The study of rockets is an excellent way for students to learn the basics of forces and the response of

an object to external forces. In flight, a rocket is subjected to

the forces of weight, thrust, and aerodynamics. On this slide, we have removed the outer "skin" so
that we can see the parts that make a rocket. There are many parts that make up a rocket. For design
and analysis, engineers group parts which have the same function into systems. There are four major
systems in a full scale rocket; the structural system, the payload system, the guidance system, and
the propulsion system.

The structural system, or frame, is similar to the fuselage of an airplane. The frame is made from
very strong but light weight materials, like titanium or aluminum, and usually employs long "stringers"
which run from the top to the bottom which are connected to "hoops" which run around around the
circumference. The "skin" is then attached to the stringers and hoops to form the basic shape of the
rocket. The skin may be coated with a thermal protection system to keep out the heat of air friction
during flight and to keep in the cold temperatures needed for certain fuels and oxidizers. Fins are
attached to some rockets at the bottom of the frame to provide stability during the flight.

The payload system of a rocket depends on the rocket's mission. The earliest payloads on rockets
were fireworks for celebrating holidays. The payload of the German V2, shown in the figure, was
several thousand pounds of explosives. Following World War II, many countries developed
guided ballistic missiles armed with nuclear warheads for payloads. The same rockets were modified
to launch satellites with a wide range of missions; communications, weather monitoring, spying,
planetary exploration, and observatories, like the Hubble Space Telescope. Special rockets were
developed to launch people into earth orbit and onto the surface of the Moon.
The guidance system of a rocket may include very sophisticated sensors, on-board computers,
radars, and communication equipment to maneuver the rocket in flight. Many different methods have
been developed to control rockets in flight. The V2 guidance system included small vanes in the
exhaust of the nozzle to deflect the thrust from the engine. Modern rockets typically rotate the nozzle
to maneuver the rocket. The guidance system must also provide some level of stability so that the
rocket does not tumble in flight.

As you can see on the figure, most of a full scale rocket is propulsion system. There are two main
classes of propulsion systems, liquid rocket engines and solid rocket engines. The V2 used a liquid
rocket engine consisting of fuel and oxidizer (propellant) tanks, pumps, a combustion chamber with
nozzle, and the associated plumbing. The Space Shuttle, Delta II, and Titan III all use solid rocket
strap-ons.

The various rocket parts described above have been grouped by function into structure, payload,
guidance, and propulsion systems. There are other possible groupings. For the purpose of weight
determination and flight performance, engineers often group the payload, structure, propulsion
structure (nozzle, pumps, tanks, etc.), and guidance into a single empty weight paramter. The
remaining propellant weight then becomes the only factor that changes with time when determining
rocket performance.vvvv

The rocket design parameters are parametrically derived vs thrust, chamber pressure, mixture
ratio, nozzle area ratio, and nozzle geometry. All of these parameters are systematically varied
and their effects on nozzle efficiencies are presented.

Guided missiles have a number of different system components:

 Guidance system
 Targeting system
 Flight system
 Engine
 Warhead
Guidance systems[edit]

Missile Maintainer inspects missile guidance system of the LGM-30G Minuteman ICBM

The most common method of guidance is to use some form of radiation, such
as infrared, lasers or radio waves, to guide the missile onto its target. This radiation may
emanate from the target (such as the heat of an engine or the radio waves from an enemy
radar), it may be provided by the missile itself (such as a radar), or it may be provided by a
friendly third party (such as the radar of the launch vehicle/platform, or a laser designator
operated by friendly infantry). The first two are often known as fire-and-forget as they need no
further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is
to use a TV guidance, with a visible light or infrared picture produced in order to see the target.
The picture may be used either by a human operator who steering the missile onto its target or
by a computer doing much the same job. One of the more bizarre guidance methods instead
used a pigeon to steer a missile to its target. Some missiles also have a home-on-jam capability
to guide itself to a radar-emitting source. Many missiles use a combination of two or more of the
methods to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement.

Targeting systems[edit]
Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target and using a
guidance system such as INS, TERCOM or satellite guidance. This guidance system guides the
missile by knowing the missile's current position and the position of the target, and then
calculating a course between them. This job can also be performed somewhat crudely by a
human operator who can see the target and the missile and guide it using either cable- or radio-
based remote control, or by an automatic system that can simultaneously track the target and the
missile. Furthermore, some missiles use initial targeting, sending them to a target area, where
they will switch to primary targeting, using either radar or IR targeting to acquire the target.

Flight system[edit]
Whether a guided missile uses a targeting system, a guidance system or both, it needs a flight
system. The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the
missile in flight, allowing it to counter inaccuracies in the missile or to follow a moving target.
There are two main systems: vectored thrust (for missiles that are powered throughout the
guidance phase of their flight) and aerodynamic maneuvering (wings, fins, canard (aeronautics),
etc.).

Engine[edit]

A simplified diagram of a solid-fuel rocket.

1. A solid fuel-oxidizer mixture (propellant) is packed into the rocket, with a cylindrical hole in the
middle.
2. An igniter combusts the surface of the propellant.
3. The cylindrical hole in the propellant acts as a combustion chamber.
4. The hot exhaust is choked at the throat, which, among other things, dictates the amount of
thrust produced.
5. Exhaust exits the rocket.

Missiles are powered by an engine, generally either a type of rocket engine or jet engine.
Rockets are generally of the solid-propellant type for ease of maintenance and fast deployment,
although some larger ballistic missiles use liquid-propellant rockets. Jet engines are generally
used in cruise missiles, most commonly of the turbojet type, due to its relative simplicity and low
frontal area. Turbofans and ramjets are the only other common forms of jet engine propulsion,
although any type of engine could theoretically be used. Long-range missiles may have multiple
engine stages, particularly in those launched from the surface. These stages may all be of similar
types or may include a mix of engine types − for example, surface-launched cruise missiles often
have a rocket booster for launching and a jet engine for sustained flight.
Some missiles may have additional propulsion from another source at launch; for example,
the V1 was launched by a catapult, and the MGM-51 Shillelagh was fired out of a tank gun (using
a smaller charge than would be used for a shell).

Warhead[edit]
Missiles generally have one or more explosive warheads, although other weapon types may also
be used. The warheads of a missile provide its primary destructive power (many missiles have
extensive secondary destructive power due to the high kinetic energy of the weapon and unburnt
fuel that may be on board). Warheads are most commonly of the high explosive type, often
employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided weapon to destroy hardened
targets. Other warhead types include submunitions, incendiaries, nuclear
weapons, chemical, biological or radiological weapons or kinetic energy penetrators.
Warheadless missiles are often used for testing and training purposes.

2. Classification of Rockets:

The classification of rockets is based on the form of energy and

momentum utilised for producing the thrust.
Thus rockets are classified into three basic types:
(i) Chemical Rockets:
The oldest types of rockets are chemical rockets, in which two or more
chemicals mix together, producing a chemical reaction. The reaction
produces hot gases that are forced out of a nozzle, pushing the rocket
in the other direction.

There are two basic types of chemical rocket engines, based on the
fuel used:
(a) Liquid propellant’
(b) Solid propellant’
(a) Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines:
These engines may be divided into various categories. These include
cryogenic, monopropellant, storable bi-propellant system and hybrid
system. Hybrid system is a combination of liquid and solid propellant
systems. A liquid bi-propellant system has greater potential.
It consists of an oxidizer tank, fuel tank, control valve lines, and the
rocket motor, which is the heart of the rocket engine. The basic rocket
motor consists of an injection plate I, combustion chamber C, and
discharge nozzle N. The injection plate receives liquid oxidizer and
fuel, which after mixing produce a chemical reaction in the combustion
chamber.
The very high pressure and temperature gases produced in the
combustion chamber expand in the nozzle and produce a high
supersonic exit velocity (1500 – 3000 m/s). The net thrust produced is
the product of exit velocity and mass flow rate of gases.
An ignition system uses hypergolic combinations for igniting the
mixture. Hypergolic fuels commonly used are hydrazine, and
monomethyl hydrazine. They ignite spontaneously on contact. A
cooling system is also necessary to keep the walls of the motor from
melting because the temperature during reaction exceeds 2700°C.

The pressure at which the propellants have to be supplied from the

storage tank should be higher than the pressure in the combustion
chamber. There are two methods which are used for transporting liquid
propellants from their storage tanks to the rocket motor.
They are:
(i) Gas pressurisation system and
(ii) Pump pressurisation system.
(i) Gas Pressurisation System:
In this system, an inert gas (nitrogen) is used. This gas is stored at
high pressure and is supplied through pressure regulator valves to
force the liquid propellants through the lines, control valves, injector
plate and into the combustion chamber.
The mixture ratio supplied is 3 to 5 (oxidizer to fuel flow). The system
is first energized by opening the system energizing valve and then the
rocket motor is turned on by opening of bi-propellant valve. The motor
can be stopped and restarted at will by closing or opening of the bi-
propellant valve.
This system is simple. Its disadvantage is heavy weight of the storage
tanks because of the high pressures at which they are to be stored.
This limitation makes gas pressurisation system applicable only to
short duration operations because lesser quantity of fuel can be stored
due to weight considerations.
(ii) Pump Pressurisation System:
In this system liquid oxidizer and fuel are stored at low pressure so
that tanks are light in weight and forced into rocket motor at high
pressure by fuel and oxidizer pumps. The power driving the pumps is
supplied by gas turbine which is supplied with steam and oxygen
obtained by decomposing hydrogen peroxide by a catalyst.
Because of the use of third liquid (H2O2), gas turbine, pumps and
additional lines that are necessary, pump pressurisation system is
more complex than gas pressurisation system. The design of pumps is
the biggest problem because any leakage of liquids will lead to
explosion. Liquid oxidizers are generally acids, liquid oxygen,
concentrated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), nitrogen tetra-oxide (N2O4) etc.
and hence special pump materials are required for the oxidizer pump
and impeller.
Rocket Propellants:
The desirable properties of rocket propellants are:
1. It should produce a high combustion chamber temperature. This
means the calorific value of the propellant should be high.

2. The molecular weight of the products of combustion should be low,

which will cause high jet velocity and specific thrust.
3. Easy to store and handle.
4. It should be readily ignitable.
5. It should not react with motor system, tanks, piping, valves and
ignition nozzles.
6. It should have high density to reduce the overall size and weight of
the system. Requirements (1) and (2) are contradictory and hence a
balance should be reached.
An ideal propellant is not yet available. For example- if liquid hydrogen
is used as a fuel, then the jet velocities are very high but the size of the
fuel tank is large due to the low specific weight of hydrogen. Also, very
low temperatures are required for the storage of liquid hydrogen. The
liquid propellants used are given in the Table 35.2.

(b) Solid Propellant:

Solid propellant motors are the simplest of all rocket designs. They
consist of a casing, usually steel, filled with a mixture of solid
compounds (fuel and oxidizer) which burn at a rapid rate, expelling hot
gases through nozzle to produce thrust. When ignited, a solid
propellant burns from the centre towards the sides of the casing.
The shape of the centre channel determines the rate and pattern of
burning, thus providing a means to control thrust. Unlike liquid
propellant engines, solid propellant motors cannot be shut down. Once
they are ignited, they will burn till all the propellant is exhausted.
Solid propellants are of two types:
Homogeneous and composite. Both are dense, stable at ordinary
temperatures and easily storable.
Working of Solid Propellants:
By changing the shape and size of perforation, we can control the rate
and duration of burning and thus control thrust.
If more thrust is required, the perforation should be larger, but the fuel
will burn for a short time and vice versa. The burning period and the
thrust depend on the type of perforation in the fuel.

Advantages and disadvantages of solid propellants are as following:

Advantages:
1. They are stable and easily storable.
2. They do not require turbopumps and complex propellant feeding
devices.
Disadvantages:
1. The solid propellant motor cannot be shut down. Once ignited, fuel
burns till the end.
2. The propellant is temperature sensitive.
(ii) Nuclear Rocket Engine:
Work on nuclear rocket engine began in 1956 and further development
was done by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
USA) for space flight applications, for manned and unmanned space
exploration.
Nuclear thermal rocket is very simple concept. It consists of a
propellant (H2) tank, a pump (P), valve (V), nuclear fission reactor (R)
and discharge nozzle (N).
Hydrogen runs through the reactor (gets heated) and into the nozzle.
Hydrogen gives the best exhaust velocity. But the exhaust velocity is
limited or fixed by the melting point of the reactor. The reactor
elements have to be durable, since erosion will contaminate the
exhaust with fissionable materials. The temperature in the reactor may
go upto 3000°C and hence cooling of nozzle is required to prevent it
from melting.
(iii) Electric Propulsion Engines:
The basic requirement for space propulsion is the generation of high
exhaust velocities so that the propellant consumption is low. Chemical
rocket engines produce low exhaust velocities meaning requiring more
fuel. Hence electric propulsion engines are used which produce 4 to
100 times more exhaust velocities.
There are three main types of electric rocket propulsion engines:
(a) Arc plasma rocket
(b) Ion rocket
(c) Magneto plasma rocket.
The energy supplied to these is from a separate propulsion device:
(a) Arc Plasma Rocket Engine:
It is one of the simplest types of electrical propulsion systems.
The major components of this system are:
(i) Propellant tank
(ii) Thrust chamber
(iii) Electric supply system
(iv) Cooling system, and
(v) Pumps.
The thrust chamber contains two electrodes. The electrode within the
chamber is the anode and the nozzle wall serves as cathode. The
propellant gets heated to electrically neutral plasma in passing
through the arc formed between the two electrodes. Thrust results
from the expansion of heated plasma through the nozzle. A velocity of
4000 – 15000 m/s is produced. The propellant can be used to cool the
chamber re-generatively before passing into the chamber.
The arc plasma or electro-thermal rocket is similar to the chemical
rocket, the main difference being that electrical rather than chemical
energy is used for heating the propellant.
(b) Ion Rocket Engine:
The major components of ion or electrostatic rocket engine are:
(i) Propellant tank and feed mechanism
(ii) Thrust chamber
(iii) Electric power supply.
The thrust chamber incorporates a vaporising chamber, an ionisation
chamber, an accelerating grid and an electron emitter. In the
vaporization chamber, the propellant is heated and vaporised from
where it goes to the ionisation chamber where electrons are stripped
to ionize it.
The ions are then accelerated electrostatically by electrodes to
produce thrust. For examples, potassium seeded argon is ionized and
ions are accelerated. Though it has admirably high exhaust velocity,
there are theoretical limits that ensure all ion drives have low thrust.
(c) Magneto Plasma Rocket Engine:
It is a plasma rocket. It creates plasma under extremely hot conditions
and then expels plasma to produce thrust.
There are three basic cells in this engine:
(i) Forward Cell:
Propellant gas, typically hydrogen, is injected into this cell and ionized
to create plasma.
(ii) Central Cell:
This cell acts as an amplifier to further heat the plasma with
electromagnetic energy. Radio- waves are used to add energy to the
plasma, similar to how a microwave oven works.
(iii) After Cells:
A magnetic nozzle converts the energy of the plasma into velocity of
the jet exhaust. The magnetic field, that is used to expel the plasma,
also protects the spacecraft because it keeps the plasma from
touching the shell of the space-craft.
Plasma would likely destroy any material that it comes in contact. The
temperature of plasma exiting from the nozzle is as hot as 100 million
degree Celsius which is 25000 times hotter than the gases expelled
from the space shuttle.

3. Solar Rocket Propulsion:

It is a form of space-craft propulsion that makes use of solar power to
directly heat reaction mass and hence does not require electrical
generator. A solar thermal rocket only has to carry a means of
capturing solar energy, such as concentrators and mirrors. The heated
propellant is fed through a conventional rocket nozzle to produce
thrust. The engine thrust is directly related to the surface area of the
solar collector and to the local intensity of solar radiation. But still it is
in the developmental stage.
Most proposed designs for solar thermal rockets use hydrogen as
propellant due to its low molecular weight which gives excellent
specific impulse of 900 seconds (9 kNs/kg).
In the shorter term, solar thermal propulsion has been proposed as
good candidates for use in reusable inter- orbital tugs, as it is a high
efficiency, low thrust system that can be refueled with relative ease.

4. Staging of Rockets:
Staging of ‘rockets is done to improve the payload capability of
vehicles with a high change in velocity (ΔV) requirement, such as
launch vehicles or interplanetary spacecraft. In a multi-stage rocket,
the propellant is stored in smaller, separate tanks rather than in a
larger single tank as in a single stage rocket.
As each tank is discarded when empty, energy expended to accelerate
the empty tanks, so a higher total ΔV is obtained. For convenience,
separate tanks are usually bundled with their own engines, with each
discardable unit called a “stage”.
The first stage is at the bottom and is usually the largest the second
stage is above it and is usually the next largest, etc. In the typical case
of linear staging, when the first stage’s motor fire, the entire rocket is
propelled upwards.
When the first stage’s motor runs out of fuel, the first stage are
detached from the rest of the rocket (usually with some kind of
explosive charge) and falls away. This leaves a smaller rocket, with
the second stage on the bottom, which then fires. This process is
repeated until the final stage’s motor burns out.
Advantages of Multi-Stage Rockets:
1. The space and structure of each stage are useless and only add
weight to the vehicle, which slows down its future acceleration. By
dropping the stages which are no longer useful, the rocket lightens
itself.
2. The weight of the future stages is able to provide more acceleration,
than if the earlier stages were still attached.
3. Less total fuel is required to reach given velocity or altitude.
Disadvantages of Multi-Stage Rockets:
1. Multi-staging requires the vehicle to lift motors which not required
until later hence rocket is more complex and difficult to build.
2. Cost of launching is very high.

5. Applications of Rocket Engines:

Rocket engines are used for launching of space-craft and satellites into
space. The rockets that have been used are Atlas-Centaur (1962),
Titan-II (1964), Saturn-V (1967), Space shuttle (1981), Delta-II (1989),
etc.
To launch satellites, the velocity of rocket should be greater than the
escape velocity (11 m/s) for which multistage rockets should be used.
Some other applications are:
1. Jet assisted take-off.
2. Lethal weapons.
3. Long range artillery.
4. Research.

The invention of the rocket is generally ascribed to the Chinese, who as early as AD 1000 stuffed
gunpowder into sections of bamboo tubing to make military weapons of considerable effectiveness.
The 13th-century English monk Roger Bacon introduced to Europe an improved form of gunpowder,
which enabled rockets to become incendiary projectiles with a relatively long range. Rockets
subsequently became a common if unreliable weapon. Major progress in design resulted from the
work of William Congreve, an English artillery expert, who built a 20-lb (9-kg) rocket capable of
traveling up to 2 mi (3 km). In the late 19th cent., the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach gave serious
theoretical consideration to supersonic speeds and predicted the shock wave that causes sonic boom.
The astronautical use of rockets was cogently argued in the beginning of the 20th cent. by the
Russian Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky, who is sometimes called the father of astronautics. He pointed out
that a rocket can operate in a vacuum and suggested that multistage liquid-fuel rockets could escape
the earth's gravitation. The greatest name in American rocketry is Robert H. Goddard, whose
pamphlet A Method for Reaching Extreme Altitudes anticipated nearly all modern developments.
Goddard launched the first liquid-fuel rocket in 1926 and demonstrated that rockets could be used to
carry scientific apparatus into the upper atmosphere. His work found its most receptive audience in
Germany. During World War II, a German team under Wernher von Braun developed the V-2 rocket,
which was the first long-range guided missile. The V-2 had a range greater than 200 mi (322 km) and
reached velocities of 3,500 mi (5,600 km) per hr.
After the war, rocket research in the United States and the Soviet Union intensified, leading to the
development first of intercontinental ballistic missiles and then of modern spacecraft. Important U.S.
rockets have included the Redstone, Jupiter, Atlas, Titan, Agena, Centaur, and Saturn carriers. Saturn
V, the largest rocket ever assembled, developed 7.5 million lb (3.4 million kg) of thrust. A three-stage
rocket, it stood 300 ft (91 m) high exclusive of payload and with the Apollo delivered a payload of 44
tons to the moon. The space shuttle, or STS (1981–2011), had main engines that used liquid
propellant and boosters that were solid-fuel rockets.
Rockets presently being used to launch manned and unmanned missions into space include the
Brazilian VSV-30; numerous Chinese Long March rockets; the European Space Agency's Ariane 5
series and Vega; the Indian PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle), GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle), and GSLV Mark-III; the Israeli Shavit 2; the Russian Soyuz U, FG, and 2 and Proton
K and M; the Japanese H-IIA, H-IIB, and Epsilon; the South Korean–Russian KSLV-1; the U.S.
Athena 1 and 2, Taurus, Titan 2 and 4B, Delta 2, 3, and 4, and Atlas 2 ,3, and 5; Rocket Lab's
Electron; and Space Exploration Technologies' (SpaceX) Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy and Orbital
ATK's Antares, some of which are used to launch crewed and resupply capsulses to the International
Space Station. In 2015 the Falcon 9's main stage achieved a controlled return landing. The Ares I, a
two-stage NASA rocket designed to replace the STS as a launch vehicle on manned missions,
underwent its first test flight in 2009. Blue Origin's New Shepard, consisting of a capsule and a
reusable rocket booster, which also is designed to land vertically under power, had its first successful
test in 2015.

III. Types of Solid Propellant Igniters Igniters are devices or assemblies that produce a specific level of
heat in order to initiate a larger combustion reaction. They are produced in simple and complex
designs according to application use. Types of igniters are pyrotechnic, nozzle cap, hot surface and
spark (or electrode) devices. 1. Pyrotechnic Igniters  Pyrotechnic igniters are defined as igniters
using pyrotechnic composition or energetic propellant like chemical formulations. Pyrotechnic
igniters are frequently controlled electrically.  They are initiated to ignite materials.  Thermites are
a pyrotechnic mixture of metal powder and oxide, which generates a reaction called a thermite
response. While this reaction is not typically explosive, it can produce rapid bursts of high
temperatures under the right conditions. This reaction’s higher temperatures are generally
concentrated on a very small area for a short period of time.

2. Nozzle Cap Based Igniter Nozzle cap-based igniters are very useful in complicated rocket motors
where igniters can not be mounted at any other location. As it is at the nozzle end, propellant
loading at the head

3. Hot Surface Igniters or Ceramic Igniters Invented in 1969, these igniters are composed of
advanced ceramic materials. These devices are also the most commonly used electronic ignition
systems today. They are generally employed for applications such as space furnaces and heaters. Hot
surface igniters are commonly used for their reliability and durability potential. Hot Surface Igniter
Configuration The two composition materials generally associated with hot surface igniters are
silicon carbide and silicon nitride. • Silicon carbide is a compound of carbon and silicon and is
characterized by a low density and oxidation resistance. This compound, seen in igniters, has good
high temperature strength. • Silicon nitride is a chemical compound of silicon and nitrogen. It is a
hard ceramic with a high strength and is durable over a broad temperature range. Its notable
characteristics include durability over a high temperature range.

Spark Igniters Spark igniters are also known as flame igniters, according to their application. They are
electric and no gas leaks are involved. Spark igniters function as a device that ignites compressed
fuels, such as aerosol gas, petroleum gas that is generally liquefied, and ethanol. Some
manufacturers produce spark igniters (also called spark plugs) that produce an ultra thrust ignition,
which provides reduced emissions and a faster start. A spark plug may be considered either hot or
cold. The difference is hot spark plugs generally hold more heat in the physical tip of the spark plug,
while cold generate more heat out of the tip and lower its temperature

Types of Liquid Propellant Igniters

Hypergolic Ignition  Hypergolic igniters use a combination of hypergolic reactants (hypergols) which
ignite spontaneously upon contact.  In hypergolically ignited motors, initiation of combustion may
occur simultaneous with or just prior to main propellant ignition.  Common hypergolic propellant
combinations include monomethyl hydrazine, hydrazine, and unsymetric dimethlhydrazine paired
with Nitrogen Tetroxide or Nitric Acid.  Example : The Rocketdyne F1 used on the Saturn V vehicle
as well as the SpaceX Merlin engine

Augmented Spark Ignition  Augmented spark ignition, systems such as that shown in Figure are
essentially liquid bipropellant engines with flow rates low enough to allow for direct spark initiation
within a separate small igniter combustion chamber.  Combustion of the igniter reactants then
builds the necessary power release level to ensure reliable and timely ignition of the main
propellant. Precedent exists for using high voltage electrostatic arc type ignition sources to the light
the main engine propellants

Material of rocket nozzle

Rocket nozzle throat insert materials were investigated by using three small-scale solid-
propellant rocket engines. The materials used included refractory metals, refractory- me tal
carbides, gr aphites , c eramic s , cermets, and fiber - r einforced plastics.

A rocket engine uses a nozzle to accelerate hot exhaust to produce thrust as described
by Newton's third law of motion. The amount of thrust produced by the engine depends on
the mass flow rate through the engine, the exit velocity of the flow, and the pressure at the
exit of the engine002E