.
He served four years as an Aviation Electronics
Technician in the U.S. Marine Corps. In 1960,
he joined the Solid-State Device Development
Laboratory, Bell Laboratories. In 1970, he joined
the Bell Laboratories Environmental Health and
Safety Center. Until his retirement in July 2001, he
managed the Wireless and Optical Technologies Safety Department (WOTS),
which serves as the Lucent Technologies Inc. resource for all nonionizing
radiation matters and as a resource for Lucent wireless customers on RF safety
and FCC compliance issues. He has authored or co-authored several papers
and chapters of books, most recently concerning RF exposure standards and
the characterization of exposures associated with wireless telecommunications
antennas.
Mr. Petersen is the executive secretary of the IEEE Standards Coordinating
Committee SCC-28 (Radiofrequency Radiation Hazards), chairman of the IEEE
SCC-34 (Product Performance Standards Relative to the Safe Use of Electro-
magnetic Energy), chairman of the National Council on Radiation Protection
and Measurements (NCRP) Scientific Committee 89 (Non-Ionizing Radiation),
a scientific vice-president of NCRP (Non-Ionizing Radiation Program Area)
and chairman of the International Electrotechnical Commission Technical Com-
mittee TC106 (Assessment of Exposure of Humans to Electric, Magnetic and
Electromagnetic Fields).

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