The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

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IUCN 2008: T17096A67622420
Scope: Global
Language: English

Phycodurus eques, Leafy Seadragon

Assessment by: Pollom, R.

View on www.iucnredlist.org

Citation: Pollom, R. 2017. Phycodurus eques. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017:
e.T17096A67622420. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T17096A67622420.en

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Taxonomy
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family

Animalia Chordata Actinopterygii Syngnathiformes Syngnathidae

Taxon Name: Phycodurus eques (Günther, 1865)

Synonym(s):
• Phycodurus glauerti Whitley, 1939
• Phyllopteryx eques Günther, 1865

Common Name(s):
• English: Leafy Seadragon, Glauerts Seadragon
Taxonomic Source(s):
Günther, A. 1865. On the pipe-fishes belonging to the genus Phyllopteryx. Proceedings of the Zoological
Society of London 1865(1): 327-328, plates 14-15.

Taxonomic Notes:
Synonym = Phycodurus glauerti Whitley, 1939.

Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria: Least Concern ver 3.1

Year Published: 2017

Date Assessed: May 12, 2016

Justification:
Phycodurus eques is a coastal marine seadragon that inhabits macroalgae and seagrass to depths of 30
m. The species is threatened by habitat degradation and loss that is resulting from coastal development
and pollution, especially around urban centers. However, these reductions have not been measured and
probably represent a small proportion of totals of fish abundances and habitat extent. Threats from
bycatch and aquarium collection are present but are not thought to be causing substantial declines.
There are no other known threats. Therefore this species is listed as Least Concern.

Previously Published Red List Assessments

2006 – Near Threatened (NT)
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T17096A6798664.en

1996 – Data Deficient (DD)

Geographic Range
Range Description:
Phycodurus eques is a coastal species that occurs from Western Australia (Abrolhos Islands) to western

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Phycodurus eques – published in 2017. 1
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Victoria (Kuiter 2000a, Baker 2002, Stiller et al. 2015). Unconfirmed reports of sightings come from the
Bass Strait Islands (King Island, Kent Group) of northwestern Tasmania (K. Martin-Smith, pers. comm.
2006).

This species been recorded down to 30 m (Kuiter 2000b).

Country Occurrence:
Native: Australia (South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia)

FAO Marine Fishing Areas:

Native: Indian Ocean - eastern

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Phycodurus eques – published in 2017. 2
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Distribution Map
Phycodurus eques

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Phycodurus eques – published in 2017. 3
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Population
To date there have been few dedicated surveys and no population estimates for Phycodurus eques. Just
one estimate of density exists for this species, from a single location at one time. Connolly et al. (2002a)
estimated the density of Leafy Seadragons around West Island, in Encounter Bay, to be 57 fish per ha
(small juveniles (less than 100 mm) were not included in the study). Further research is needed in order
to determine population size across the species' range, and monitoring should be undertaken to
determine trends in abundance. The species is likely declining as a result of ongoing coastal
development and pollution in the region, but this has not been quantified.
Current Population Trend: Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

Phycodurus eques occurs near rocky reefs supporting stands of kelp or other macroalgae, where they
have been observed feeding on mysids and other crustaceans (Kuiter 2000a). Telemetry using ultrasonic
transmitters has shown, however, that this species is just as prevalent over shallow (5–15 m depth)
Posidonia seagrass meadows and patches of sand amongst seagrass (Connolly et al. 2002b).

Leafy Seadragons tracked over periods of up to 10 days typically remained within well-defined home
ranges of up to 5 ha (Connolly et al. 2002b). Patterns of movement are characterized by short bursts (at
average velocities of 2–17 m/h) punctuating long periods (up to 68 h) without movement. No diel
pattern of movement is apparent (Connolly et al. 2002b).

This species can survive for at least two to three years in aquaria if supplied with its specific live food
requirements (P. Quong, pers. comm. in Pogonoski et al. 2002). Longevity in situ is not known.
Phycodurus eques attains a maximum length of about 35 cm (Kuiter 1993).Mating occurs during summer
months (Kuiter 2000b). As with other syngnathids, male seadragons carry the fertilized embryos. For
Leafy Seadragons, the male broods about 200 embryos on the exposed surface of the underside of its
tail (there is no pouch).

Phycodurus eques is particularly well camouflaged, with a number of frond-like appendages that
resemble kelp. The species also rocks back and forth with wave action, increasing its resemblance to
algae swept by coastal surge (Gomon et al. 1994).

Leafy Seadragons lack a caudal fin and are weak swimmers; in conjunction with a lack of a dispersive
egg phase, this potentially makes them vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation as well as to
incidental harvesting during commercial fishing (Connolly et al. 2002b).

Populations in South Australia and Western Austalia show molecular evidence of demographic
independence (Stiller et al. 2016).

Systems: Marine

Use and Trade

Phycodurus eques is not traded for use in traditional medicines as other syngnathid fishes are. The
species has been noted in the aquarium trade, but levels of offtake are thought to be low (Martin-Smith

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Phycodurus eques – published in 2017. 4
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and Vincent 2006).

Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

Phycodurus eques is threatened by coastal habitat loss and degradation and by being caught as bycatch
in fisheries.

Leafy Seadragons are associated with seagrass beds and reefs supporting macroalgae (Connolly et al.
2002b). These habitats have been adversely affected by human activities and loss in quality and quantity
has been documented and is ongoing (Baker 2003, Marzinelli et al. 2015). The loss of habitat is most
severe near major urban centres (e.g., Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne), where discharge of storm water
and treated sewage leads to eutrophication and increased sedimentation. Losses of seagrass have been
particularly severe along the metropolitan coasts and are well documented (Short and Wyllie-Echeverria
1996).

Connolly et al. (2002b) report anecdotal evidence that Leafy Seadragons are killed as incidental bycatch
in the trawling industry in South Australia. Fishers have indicated that on occasions they catch “large
numbers” of Leafy Seadragons. This information remains at the level of anecdote however, and neither
the rate nor distribution of incidental catch have been substantiated.
The species is collected for the aquarium trade but levels of offtake are thought to be low (Martin-Smith
and Vincent 2006).

This species is a major attraction for the dive industry in southern Australia, and it has been made the
official fish emblem in the state of South Australia. Recreational divers often harass or disturb
individuals (Kuiter 2000a). Suitable protocols for divers should be encouraged to protect local
populations, but the disturbance probably does not harm the long-term prospects for regional
populations.

Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

Phycodurus eques occurs in several protected areas throughout its range, and is fully protected along
with all other syngnathids by the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act
(1999). There are no species-specific conservation measures in place, and this species is not mentioned
in any international legislation or trade regulations.

Credits
Assessor(s): Pollom, R.

Reviewer(s): Ralph, G.

Contributor(s): Connolly, R.

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Phycodurus eques – published in 2017. 5
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Bibliography
Baillie, J. and Groombridge, B. (eds). 1996. 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. pp. 378.
International Union for Conservation of Nature, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

Baker, J.L. 2002. Dragon Search Western Australia – Summary of Western Australia Sighting Data to
September 2002. Internal Report – Dragon Search Community-Based Monitoring Project.

Baker, J.L. 2003. Dragon Search South Australia – Summary of South Australian Sighting Data to January
2003. Internal Report – Dragon Search Community-Based Monitoring Project.

Connolly, R.M., Melville, A.J. and Keesing, J.K. 2002a. Abundance, movement and identification of
individual leafy sea dragons, Phycodurus eques (Pisces: Syngnathidae). Marine and Freshwater Research
53: 777–780.

Connolly, R.M., Melville, A.J. and Preston, K.M. 2002b. Patterns of movement and habitat use by leafy
seadragons tracked ultrasonically. Journal of Fish Biology. 61:684–695.

Gillanders, B. M., Tulloch, A. I. T., and Divecha, S. 2015. Regional Biodiversity Management Plan. Spencer
Gulf Regional Sustainability Planning. Report prepared for the Upper Spencer Gulf Common Purpose
Group. 57 pp.

Gomon, M.F., Glover, C.J.M. and Kuiter, R.H. 1994. The fishes of Australia's south coast. State Print,
Adelaide, Australia.

IUCN. 2017. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2017-2. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org.
(Accessed: 14 September 2017).

Kuiter, R.H. 1993. Coastal fishes of south-eastern Australia. Crawford House Press Pty Ltd., Australia.

Kuiter, R.H. 2000a. Seahorses, Pipefishes and their Relatives. A Comprehensive Guide to
Syngnathiformes. TMC Publishing, Chorleywood, UK.

Kuiter, R.H. 2000b. Coastal Fishes of Southeastern Australia. Gary Allen, Sydney, Australia.

Martin-Smith, K.M. and Vincent, A.C.J. 2006. Exploitation and trade of Australian seahorses and their
relatives (syngnathids). Oryx 40(2): 141-151.

Marzinelli, E. M., Williams, S. B., Babcock, R. C., Barrett, N. S., Johnson, C. R., Jordan, A., Kendrick, G. A.,
Pizarro, O. R., Smale, D. A., and Steinberg, P. D. 2015. Large-scale geographic variation in distribution and
abundance of Australian deep-water kelp forests. PLOS One 10(2): e0118390.

McGlone, P. 1994. Export ban needed to protect seadragons, seahorses and pipefishes. Wildlife News
No. 68, World Wide Fund for Nature.

Neira, F.J., Miskiewicz, A.G. and Trnski, T. 1998. Larvae of temperate Australian fishes: laboratory guide
for larval fish identification. University of Western Australia Press.

Pogonoski, J.J., Pollard, D.A. and Paxton, J.R. 2002. Conservation overview and action plan for Australian
threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes. Environment Australia, Canberra,
Australia.

Short, F.T. and Wyllie-Echeverria, S. 1996. Natural and human-induced disturbances of seagrasses.
Environmental Conservation 23: 17-27.

Stiller, J., Wilson, N. G., Donnellan, S., and Rouse, G. W. 2016. The leafy seadragon, Phycodurus eques, a
flagship species with low but structured genetic variability . Journal of Heredity Advance Access.

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Phycodurus eques – published in 2017. 6
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T17096A67622420.en
Available at http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/10/25/jhered.esw075.abstract.

Citation
Pollom, R. 2017. Phycodurus eques. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T17096A67622420.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T17096A67622420.en

Disclaimer
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External Resources
For Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the Red List website.

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 Appendix

Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Major
Habitat Season Suitability
Importance?

9. Marine Neritic -> 9.1. Marine Neritic - Pelagic - Marginal -

9. Marine Neritic -> 9.7. Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp - Suitable -

9. Marine Neritic -> 9.9. Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) - Suitable -

10. Marine Oceanic -> 10.1. Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic (0-200m) - Unknown -

Threats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score

1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.1. Ongoing - - -

Housing & urban areas
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.2. Ongoing - - -

Commercial & industrial areas
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

5. Biological resource use -> 5.3. Logging & wood Ongoing - - -

harvesting -> 5.3.3. Unintentional effects:
(subsistence/small scale) [harvest]
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

5. Biological resource use -> 5.3. Logging & wood Ongoing - - -

harvesting -> 5.3.4. Unintentional effects: (large
scale) [harvest]
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

5. Biological resource use -> 5.4. Fishing & harvesting Future - - -

aquatic resources -> 5.4.1. Intentional use:
(subsistence/small scale) [harvest]
Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

5. Biological resource use -> 5.4. Fishing & harvesting Ongoing - - -

aquatic resources -> 5.4.6. Motivation
Unknown/Unrecorded
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

9. Pollution -> 9.1. Domestic & urban waste water -> Ongoing - - -
9.1.1. Sewage
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

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 9. Pollution -> 9.3. Agricultural & forestry effluents -> Ongoing - - -
9.3.2. Soil erosion, sedimentation
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

9. Pollution -> 9.3. Agricultural & forestry effluents -> Ongoing - - -

9.3.4. Type Unknown/Unrecorded
Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

Conservation Actions in Place

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Conservation Actions in Place

In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning

Action Recovery plan: No

Systematic monitoring scheme: No

In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management

Conservation sites identified: No

Occur in at least one PA: Yes

Area based regional management plan: Yes

In-Place Species Management

Harvest management plan: No

Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: No

Subject to ex-situ conservation: Unknown

In-Place Education

Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No

Included in international legislation: No

Subject to any international management/trade controls: No

Conservation Actions Needed

(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Conservation Actions Needed

1. Land/water protection -> 1.1. Site/area protection

2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management

Research Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Phycodurus eques – published in 2017. 9
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 Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends

1. Research -> 1.3. Life history & ecology

1. Research -> 1.5. Threats

3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends

3. Monitoring -> 3.4. Habitat trends

Additional Data Fields

Distribution
Estimated area of occupancy (AOO) (km²): 112355

Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown

Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown

Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 400000

Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown

Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown

Continuing decline in number of locations: Unknown

Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: Unknown

Lower depth limit (m): 30

Upper depth limit (m): 0

Population
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Unknown

Extreme fluctuations: Unknown

Population severely fragmented: Unknown

Continuing decline in subpopulations: Unknown

Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: Unknown

All individuals in one subpopulation: No

Habitats and Ecology

Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Yes

Movement patterns: Not a Migrant

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The IUCN Red List Partnership

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.

The IUCN Red List Partners are: Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens
Conservation International; Conservation International; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew;
Sapienza University of Rome; Texas A&M University; and Zoological Society of London.

THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™