Module: 1 (Basics of Electric Drives)

Electrical Drive
Definition: The system which is used for controlling the motion of an electrical machine, such
type of system is called an electrical drive. In other words, the drive which uses the electric
motor is called electrical drive. The electrical drive uses any of the prime movers like diesel or a
petrol engine, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and electrical motors as
a primary source of energy. This prime mover supplies the mechanical energy to the drive for
motion control.
The block diagram of the electrical drive is shown in the figure below. The electrical load like
fans, pumps, trains, etc., consists of the electrical motor. The requirement of an electrical load
is determined regarding speed and torque. The motor which suited the capabilities of the load
is chosen for the load drive.

Parts of Electrical Drive

The main parts of the electrical drives are power modulator, motor, controlling unit and sensing
units.
Power Modulator – The power modulator regulates the output power of the source. It controls
the power from the source to the motor in such a manner that the motor transmits the speed-
torque characteristic required by the load. During the transient operations like starting, braking
and speed reversing the excessive current drawn from the source. This excessive current drawn
from the source may overload it or may cause a voltage drop. Hence the power modulator
restricts the source and motor current.
The power modulator converts the energy according to the requirement of the motor e.g., if
the source is DC and an induction motor is used then power modulator convert DC into AC. It
also selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e., motoring or braking.
Control Unit – The control unit controls the power modulator which operates at small voltag e
and power levels. The control unit also operates the power modulator as desired. It also
generates the commands for the protection of power modulator and motor. An input
command signal which adjusts the operating point of the drive, from an input to the control
unit.
Sensing Unit – It senses certain drive parameters like motor current and speed. It mainly
required either for protection or for closed loop operation.

Advantages of Electrical Drive

The following are the advantages of electrical drive.

• The electric drive has a very large range of torque, speed and power.
• Their work is independent of the environmental condition.
• The electric drives are free from pollution.
• The electric drives operate on all the quadrants of speed torque plane.
• The drive can easily be started, and it does not require any refueling.
• The efficiency of the drives is high because fewer losses occur on it.
The electric drives have many advantages shown above. The only disadvantage of the drive is
that sometimes the mechanical energy produced by the prime mover is first converted into
electrical energy and then into mechanical work with the help of the motor. This can be done
with the help of the electrical link which is associated with the prime mover and the load.
Because of the following advantages, the mechanical energy already available from a non-
electrical prime mover is sometimes first converted into electrical energy by a generator and
back to the mechanical energy of an electrical motor. Electrical link thus provides between the
non-electrical prime mover and the load impact to the drive flexible control characteristic.
For example – The diesel locomotive produces diesel energy with the help of the diesel engine.
The mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by the help of the generator. This
electrical energy is used for driving the other locomotive.

Disadvantages of Electrical Drive

The power failure completely disabled the whole of the system.
1. The application of the drive is limited because it cannot be used in a place where the
power supply is not available.
2. It can cause noise pollution.
3. The initial cost of the system is high.
4. It has a poor dynamic response.
5. The output power obtained from the drive is low.
6. During the breakdown of conductors or short circuit, the system may get damaged due
to which several problems occur.
Application of Electric Drive
It is used in many industrial and domestic applications like transportation systems, rolling mills,
paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots and washing, etc.

Types of Electrical Drives

Based on Supply
There are two types available in this category. They are

• AC Motor drives
AC drive is a device used to control the speed of an electric motor such as a three-phase
induction motor by changing the frequency of the electrical supply to the motor.

AC drive is also called Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) or Variable Speed Drive (VSD).
• DC Motor drives
It is basically a speed control system of a DC electrical motor that supplies voltage to the motor
to operate at desired speed.

DC drives are classified as analog DC drives and digital DC drives.

Digital DC drive can offer precision control.

Based on Number of Motors

There are three types available in this category. They are

• Individual
There will be a separate drive motor for various parts of a machine.

Example: Lathe machine.

• Multi Motor
Separate motors are provided for actuating different parts of a machine.

Example: Cranes.

• Group Drive
In a group drive, one motor is used as a drive for two or several machines.
The motor is connected by a single shaft, other machines are connected to the shaft by belts
and pulleys.

Group drive is most economical.

Based on Speed
There are two types available in this category. They are
 • Constant Speed drive
Machine tools require constant speed drives, squirrel cage induction motor along with the
manual controls are used.

• Variable Speed drive

The main purpose of variable speed drive is to control speed along with acceleration,
deceleration, torque and finally the direction of machine.

They are used to reduce power consumption.

Based on Control Parameters

There are three types available in this category. They are

• Vector Control Drive

Vector control is more accurate than any other kind of variable frequency drive (VFD).
In this control mode, torque and speed are controlled using pulse width modulation (PWM)
techniques in an inverter.

These are used for AC synchronous and induction motors.

• Constant Power Drive

When a motor, while carrying rated current in its armature provides constant power at all
speeds in a certain range of speed control it is known as constant power drive in that range of
speed control.

• Constant Torque Drive

Constant torque load type drive is distinctive when fixed volumes are being handled.
Examples are screw compressors, feeders, and conveyors.

Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives:

1. Continuous duty.
2. Short time duty.
3. Intermittent periodic duty.
4. Intermittent periodic duty with starting.
5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking.
6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading.
7. Continuous duty with starting and braking.
8. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.

These Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives are explained below.

1. Continuous Duty:
It denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque for a duration long enough for the
motor temperature to reach steady-state value. This duty is characterized by constant motor loss.
Paper mill drives, compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some examples of
Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives.

2. Short Time Duty:

In this, the time of drive operation is considerably less than the heating time constant and
machine is allowed to cool off to ambient temperature before the motor is required to operate
again. In this operation, the machine can be overloaded until the temperature at the end of
loading time reaches the permissible limit. Some examples are crane drives, drives for household
appliances, turning bridges, sluice-gate drives, valve drives, and many machine tool drives for
position control.
3. Intermittent Periodic Duty:
It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a constant load and a
rest period. Neither the duration of running period is sufficient to raise the temperature to a
steady-state value, nor the rest period is long enough for the machine to cool off to ambient
temperature. In this Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives, heating of machine during starting
and braking operations is negligible. Some examples are pressing, cutting and drilling machine
drives.
4. Intermittent Period Duty with Starting:
This is intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be ignored. Thus, it
consists of a period of starting, a period of operation at a constant load and a rest period; with
operating and rest periods, being too short for the respective steady-state temperatures to be
attained.
 In this duty, heating of machine during braking is considered to be negligible, because
mechanical brakes are used for stopping or motor is allowed to stop due to its own friction. A
few examples are metal cutting and drilling tool drives, drives for forklift trucks, mine hoist etc.

5. Intermittent Periodic duty with Starting and Braking:

This is the intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting and braking cannot be
ignored. Thus, it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with a constant load, a
braking period with electrical braking and a rest period; with operating and rest periods being
too short for the respective steady state temperatures to be attained.

Billet mill drive, manipulator drive, ingot buggy drive, stepdown mechanism of blooming mill,
several machine tool drives, drives for electric suburban trains and mine hoist are some examples
of this duty.

6. Continuous Duty with Intermittent Periodic Loading:

It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a constant load and a
period of running at no load, with normal voltage across the excitation winding. Again, the load
period and no-load period being too short for the respective temperatures to be attained. This
Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by
the fact that a period of running at a constant load is followed by a period of running at no load
instead of rest. Pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives are examples.
7. Continuous Duty with Starting and Braking:
Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of starting, a period of running at a constant
load and a period of electrical braking; there is no period of rest. The main drive of a blooming
mill is an example.

8. Continuous Duty with Periodic Speed Changes:

Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of running at one load and speed, and
another period of running at different speed and load; again, both operating periods are too short
for respective steady-state temperatures to be attained. Further there is no period of rest.

Motor Power Rating

From the point of view of calculation of motor rating various Motor Rating Various Duty Cycles
can be broadly classified as:

• Continuous duty.
• Fluctuating loads.
• Short-time and intermittent duty.

Continuous Duty:
Maximum continuous power demand of the load is ascertained. A motor with the next higher
power rating from commercially available ratings is selected. Obviously, motor speed should also
match load’s speed requirements. It is also necessary to check whether the motor can fulfil
starting torque requirement and can continue to drive load in the face of normal disturbances in
power supply system; the latter is generally assured by the transient and steady-state reserve
torque capacity of the motor.
Equivalent Current, Torque and Power Methods for Fluctuating and Intermittent Loads:
This method can be employed for duties (iii)-(viii). It is based on approximation that the actual
variable motor current can be replaced by an equivalent I eg which produces same losses in the
motor as actual current. This equivalent current is determined as follows:
Motor loss P1 consists of two components constant loss Pc which is independent of load and
consists of core-loss and friction loss; and load dependent copper loss. Thus, for a fluctuating
load (Fig. 4.3(a)) consisting of n values of motor currents I 1,I2, . . . , In for duration t1,t2, . . . ,tn
respectively, the equivalent current Ieq is given by

If the current varies smoothly over a period T (Fig. 4.3(b)), Eq. (4.16) can be written as
Implicit in the above analysis is the assumption that heating and cooling conditions remain the
same. If the motor runs at a constant speed throughout this operation, heating and cooling
conditions will, in fact, remain the same. If speed varies, constant losses will marginally change.
However, if forced ventilation is used, heating and cooling conditions can still be assumed to
remain the same without much loss of accuracy. In self-ventilating machines, cooling conditions
at low speeds will be poorer than at normal speed. Consequently Eqs. (4.16) and (4.17) should
be used with caution.
After Ieq is determined, a motor with the next higher current rating (= I rated) from commercially
available ratings is selected. Next, this rating is checked for its practical feasibility as follows:
DC Motor:
This motor can be allowed to carry larger than the rated current for a short duration. This is
known as the short time overload capacity of the motor. A normally designed dc machine is
allowed to carry up to 2 times the rated current (3 to 3.5 times the rated current in specially
designed dc machines) because for higher currents sparking between the brushes and
commutator reaches an unacceptable level. Let the ratio of maximum allowable current (or short
time overload current capacity) to rated current be denoted by λ. Then

where Imax is the maximum value of current (Fig. 4.3) and I rated is the rated current of the motor.
If condition (4.18) is not satisfied, then the motor current rating is calculated from

Induction and Synchronous Motors:

In the case of induction and synchronous motors, for stable operation, maximum load torque
should be well within the breakdown torque of the motor. If motor current rating selected based
on Eqs. (4.16) or (4.17) violates this constraint, the Motor Rating Various Duty C ycles is selected
to satisfy breakdown torque constraint. In the case of induction motors with normal design, the
ratio of breakdown to rated torque varies from 1.65 to 3 and for synchronous motors 2 to 2.25
(for special types up to 3.5). If the ratio of breakdown to rated torque is denoted by λ′ then the
motor torque rating is chosen based on
When the load has high torque pulses, selection of Motor Rating Various Duty Cycles based on
this will be too large. Load equalization by mounting a flywheel on the motor shaft must then be
considered.
The equivalent current method assumes ‘constant losses ‘, to remain constant for all operating
points. Therefore, this method should be carefully employed when these losses vary. It is also
not applicable to motors with frequency (or speed) dependent parameters of the equivalent
circuit, e.g., in deep-bar and double squirrel-cage rotor motors the rotor winding resistance and
reactance vary widely during starting and braking making this method inapplicable.
When torque is directly proportional to current, as for example in de separately excited motor,
then from Eq. (4.16),

Equation (4.21) can be employed to directly ascertain the motor torque rating.
When a motor operates at nearly fixed speed, its power will be directly proportional to torque.
Hence, for nearly constant speed operation, power rating of the motor can be obtained directly
from:

Short Time Duty:

In short time duty, time of motor operation is considerably less than the heating time constant
and motor is allowed to cool down to the ambient temperature before it is required to operate
again. If a motor with a continuous duty power rating of Pr is subjected to a short time duty load
of magnitude Pr, then the motor temperature rise will be far below the maximum permissible
value θ per and the motor will be highly underutilized (Fig. 4.4). Therefore, motor can be
overloaded by a factor K (K > 1) such that the maximum temperature rise just reaches the
permissible value θ per as shown in Fig. 4.4.
When the duration of running period in a Motor Rating Various Duty Cycles with power KPr is tr,
then from Eq. (4.9)

Note that θ ss is the steady state temperature rise which will be attained if motor delivers a power
(KPr) on continuous basis, whereas the permissible temperature rise θ per is also the steady state
temperature rise attained when motor operates with a power Pr on continuous basis. If the motor
losses for powers Pr and (KPr) be P1r and P1s, respectively, then from Eq. (4.7)

and Pc is the load independent (constant) loss and Pcu the load dependent loss. Then
Substituting from Eq. (4.27)

Substituting from Eqs. (4.26) and (4.28) into Eq. (4.25) gives

Equation (4.29) allows the calculation of overloading factor K which can be calculated when
constant and copper losses are known separately. When separately not known, total loss is
assumed to be only proportional to (power) 2, i.e. α is assumed to be 0.
As already mentioned, K is subjected to the constraints imposed by maximum allowable current
in case of dc motors and breakdown torque limitations in case of induction and synchronous
motors.

Intermittent Periodic Duty:

During a period of operation, if the speed changes in wide limits, leading to changes in heating
and cooling conditions, methods of equivalent current, torque or power, described in the
previous section cannot be employed. This section describes methods useful for such cases.

Let us consider a simple intermittent load, where the motor is alternately subjected to a fixed
magnitude load P′ r of duration tr and standstill condition of duration ts (Fig. 4.5). As motor is
subjected to a periodic load, after the thermal steady-state is reached the temperature rise will
fluctuate between a maximum value θ max and a minimum value θ min. For this load, the Motor
Rating Various Duty Cycles should be selected such that θ max ≤ θ per, where θ per is the maximum
permissible temperature rise of the motor.

From Eq. (4.6), temperature at the end of working (or running) interval will be given by

and fall in temperature rise at the end of standstill interval t s will be

where τr and τs are the thermal time constants of motor for working and standstill intervals.
Combining Eqs. (4.30) and (4.31) yields

For full utilization of motor, θ max = θ per. Further θ per will be the motor temperature rise when it is
subjected to its continuous rated power Pr. Form Eq. (4.7), ratio θ ss/θ max will be proportional to
losses that would take place for two values of load. If losses for load values P r and P′ r be denoted
by P1r and P1s, then

From Eqs. (4.26), (4.28), (4.32) and (4.33), overloading factor K (= P′ r / Pr) is given by

K can be determined from Eq. (4.34) subject to maximum current limitation of dc motors and
breakdown torque constraints of induction and synchronous motors. As explained earlier, when
constant and copper losses are not available separately, α is replaced by zero in Eq. (4.34).