Unit 2: Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. explain the 14 learner-centered Psychological principles;\
2. advocate implications of the learner-centered psychological principles in the teaching - learning process;
3. suggest teaching strategies that could further enhance the 14 learner-centered psychological principles; and,
4. identify the legal and policy frameworks and learner-centered teaching.
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
It was put together by the American Psychological Association. It provides a framework for developing and incorporating the
components of new designs for schooling. Moreover, it emphasizes the active and reflective nature of learning and learners.
The 14 principles have the following aspects:
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or psychological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external
environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus,
they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and
affective, (3) developmental and social, (4) individual differences influencing learners and learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply all learners – from children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents,
and to community members involved in our educational system.
Cognition Metacognition
Mental processes Higher order cognitive processes
 Memory, learning, and problem solving  A person has an active control over his
 Attention and decision making cognition
 Thinking about thinking
Source: J.P. Hablado, Guimaras State College
A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.
 There are different types of learning processes: for example, habit formation in motor learning and learning that involves the
generation of knowledge or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from information,
experiences and their own thoughts and beliefs.
 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own
learning.
2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.
 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.
 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued
learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally-relevant goals. Initially, students' short-
term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving
inconsistencies and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
 Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and educational
aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of Knowledge

The construction of knowledge refers to the process by which individuals acquire, organize, and integrate new information
into their existing understanding of the world.

 In educational theory, the construction of knowledge is often associated with constructivism, a learning theory that
emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding.
 According to constructivist perspectives, learners actively engage with new information, relate it to their prior knowledge,
and make sense of it through reflection, experimentation, and interaction with others.

Imagine that knowledge is like building with blocks. Each piece of information you learn is like adding another block to your
tower of knowledge. You start with the basics, like learning your ABCs and counting numbers. Then, as you learn more things, you
can stack more blocks on top to make your tower taller and stronger. That's called constructing knowledge – building it up, piece by
piece, to understand more about the world around you.

The construction of knowledge involves several key processes:

1. Assimilation and Accommodation

 Learners assimilate new information by incorporating it into their existing mental frameworks. They may also
accommodate their schemas by modifying them to accommodate new information that does not fit into their existing
understanding. Just like when you build a tower with blocks, you're putting pieces together when you learn new
things. Sometimes, you find a block (or an idea) that fits perfectly with what you already know. Other times, you
find a block that doesn't quite fit, so you have to adjust your tower. That’s called modifying your building.
 2. Social Interaction

 Collaborative learning and social interaction play a significant role in the construction of knowledge. Through
discussions, debates, and collaborative activities, learners can exchange ideas, challenge each other's viewpoints,
and collectively construct knowledge. When we talk to friends or family we share what we know and vice versa.

3. Reflection and Metacognition

 Reflecting on one's own learning process and understanding (metacognition) is essential for the construction of
knowledge. By thinking about how they learn and understand, learners can identify gaps in their knowledge,
recognize misconceptions, and adjust their learning strategies accordingly. Thinking about thinking, some of us
understand better with audios, visuals etc. You’re like a detective, trying to figure out what learning style works for
you. Remember what work for me might not work for you.

4. Active Engagement

 Active engagement with learning materials, such as hands-on activities, problem-solving tasks, and real-world
applications, facilitates the construction of knowledge. Active learning experiences allow learners to explore
concepts in depth, make connections between ideas, and apply their knowledge in meaningful contexts. Sometimes,
you have to try things out, like solving puzzles or doing experiments, to understand them better. The more you do,
the better you get at building your knowledge tower

5. Feedback and Assessment

 Feedback from teachers, peers, or learning materials is crucial for guiding the construction of knowledge.
Constructive feedback helps learners identify strengths and weaknesses in their understanding, correct errors, and
refine their mental representations. Never be afraid of receiving bad feedback. It helps you learn from your mistakes
and grow.

4. Strategic thinking

Strategic thinking skills encompass a range of cognitive abilities and competencies that enable individuals to analyze complex
situations, anticipate future developments, and formulate effective plans to achieve desired outcomes.

Here are the four strategic thinking skills:

1. Critical Analysis
 Strategic thinking involves critically analyzing complex situations, problems, and information. Critical analysis
helps strategic thinkers make informed decisions and develop effective strategies by ensuring a thorough
understanding of the situation at hand. You're like a detective trying to find all the clues/ or information, carefully
understanding what’s happening and why.
2. Creativity and Innovation
 Strategic thinking often requires thinking outside the box and generating novel ideas and solutions. Creative
thinking involves the ability to approach problems from different perspectives, challenge conventional wisdom, and
come up with innovative approaches. Its like deciding to build or go in a totally new and different things rather than
doing things like everybody does.
3. Strategic Planning
 Strategic thinking involves the ability to formulate coherent and actionable plans, setting clear goals, developing
strategies to mitigate risks. Its like making a big plan contain what you must do, how to do it and what you need to
do to make it happen.
4. Decision Making
 Strategic thinking requires effective decision-making skills to choose the most appropriate course of action among
various alternatives. Decision-makers weigh multiple factors, such as available information, potential risks and
rewards. Its about picking the best choice from all the options out there
5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select
potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals.
 In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely
progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness
and utility of the goal).
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher orders (metacognitive) strategies can
enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional practices.
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner and the learning
environment.
 Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation
toward learning and ways of thinking.
 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities and
their learning and thinking strategies.
  The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on
student learning.

B. Motivational and Affective Factors

1. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation plays a huge role in how students learn
and perform in school to remain engaged in the learning process and achieve. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. Therefore, our motivation to learn is connected to our
emotional states

 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals and expectations for success or failure can enhance or interfere with the
learner's quality of thinking and information processing.
 Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational
and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual's
motivation to learn.
 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can
also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative
emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about
failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and
contribute to low performance.
2. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn
The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. In short, they are all
key contributors to learners' motivation to learn.

 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn,
which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful. Unlike
extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation does not revolve around the consequences of an action. It describes the undertaking
of an activity for its inherent satisfaction. Therefore, people feel motivated regardless of the outcome.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and
control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences
in learners' perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
3. Effects of Motivation on Effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to
learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Motivation plays a crucial role in influencing the level of effort individuals put into tasks and goals. It can increase effort and
energy. When motivated, individuals are more likely to actively engage with tasks and expend more energy on them. Motivation acts
as a driving force, prompting individuals to initiate tasks and see them through to completion.

1.
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn.
2.
Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner’s effort and commitment to
learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension.
3. Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic
motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
4. Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and
interesting way.
5. Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional and physical domains, achievement in different
instructional domains may also vary.
6. The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected
by prior schooling, home, culture and community factors.
Here are some examples of strategies that we can use in the future:

Get to know your students: Understanding their interests, learning styles, and personal challenges allows you to tailor your
approach and connect with them on a deeper level.
 Create a supportive and encouraging environment: Foster a classroom atmosphere where students feel safe to take risks,
ask questions, and learn from mistakes.
 Be enthusiastic and passionate: Your own excitement about the subject matter can be contagious and inspire students to
engage more actively.
C. Developmental and Social Factors
1. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account.
Developmental influences on learning encompass the various factors that shape an individual's ability to learn and acquire
knowledge throughout their lifespan. These influences can be broadly categorized into three main groups:
1. Biological/Genetic Factors
 Genetics - Our genes play a role in determining our cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and
processing speed. These inherent capacities can influence how easily we learn and the pace at which we
acquire new information.
 Brain development - The structure and function of the brain continuously evolve throughout life. Early brain
development, particularly in the first few years, lays the foundation for future learning potential.
 2. Environmental Factors
 Socioeconomic status - Factors like poverty, access to quality education and resources, and parental education
level can significantly impact learning opportunities and outcomes.
 Family environment - Parental support, nurturing relationships, and positive learning experiences at home
play a crucial role in fostering a child's curiosity and motivation to learn.
 Culture and community - Cultural values, beliefs, and expectations can influence learning styles, attitudes
towards education, and access to educational resources.
3. Individual Factors
 Learning style- Each individual has a preferred way of learning and processing information. Understanding
and catering to individual learning styles can significantly enhance the learning experience and outcomes.
 Motivation and self-regulation- Intrinsic motivation, driven by curiosity and interest, and the ability to
manage emotions, focus attention, and persist through challenges are crucial for effective learning.
 Prior knowledge and experiences- Existing knowledge and prior experiences act as building blocks for new
learning. Building upon what individuals already know and connecting new information to their existing
understanding facilitates the learning process.
2. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with others.
 Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional
tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions and that respect diversity encourage flexible thinking and social
competence.
 Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling and behaving. Such
contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.
Interpersonal Relations:
 Quality personal relationships that provide stability trust and caring can increase learners' sense of belonging, self-
respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that
interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test
anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to perform well.
Communication With Others:
 In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and
reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social and moral development, as well as self-esteem.
D. Individual Differences Factors
1. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
 In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and
the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.
 Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting
learning outcomes.
 Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the
degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.
2. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account.
 The same basic principles of learning, motivation and effective instruction apply to all learners. However, language,
ethnicity, race, beliefs and socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the
instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued,
respected and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement is enhanced.
3. Standards and assessment  Pre-tests (on content and abilities)
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and  Self-assessments (identifying skills and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress - including competencies)
diagnostic process and outcome assessment - are integral parts  Discussion board responses (on content-specific
of the learning process. prompts)
 Interviews (brief, private, 10-minute interview of
Assessment each student)
Assessment is the process of gathering data. More
specifically, assessment is the way instructors gather data Formative Assessment
about their teaching and their students’ learning (Hanna &
Dettmer, 2004). The data provide a picture of a range of Formative assessment provides feedback and
activities using different forms of assessment such as: pre- information during the instructional process, while learning is
tests, observations, and examinations. Once these data are taking place, and while learning is occurring. Formative
gathered, you can then evaluate the student’s performance. assessment measures student progress but it can also assess
your own progress as an instructor. For example, when
Diagnostic Assessment implementing a new activity in class, you can, through
Diagnostic assessment can help you identify your observation and/or surveying the students, determine whether
students’ current knowledge of a subject, their skill sets and or not the activity should be used again (or modified). A
capabilities, and to clarify misconceptions before teaching primary focus of formative assessment is to identify areas that
takes place (Just Science Now!, n.d.). Knowing students’ may need improvement. These assessments typically are not
strengths and weaknesses can help you better plan what to graded and act as a gauge to students’ learning progress and to
teach and how to teach it. determine teaching effectiveness (implementing appropriate
Types of Diagnostic Assessments methods and activities).
  A primary focus of formative assessment is to Who and When It is Implemented?
identify areas that may need improvement.
The law was approved on May 15, 2013 by the
Types of Formative Assessment Former President Benigno Simeon Aquino III and took its
effect on June 8, 2013
 Observations during in-class activities; of students
non-verbal feedback during lecture What are The Reasons of Implementing K to 12?
 Homework exercises as review for exams and class
discussions)  Poor quality of education
 Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically  Too many practical subjects
during the semester  Not prepared for college education
 Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned  Too young for labor force
and informal—spontaneous  Global recognition
 Conferences between the instructor and student at The Impact of Implementation of R.A. 10533 In The
various points in the semester Society
 In-class activities where students informally present
their results The policy effectively transitioned the nation from a
 Student feedback collected by periodically answering 10-year basic education structure to a K-12 system, promising
specific question about the instruction and their self- a more globalized curriculum and greater employment
evaluation of performance and progress opportunities for graduates.

Summative Assessment 2. K to 12 Framework

Summative assessment takes place after the learning The K to 12 programs covers kindergarten and 12
has been completed and provides information and feedback years of basic education. Six years of primary education, four
that sums up the teaching and learning process. Typically, no years of junior high school, and 2 years of senior high school
more formal learning is taking place at this stage, other than (SHS) to provide sufficient time for mastery of concept and
incidental learning which might take place through the skills, develop lifelong learners and prepare graduates for
completion of projects and assignments. tertiary education, middle level skills development,
employment, and entrepreneurship.
 Summative assessment is more product-oriented and
assesses the final product, whereas formative The K to 12 Curriculum
assessment focuses on the process toward completing
Section 5 of The Enhanced Basic Education Act of
the product.
2013,stripulates the following curricular standards which the
Types of Summative Assessment curriculum developers adhered to on crafting like the K to 12
curriculum.
 Examinations (major, high-stakes exams)
 Final examination (a truly summative assessment) The Purpose of K to 12 Curriculum In The Philippines
 Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the The K to 12 system aims to improve Filipino
semester would be a formative assessment) students’ skills in Mathematics, Science and Linguistics to
 Projects (project phases submitted at various further exhibit competence in the global job market. With new
completion points could be formatively assessed) curriculum, The Department of Education promises to offer
 Portfolios (could also be assessed during it’s higher quality education through the strands.
development as a formative assessment)
 Performances The Curriculum Shall Be:
 Student evaluation of the course (teaching
 Learner-centered inclusive and developmentally
effectiveness)
appropriate
 Instructor self-evaluation
 Relevant, responsive, and research based.
Assessment and evaluation are essential parts of the  Contextualized and global
teaching and learning process. The results of assessments  Use pedagogical approaches
conducted are used to gauge the learners' strengths,  Cultural sensitive
weaknesses, imitations, and areas of difficulties. Teachers can  Adhere to the principles of MTB-MLE
also determine what kind of support and scaffold the learners  Use spiral progression approach
need. This process also includes knowing which instructional  Be flexible enough
material would best assist a learner for better school
performance.
Assessment should be an on-going process. Whether it is
formative or summative, results should be used as a means of
improving the teachers' strategies and techniques in teaching.
Low results may not always be attributed to students'
negligence and difficulties but may also be because the
teacher's strategy was not effective during the delivery of the
lesson. Assessment, therefore, is for both the teacher and
learner
E. Legal and Policy Frameworks and Leaner-centered
Teaching
1. RA 10533
It is an act enhancing the Philippine basic education
system by strengthening its curriculum and increasing the
number of years for basic education, appropriating funds
therefor and for other purposes.