Lesson 5:

Understanding Ways to
Collect Data
 Table of Contents
1. Research Methodology and Designs
2. Population
3. Sample and Sampling Techniques
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Triangulation
 #1
Research
Methodology
Research Design
● Research Methodology is the specific
procedure or techniques used to
identify, select, process, and analyze
information about a topic.
● Specifically, this is where you answer
the who, what, where, when, and how of
your study.
Research Design
● Firstly, the methodology should be the
most appropriate to achieve the
objectives of the research.
● Secondly, it should be made possible to
replicate the methodology used in other
research of the same nature.
Research Design
● The researcher not only selects a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods study to conduct;
the inquirer also decides on a type of study within
these three choices.
● Research designs are types of inquiry within
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches that provide specific direction for
procedures in a research design (Creswell, 2014).
● Others have called them strategies of inquiry (Denzin
& Lincoln, 2011).
 Quantitative Research Design

True Experimental Design • Action studies

• Pretest-posttest control design
• Posttest only control group
• Comparative studies
• Solomon four-group • Correlational studies
Quasi-experimental Designs • Developmental studies
• Non equivalent • Evaluation studies
• Time series (a group of subjects with
multiple observations) • Meta-analysis studies
Pre-experimental Designs • Methodological studies
• One-shot case study (single group: X O) • Needs assessment studies
• One group pretest-posttest (a group of
subjects: 01 x 02) • Secondary analysis studies
• Survey studies
 Qualitative Research Design

• Phenomenological Design • Individual Interviews

• Historical Design • Group Interviews (Focus
• Case Study Design Group Discussion [FGD],
• Ethnographic Study Design Natural Groups)
• Grounded Theory Design
• Observation with or without a
• Action Research Design
• Meta-Analysis Design
Checklist or Guide
• Narrative Analysis • Surveys and Questionnaires
 Qualitative Research Design
Goal Met Research Methods Advantages/Disadvantages
Description • Observational Method • Allows description of behavior(s)
• Does not support reliable
• Case study method predictions
• Survey method • Does not support cause-and-
effect explanations

Prediction • Correlational Method • Allows description of behavior(s)

• Supports reliable predictions
• Quasi-experimental from one variable to another
method • Does not support cause-and-
effect explanations

Explanation • Experimental method • Allows description of behavior(s)

• Supports reliable predictions
from one variable to another.
• Supports cause-and-effect
explanations
Types of Research Designs (Qualitative)
 Ethnographic Research
● Ethnography is the study of a specific grouping within a
culture.
● Researchers pursuing this study format will immerse
themselves into the culture they are researching.
● The qualitative data is gathered through direct
observation of — and interaction with — participants who
belong to that culture.
● The information is then presented through their
perspective.
● Ultimately, this study aims at understanding group culture.
 Phenomenological Research
● Phenomenology is a wide-ranging form of study.
● In this research model, the researcher looks to gather
information that explains how individuals experience a
phenomenon and how they feel about it.
● This model recognizes that there is no single objective
reality; instead, everyone experiences things differently.
● The outcome is described from the point of view of the
participants.
● However, the researcher is still able to derive a set of
findings that can be used to identify themes surrounding
the phenomena under study.
 Grounded Theory Research
● The purpose of grounded theory is to develop a theory
surrounding a social issue.
● This theory seeks not only to identify problems in social
scenes, but also to define how people deal with those
problems.
● Grounded theory is unique among qualitative design
approaches, because it depends solely on the data
gleaned through the research process.
● Often, the initial research question is progressively
reformed and refined as more information is gathered on
the topic.
● In this sense, the participants help shape the study.
 Case Study Research
● Case studies, one of the most common qualitative designs, are
used to examine a person, group, community or institution.
● Researchers often use a bounded theory approach that confines
the case study in terms of time or space.
● To conduct the case study, the researcher may draw upon
multiple sources of data, such as observation, interviews and
documents.
● All participants chosen must share a unifying factor, which
means they all must have a direct or indirect connection to the
research question or subject being studied.
● After collecting the data, the researcher will analyze it to identify
common or prominent themes.
 Narrative Research
● A literary form of qualitative research, narrative
research is all about collecting and telling a story or
stories (in detail).
● Researchers write narratives about experiences of
individuals, describe a life experience, and discuss the
meaning of the experience with the individual.
● Usually, a narrative research design is focused on
studying an individual person.
● The researcher becomes the interpreter of the
individual's stories, as opposed to a community.
 Narrative Analysis
● Narrative analysis is a type of qualitative data analysis that
focuses on interpreting the core narratives from a study
group's personal stories.
● Using first-person narrative, data is acquired and
organized to allow the researcher to understand how the
individuals experienced something.
● Instead of focusing on just the actual words used during
an interview, the narrative analysis also allows for a
compilation of data on how the person expressed
themselves, what language they used when describing a
particular event or feeling, and the thoughts and
motivations they experienced.
 Narrative Analysis
● A narrative analysis will also consider how the
research participants constructed their narratives.
● From the interview to coding, you should strive to
keep the entire individual narrative together, so that
the information shared during the interview remains
intact.
 Document Analysis
● Document analysis is a qualitative research technique
used by researchers.
● The process involves evaluating electronic and
physical documents to interpret them, gain an
understanding of their meaning and develop upon the
information they provide.
 Document Analysis
● Researchers use three main types of documents in their research.
○ Public records: Public records are official records of the
activities of an organization, usually a government agency or
educational institution, that anyone can access. Examples
include handbooks, census information, birth and death
records and court records.
○ Personal documents: Personal documents refer to accounts of
an individual's own experiences. Examples include diaries,
journals, emails, blogs and social media posts.
○ Physical evidence: Physical evidence includes objects found
within the research setting. Examples include flyers, posters
and training materials.
 Performance Task #3 (1 whole)
To be attached to your notebook
● Directions: Identify five (5) researchers from your
review of related literature and studies (RRLS), and
the title of their research work. Provide when the
literature/study was published, the ethical challenges
that the researcher/s faced during the conduct of the
study, findings of the study, and the recommendation
of the researcher/s of their study which related to
your topic.
● Follow the matrix on the next slide:
 Performance Task #3 (1 whole)
To be attached to your notebook
Ethical
Name of the Researcher’s/s’
When the challenges that
Researcher/s Findings of notes
research was the researcher/s
and the their study (recommendations,
published? faced in the
Research Title suggestions)
study

Title #1 &
Researchers

Title #2 &
Researchers

Title #3 &
Researchers
 Table of Contents
1. Research Methodology and Designs
2. Population
3. Sample and Sampling Techniques
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Triangulation
 #2
Population
The totality of all objects, elements, persons, and
characteristics under consideration in your research.

Population

Possess common characteristics about which the

research aims to explore
Observe the following statements below.
Statement #1 Statement #2
● “The population of the ● “The population of the
study are all young study are all young
professional doctors in professional doctors in
a public hospital in Ospital ng Muntinlupa
Muntinlupa City.” (OsMun).”

Questions:
1. What is the population of the study?
Observe the following statements below.
Statement #1 Statement #2
● “The population of the ● “The population of the
study are all young study are all young
professional doctors in professional doctors in
a public hospital in Ospital ng Muntinlupa
Muntinlupa City.” (OsMun).”
Questions:
2. How will you describe the two statements?
 Statement #1 Statement #2

● “The population of the ● “The population of the

study are all young study are all young
professional doctors in professional doctors in
a public hospital in Ospital ng Muntinlupa
Muntinlupa City.” (OsMun).”
Questions:
3. In which among the following statements best
describes the Target Population? How about the
Accessible Population?
“The population of the study are all
young professional doctors in a
Target
public hospital in Muntinlupa City.” Population

●“The population of the study are all Accessible

young professional doctors in
Ospital ng Muntinlupa (OsMun).” Population
 What if…
What if the population is…
●too many?,
●too costly?,
●time-consuming?, or Samples

●impractical to consider?
Population Representatives
 Table of Contents
1. Research Methodology and Designs
2. Population
3. Sample and Sampling Techniques
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Triangulation
 #3
Samples &
Sampling
Techniques
The representative subset of the from
the .

What do you call

the systematic
Population process of selecting
the group/samples
Target to be analyzed in
Population the research?
Samples

Sampling
 Recall: How to know your sample size?
● Assume that the accessible population has 1000 participants,
how many samples will you need for the study?
● Solution: (Slovin’s Formula)

𝑵𝑵 Where:
𝒏𝒏 = 𝟐𝟐
• n = Sample Size
𝟏𝟏 + 𝑵𝑵𝒆𝒆 • N = Total Population
Let’s set the margin of error at 5% (0.05) • e = Margin of Error (usually
set at 5%)
1000 1000
𝑛𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 ≈ 285.71
1 + 1000 0.05 1 + (2.5)
𝒏𝒏 ≈ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
1000
1000 𝑛𝑛 =
𝑛𝑛 = 3.5 In the population of 1000, you
1 + 1000 0.0025 need 286 samples (set at 5%
margin of error)
In Quantitative Research…
● Probability Sampling Technique is used that involves
random selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
● There are four main commonly used types of
probability sampling.
 Simple Random Sampling

 Systematic Random Sampling

 Stratified Random Sampling

 Cluster Random Sampling

Legend:

Source: Scribbr
Short Link: https://shorturl.at/huBE8
Simple Random Sampling
● In a simple random sample, every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
● Your sampling frame should include the whole
population.
● To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools
like random number generators or other techniques
(e.g., fishbowl method or draw lots, lottery) that are
based entirely on chance.
Systematic Random Sampling
● Systematic sampling is similar to simple random
sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct.
● Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals
after the first participant was randomly selected.
● Choosing a participant at random in regular intervals
is determined by:
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑵𝑵
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 = =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝒏𝒏
Systematic Random Sampling
Example:
● In a population of 12 individuals, if the needed samples are 4,
then what is the interval of randomly selecting the participants?
Solution:
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
12
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
4
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 = 𝟑𝟑
The manner of selecting succeeding participants will be at every
3rd .
Systematic Random Sampling
How to do it?
1. Randomly select your
first participant using
simple random technique
(assume that person #2
was your first
respondent.
2. In choosing the next set
of participants, use the
interval acquired (every
3rd) until you meet your
needed samples.
Stratified Random Sampling
● Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows
you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
● To use this sampling method, you divide the population
into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant
characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income
bracket, job role, etc.).
● Based on the overall proportions of the population, you
calculate how many people should be sampled from each
subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to
select a sample from each subgroup.
 Example
● In the given table below, the population of 1000 was divided into
three (3) dietary types (carnivore, ketogenic, and vegan). From
slovin’s formula, it was determined that the sample size needed
is 286 (set at 5% margin of error), how many samples per group
(strata) will be needed?
Number of Individuals Needed participants per Dietary
Dietary Types
per Dietary Group Group
286
Carnivore Diet 423 423 ≈ 120.97 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
1000
286
Ketogenic Diet 190 190 ≈ 54.34 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
1000
 How it was computed?

● In the table, the basis for computing the needed participants (per
group) is to get the decimal equivalent of the ratio between the
sample size and population size. Then multiply it to the number
of individuals in each group and round off the result.
Cluster Random Sampling
● Cluster sampling also involves dividing the
population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the
whole sample.
● Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire
subgroups.
● If it is practically possible, you might include
every individual from each sampled cluster.
Example
● The company has offices in 5
cities across the country (all
with roughly the same
number of employees in
similar roles).
● You don’t have the capacity
to travel to every office to
collect your data, so you use
simple random sampling to
select 3 offices – these are
your clusters.
 In Qualitative Research…
● Non-probability Sampling Technique is used that involves non-
random selection based on convenience or other criteria,
allowing you to easily collect data.
● No need to compute for the number of samples because fewer
samples are needed in this research method (the number of
samples is based on the research design that the researchers
decided to use).
● There are four main commonly used types of non-probability
sampling.
 Convenience Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
 Quota Sampling
Legend:

Source: Scribbr
Short Link: https://shorturl.at/huBE8
 Convenience Sampling
● A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who
happen to be most accessible to the researcher (from the
word convenience).
● This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data,
but there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of
the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
● Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias
and selection bias.
 Example
● You are researching opinions about student
support services in your university, so after each
of your classes, you ask your fellow students to
complete a survey on the topic.
● This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you
only surveyed students taking the same classes
as you at the same level, the sample is not
representative of all the students at your
university.
 Voluntary Response Sampling
● Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary
response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
● Instead of the researcher choosing participants and
directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey).
● Voluntary response samples are always at least
somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be
more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-
selection bias.
 Example
● You send out the survey to all students at your
university and a lot of students decide to
complete it.
● This can certainly give you some insight into the
topic, but the people who responded are more
likely to be those who have strong opinions about
the student support services, so you can’t be sure
that their opinions are representative of all
students.
 Purposive Sampling
● This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling,
involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample
that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
● It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher
wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon
rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population
is very small and specific.
● An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and
rationale for inclusion.
● Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion
criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.
 Example
● You want to know more about the opinions and
experiences of disabled students at your university, so you
purposefully select a number of students with different
support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on
their experiences with student services.
 Snowball Sampling
● If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can
be used to recruit participants via other participants
(referral system).
● The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as
you get in contact with more people.
● The downside here is also representativeness, as you have
no way of knowing how representative your sample is due
to the reliance on participants recruiting others.
● This can lead to sampling bias.
Types of Snowball Sampling
● Linear snowball sampling (the
researcher recruits only one
participant, and this participant, in
turn, recruits only one participant.)
● Exponential (non-discriminative) the
researcher recruits the first
participant, and this participant in turn
recruits several others.
● Exponential (discriminative) In this
technique, each subject gives multiple
referrals, however, only one subject is
recruited from each referral. The
choice of a new subject depends on
the nature of the research study.
 Quota Sampling
● Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of units.
● This is called a quota.
● You first divide the population into mutually exclusive
subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units
until you reach your quota.
● These units share specific characteristics, determined by
you prior to forming your strata.
● The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who
makes up your sample.
Example
● In this example, you divided
the population based on sex
(Men and Women).
● Each strata (group) set
quotas.
● So, if the sample size is 200,
then for this research it
needs 40% of the Men (0.4 x
200) and 60% for the
Women (0.6 x 200).
 Table of Contents
1. Research Methodology and Designs
2. Population
3. Sample and Sampling Techniques
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Triangulation
 #4
Data Gathering
Procedure
Data Collection
● It is a systematic process of gathering observations
or measurements.
● Whether you are performing research for business,
governmental or academic purposes, data collection
allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original
insights into your research problem.
● While methods and aims may differ between fields,
the overall process of data collection remains largely
the same.
Before you begin collecting data, …

● You need to consider the following:

 The aim of the research

 The type of data that you will collect

 The methods and procedures you

will use to collect, store, and

process the data
To collect high-quality data that is relevant
to your purposes, …
• Follow these four steps:

 Step 1: Define the aim of your

research.
 Step 2: Choose your data collection

method.
 Step 3: Plan your data collection

procedures.
 Step 4: Collect the data.
Step 1: Define the aim of your research.

• Before you start the process of data

collection, you need to identify exactly
what you want to achieve.
• You can start by writing a problem
statement:
• “What is the practical or scientific issue
that you want to address and why does
it matter?”
Step 1: Define the aim of your research.

• Next, make sure you formulated one or

more research questions that
precisely define what you want to find
out.
• Depending on your research questions,
you might need to collect quantitative
or qualitative data
Step 1: Define the aim of your research.
• If your aim is:
 to test a hypothesis, measure something

precisely, or gain large-scale statistical

insights, collect quantitative data.
 to explore ideas, understand experiences, or

gain detailed insights into a specific context,

collect qualitative data.
• If you have several aims, you can use a mixed
methods approach that collects both types of
data.
Example of mixed method research aims
• You are researching employee perceptions of their
direct managers in a large organization.
 Your first aim is to assess whether there are
significant differences in perceptions of
managers across different departments and
office locations (quantitative).
 Your second aim is to gather meaningful feedback
from employees to explore new ideas for how
managers can improve (qualitative).
• In this example, the quantitative will be the primary
data that will be supported by qualitative data.
To collect high-quality data that is relevant
to your purposes, …
• Follow these four steps:

 Step 1: Define the aim of your

research.
 Step 2: Choose your data collection

method.
 Step 3: Plan your data collection

procedures.
 Step 4: Collect the data.
Step 2: Choose your data collection method
• Based on the data you want to collect, decide
which method is best suited for your research.
 Experimental research is primarily a

quantitative method.
 Interviews, focus groups, and ethnographies

are qualitative methods.

 Surveys, observations, archival research and

secondary data collection can be quantitative

or qualitative methods.
 Data Collection Methods
• Carefully consider what method you will use to gather
data that helps you directly answer your research
questions. Refer to the table below:
Method When to use How to collect data?
Experiment To test a causal Manipulate variables and
relationship. measure their effects on
others.

Survey To understand the Distribute a list of

general characteristics questions to a sample
or opinions of a group of online, in person or over-
people. the-phone.
 Data Collection Methods
• Carefully consider what method you will use to gather
data that helps you directly answer your research
questions. Refer to the table below:
Method When to use How to collect data?
Interview/focus group To gain an in-depth Verbally ask participants
understanding of open-ended questions in
perceptions or opinions individual interviews or
on a topic. focus group discussions.
Observation To understand Measure or survey a
something in its natural sample without trying to
setting. affect them.
 Data Collection Methods
• Carefully consider what method you will use to gather
data that helps you directly answer your research
questions. Refer to the table below:
Method When to use How to collect data?
Ethnography To study the culture of a Join and participate in a
community or community and record your
organization first-hand. observations and reflections.

Archival research To understand current Access manuscripts, documents

or historical events, or records from libraries,
conditions or practices. depositories or the internet.
 Data Collection Methods
• Carefully consider what method you will use to gather
data that helps you directly answer your research
questions. Refer to the table below:

Method When to use How to collect data?

Secondary data To analyze data from Find existing datasets that
collection populations that you have already been collected,
can’t access first- from sources such as
hand. government agencies or
research organizations.
To collect high-quality data that is relevant
to your purposes, …
• Follow these four steps:

 Step 1: Define the aim of your

research.
 Step 2: Choose your data collection

method.
 Step 3: Plan your data collection

procedures.
 Step 4: Collect the data.
Step 3: Plan your data collection procedures.

• It is beneficial to
create your phases
of data gathering
procedures for you
to follow .
• The phases may
vary based on your
research topic.
To collect high-quality data that is relevant
to your purposes, …
• Follow these four steps:

 Step 1: Define the aim of your

research.
 Step 2: Choose your data collection

method.
 Step 3: Plan your data collection

procedures.
 Step 4: Collect the data.
Step 4: Collect the data.
• Finally, you can implement your chosen methods to
measure or observe the variables you are interested in.
• To ensure that high quality data is recorded in a
systematic way, here are some best practices:
1. Record all relevant information as and when you
obtain data. For example, note down whether or
how lab equipment is recalibrated during an
experimental study.
2. Double-check manual data entry for errors.
3. If you collect quantitative data, you can assess
the reliability and validity to get an indication of
your data quality.
To collect high-quality data that is relevant
to your purposes, …
• Follow these four steps:

 Step 1: Define the aim of your

research.
 Step 2: Choose your data collection

method.
 Step 3: Plan your data collection

procedures.
 Step 4: Collect the data.
 Table of Contents
1. Research Methodology and Designs
2. Population
3. Sample and Sampling Techniques
4. Data Gathering Procedure
5. Triangulation
 #5
Triangulation
Triangulation
• Triangulation in research means using multiple datasets,
methods, theories, and/or investigators to address a
research question.
• It’s a research strategy that can help you enhance the
validity and credibility of your findings and mitigate the
presence of any research biases in your work.
• Triangulation is mainly used in qualitative research, but
it’s also commonly applied in quantitative research.
• If you decide on mixed methods research, you’ll always use
methodological triangulation.
Types of Triangulation in Research
• Data triangulation: Using data from
different times, spaces, and people
• Investigator triangulation: Involving
multiple researchers in collecting or
analyzing data
• Theory triangulation: Using varying
theoretical perspectives in your
research
• Methodological triangulation: Using
different methodologies to approach
the same topic
In this example…
• This is an example of data
triangulation.
• From the research
instruments used
(fieldnotes or checklist
with observations,
surveys, and in-depth
interviews), this provides
more comprehensive view
and increases the validity
and reliability of the
results.