Evaluating Limits

Analytically
(1.3)

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 In lesson 1.2, you learned that the limit of 𝑓𝑓 as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑐𝑐
does not depend on the value of 𝑓𝑓 at 𝑐𝑐.
It may happen; however, that limit is precisely 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐).
In such cases, the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution.
That is, lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐), i.e. substitute 𝑐𝑐 for 𝑥𝑥.
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

Let 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 be real numbers, and let 𝑛𝑛 be a positive integer.

• lim 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏 where 𝑏𝑏 is a constant function
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• lim 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 where 𝑥𝑥 is a linear function
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• lim 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

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 Ex:

𝑦𝑦 = 5
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3

𝑥𝑥 = 3

lim 5 = 5 lim 𝑥𝑥 = 3 lim 𝑥𝑥 3 = 1

𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→1

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 Ex: 1) a) lim 3 = 3
𝑥𝑥→2
b) lim 𝑥𝑥 = −4
𝑥𝑥→−4
c) lim 𝑥𝑥 2 = 22 = 4
𝑥𝑥→2

Let 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑐𝑐 be real numbers, 𝑛𝑛 be a positive integer, and 𝑓𝑓 and

𝑔𝑔 be functions with the following limits:
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 and lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐾𝐾
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• Scalar Multiple: lim (𝑏𝑏. 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• Sum or Difference: lim (𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝐿 ± 𝐾𝐾
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• Product: lim (𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 . 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿
• Quotient: lim = , where 𝐾𝐾 ≠ 0
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 𝐾𝐾
𝑛𝑛
4 • Power: lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
Ex: 2) lim 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 = 4 2 2
+ 3 = 19
𝑥𝑥→2
 Note: In example 2, note that the limit (as 𝑥𝑥 → 2) of the polynomial
function 𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥 = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 is simply the value of 𝑝𝑝 at 𝑥𝑥 = 2, i.e.
lim 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝 2 = 4 2 2 + 3 = 19
𝑥𝑥→2

Let 𝑐𝑐 be a real number.

• If 𝑝𝑝 is a polynomial function, then lim 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝(𝑐𝑐)
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥
• If 𝑟𝑟 is a rational function given by 𝑟𝑟 𝑥𝑥 = such that 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0,
𝑞𝑞 𝑥𝑥
𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐
then lim 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐 =
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑞𝑞 𝑐𝑐

Let 𝑛𝑛 be a positive integer. The following limit lim 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛

𝑐𝑐 is:
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• Valid for all 𝑐𝑐 if 𝑛𝑛 is odd
5 • Valid for 𝑐𝑐 > 0 if 𝑛𝑛 is even
 If 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 are functions such that lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 and
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝐿𝐿), then lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑓 lim 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝐿𝐿)
𝑥𝑥→𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

Let 𝑐𝑐 be a real number in the domain of the given

trigonometric functions:
• lim sin 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑐𝑐 • lim cos 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• lim tan 𝑥𝑥 = tan 𝑐𝑐 • lim cot 𝑥𝑥 = cot 𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
• lim csc 𝑥𝑥 = csc 𝑐𝑐
• lim sec 𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
 Note: Use radians mode on the calculator for trigonometric
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functions
 Ex: 5) a) lim tan 𝑥𝑥 = tan 0 = 0
𝑥𝑥→0
b) lim 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋 cos 𝜋𝜋 = 𝜋𝜋 −1 = −𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥→𝜋𝜋
c) lim sin2 𝑥𝑥 = sin 0 2
= 02 = 0
𝑥𝑥→0

Let 𝑐𝑐 be a real number and let 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) for all 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑐𝑐 in an

open interval containing 𝑐𝑐.
If lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) exists, then lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) also exists and
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

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 𝑥𝑥 2 −1
Ex: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝑥𝑥+1
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =?
𝑥𝑥→−1
𝑥𝑥 2 −1 𝑥𝑥−1 𝑥𝑥+1
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = = = 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) where 𝑥𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥+1
𝑥𝑥 2 −1
lim = lim 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = −1 − 1 = −2
𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥→−1
𝑥𝑥 3 −1
6) Find the limit: lim
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥−1
𝑥𝑥 3 −1 𝑥𝑥−1 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥+1
= = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1 where 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑥𝑥−1 𝑥𝑥−1
𝑥𝑥 3 −1
lim = lim 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 12 + 1 + 1 = 3
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥−1 𝑥𝑥→1
 Reminder: › 𝑎𝑎3 − 𝑏𝑏 = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 )
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› 𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑏𝑏 3 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 )

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 1. Learn to recognize which limits can be evaluated by
direct substitution.
2. If lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) cannot be evaluated by direct substitution, try
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
to find a function 𝑔𝑔 that agrees with 𝑓𝑓 for all 𝑥𝑥 other than
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐. (choose 𝑔𝑔 such that the limit of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) can be
evaluated by direct substitution).
3. Apply Theorem 1.7 to conclude analytically that
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑐𝑐)
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑥𝑥
4. Use a graph or table to reinforce your conclusion

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 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥−6
Ex: 7) Find the limit: lim
𝑥𝑥→−3 𝑥𝑥+3
𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥−6 𝑥𝑥+3 𝑥𝑥−2
= = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 where 𝑥𝑥 ≠ −3
𝑥𝑥+3 𝑥𝑥+3
𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥−6
lim = lim 𝑥𝑥 − 2 = −3 − 2 = −5
𝑥𝑥→−3 𝑥𝑥+3 𝑥𝑥→−3
𝑥𝑥+1−1
8) Find the limit: lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
2
𝑥𝑥+1−1 𝑥𝑥+1+1 𝑥𝑥+1 −12 𝑥𝑥+1−1
× = =
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥+1+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥+1+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥+1+1
𝑥𝑥 1
= = where 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥+1+1 𝑥𝑥+1+1
𝑥𝑥+1−1 1 1 1
lim = lim = =
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥+1+1 0+1+1 2
 Reminder: › 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏 2
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 If ℎ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) for all 𝑥𝑥 in an open interval
containing 𝑐𝑐, except possibly at 𝑐𝑐 itself, and if
lim ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿, then lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐
 Two Special Trigonometric Limits:
You can see the usefulness of the
Squeeze Theorem (also called the
Sandwich Theorem or Pinching
Theorem) in the proof of these limits:
sin 𝑥𝑥
• lim = 1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
1−cos 𝑥𝑥
• lim =0
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
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 Find the following limits:
6) lim 𝑥𝑥 4
𝑥𝑥→−2
8) lim 3𝑥𝑥 + 2
𝑥𝑥→−3
10) lim −𝑥𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥𝑥→1
12) lim 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥𝑥→1
2
18) lim
𝑥𝑥→−3 𝑥𝑥+2
𝑥𝑥
19) lim
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 2 +4
3𝑥𝑥
21) lim
𝑥𝑥→7 𝑥𝑥+2
𝑥𝑥+2
12 22) lim
𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥−4
 23) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 5 − 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3
a) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) b) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) c) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 )
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥→1
24) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 7 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2
a) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) b) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) c) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 )
𝑥𝑥→−3 𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥→−3
25) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 4 − 𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1
a) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) b) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) c) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 )
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥→1
3
26) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 6
a) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) b) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) c) lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 )
𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥→21 𝑥𝑥→4
27) lim𝜋𝜋 sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→
2

28) lim tan 𝑥𝑥

𝑥𝑥→𝜋𝜋
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 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
29) lim cos
𝑥𝑥→1 3
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
30) lim sin
𝑥𝑥→2 2
31) lim sec 2𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→0
32) lim cos 3𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→𝜋𝜋
33) lim
5𝜋𝜋
sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→
6

34) lim
5𝜋𝜋
cos 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→
3
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
35) lim tan
𝑥𝑥→3 4
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
36) lim sec
𝑥𝑥→7 6

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 Find the limit of the function (if it exists). Write a simpler
function that agrees with the given function at all but one
point:
2𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥−3
46) lim
𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥+1
𝑥𝑥 3 −8
47) lim
𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥−2
𝑥𝑥 3 +1
48) lim
𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥+1
𝑥𝑥
49) lim 2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 −𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥−4
51) lim 2
𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥 −16
3−𝑥𝑥
52) lim 2
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥 −9
𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥−6
53) lim
15 𝑥𝑥→−3 𝑥𝑥 2 −9
 𝑥𝑥 2 −5𝑥𝑥+4
54) lim 2
𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥 −2𝑥𝑥−8
𝑥𝑥+5−3
55) lim
𝑥𝑥→4 𝑥𝑥−4
𝑥𝑥+1−2
56) lim
𝑥𝑥→3 𝑥𝑥−3
𝑥𝑥+5− 5
57) lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
2+𝑥𝑥− 2
58) lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
1 1
− .
59) lim 3+𝑥𝑥 3
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
1 1
−
60) lim 𝑥𝑥+4 4
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
2 𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 −2𝑥𝑥
61) lim
16
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥
 𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥 2
62) lim
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 2 −2 𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 +1−(𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥+1)
63) lim
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 3 −𝑥𝑥^3
64) lim
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥
sin 𝑥𝑥
65) lim
𝑥𝑥→0 5𝑥𝑥
3 1−cos 𝑥𝑥
66) lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
sin 𝑥𝑥 1−cos 𝑥𝑥
67) lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2
cos 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
68) lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝜃𝜃
sin2 𝑥𝑥
69) lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
tan2 𝑥𝑥
70)
17 lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
 1−cos ℎ 2
71) lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
72) lim 𝜙𝜙 sec 𝜙𝜙
𝜙𝜙→0
cos 𝑥𝑥
73) lim𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥→ cot 𝑥𝑥
2
1−tan 𝑥𝑥
74) lim𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥→ sin 𝑥𝑥−cos 𝑥𝑥
4
sin 3𝑡𝑡
75) lim
𝑡𝑡→0 2𝑡𝑡
sin 2𝑥𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥
76) lim 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻: 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 lim
𝑥𝑥→0 sin 3𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 2𝑥𝑥 3 sin 3𝑥𝑥

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