Agricultural Development in Uttarakhand: Geography

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN
UTTARAKHAND
ABSTRACT
THESIS
SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
B o c t o r of $I)tlas(opt)p
IN
GEOGRAPHY
BY
MUMTAJ AHMAD
Under the Supervision of

Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui
( Reader)
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)
2002
ABSTRACT
The study region of the present research work, Uttarakhand
comprising eight districts namely, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh of
Kumaun, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun
of Garhwal division. It extends from 28°43'24" and 31°27'30" N latitude
and 77°34'27" and 80°7'22" E longitudes. It encompasses an area of 51,125
square kilometres and account total population of 5.926 million
(according to Census of India 1991). The eocnomy of this region depends
on agriculture, where more than 80 per cent of its population dependent
upon this source. Being a hilly area, there is scarcity of agricultural land
and the share of per capita cultivated land is very low.
The present study is carried out for the period from 1979-80 to
1994-95. It is based on secondary soruces of data. There are the following
techniques have bene used by the author for the analysis of the present
study as follows.
i) The physical setting of Uttarakhand has been described in detail.
ii) To examine the trends of agricultural development, trend lines have
been plotted with the help of regression equation Y = a + bX,
regression lines make it possible to show the exact change in area
and production of different crops.
iii) To assess the development of agriculture by the diffusion of
technological and institutional factors per thousand hectares of
cultivated land has been opted for the analysis of agricultural
mechanization i.e. tractors, pumpsets, wooden plough and iron

plough. Besides, consumption of fertilizers (kg per hectare),
irrigation, agricultural credit societies, agricultural workers,
literacy and land holdings are taken into account.
iv) The indices of crop productivity, have been calculated on the basis
of Yang's yield index method for two periods 1979-80 and 1994-95.
v) The role of technological and institutional factors in the
development of agriculture has been examined with the help of
correlation analysis, factor analysis and composite mean Z-score
statistical technique.
The major objective of the present study are :
1. To analyse the importance of physical setting of the region which
facilitates basic necessities for agricultural practices.
2. To analyse the landuse pattern, cropping intensity and the trends of
growth in area, produciton and yield of major food crops of Uttara-
khand.
3. To assess the spread and diffusion of technological and institutional
factors in the study area.
4. To examine the spatio-temporal development of agriculture with
reference to crop productivity in the study area.
5. To examine the impact of tehcnological and institutional factors on
the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.
6. To measures the levels of agricultural development in the study area.
7. To suggest appropriate guidelines for future development of
agriculture in Uttarakhand.
For better assessment, the present work is divided into six
chapters, which are as follows :
Chapter First deals with physical factors like relief, geology,
drainage system, climate, soil and natural vegetation of Uttarakhand.
Chapter Second presents the concept of agricultural development
and highlights theoretical aspects of technological and institutional
factors relating to agriculture.
Chapter Third describes the trends of agricultural development with
special reference to landuse pattern cropping intensity, growth rate
of area, production and yield of major food crops and their irrigated
area for four period i.e. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95.
Chapter Four describes the spatial distribution of technological and
institutional factors in Uttarakhand.
Chapter Fifth devoted to spatio-temporal development of agriculture
with reference to agricultural productivity.
Chapter Six focusses the patterns of agriculture development and
technological and institutional factors in the study region. The
technological and institutional factors in the study region have been
assessed in three ways. Firstly, an attempt has been made to
determine the inter-relationship among independent variables
through correlation analysis for the period 1979-80 and 1994-95,
secondly, the precise role of various indicators of agricultural
development through Factor analysis. Thirdly, it exmaines the levels
of agricultural development through composite mean Z-score
technique.
At last author has incorporated summary and many more suggestions
regarding the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.
It has been observed that the percentage of gross cropped area to
the total reported area slightly decrease from 21.37 per cent to 21.26 per
cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. The percentage decrease in
gross corpped area is due to new construction of settlements and roads in
the region.
An analysis of the trends of agricultural development reveals that
among cereals, wheat is the first ranking crop. The linear growth rate of
area under wheat increased by 53.50 per cent while production increased
by 52.25 per cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. Rice is the
second leading crops in the study area. The growth rate of area under rice
decreased by 0.9 per cent, while the production icnreased by 68.8 per cent
during the period studied. The area under pulses has increased in fifteen
years except in case of gram and masoor, while the production recorded
are increased in all the pulses except gram.
Besides, masoor is the leading crop among other pulses in
Uttarakhand. It occupies largest area and improved its position in
production. Among oilseeds soyabean, rapeseed and mustard and sesamum
have achieved leading position in Uttarakhand. The phenomenal increase in
oilseeds is due to the favourable climatic conditions of the study area.
Uttarakhand is not an important producer of sugarcane as
compared to the sugarcane belt of western and eastern Uttar Pradesh, it is
mainly cultivated in tarai-bhabar tract of the study region. Potato and onion
are getting popular in Uttarakhand and its area and production both are
gradually increasing.
The development and expansion of irrigation facilities have
increased the irrigated area under various foodcrops in Uttarakhand. The
food crops area under irrigation was 3.00 lakh hectares in 1979-80, which
increased to 3.78 lakh hectares in 1994-95. Among all the food crops,
sugarcane was heavily irrigated and more than 90 per cent of its area
received irrigation. The areal increase under irrigation is due to increase
in the number of tubewells, pumpsets, canals and irrigation by other
sources (ponds, lake, wells and tanks) in Uttarakhand. The increase in
irrigated area may be seen as glimpse of farmers awakening and the
begining of revolution, which helps in agricultural development of
Uttarakhand. The total consumption of fertilizers has increased from
31.26 kg per hectare of cropped land in 1979-80 to 67.43 kg per hectare
in 1994-95. The highest consumption of fertilizers reported was in
Nainital district (206.09 kg per hectare). The number of tractors per
thousand hectare of cultivated land is very low, being of 5.53 tractors in
1979-80, this ratio however increased to 15 tractors per thousand hectare
of cultivated land in 1994-95. The total area under HYV of seeds was
3,15,476 hectares which rose upto 6,83,543 hectares in 1994-95. The high
yielding seeds programme has been successful in tarai-bhabar tract of the
study area; while in other parts of Uttarakhand the adoption of this
technology has been very slow. It is observed that the nubmer of
agricultural credit societies per lakh of population decreased during the
period 1979-80 to 1994-95.

Land holding is the basic unit of decision making in agriculture.
More than 70 per cent of the farmers belong to the marginal class with
less than one hectare of cultivated land in Uttarakhand. Subsistance type of
farming is practiced in this area, because majority of the farmers depend
on small and marginal holdings for their sustenance. The study of spatio-
temporal development of agriculture v^îth reference to agricultural
productivity for two periods of time (1979-80 and 1994-95) indicates that
during one and a half decades, there was a shifting of districts of high,
medium and low productivity. An analysing of areal change in agricultural
productivity indicates the overall increase in the productivity area under
pulse, oilseeds and cashcrops excepting cereals. The increase in
productivity area under these corps is due to better farm management and
use of good quality seeds, which gives maximum returns to the farmers.
The farmers of this region are therefore taking interest in cultivation of
these crops for commercial purpose.
The factor analysis of fifteen variables for the year 1979-80
indicates that 83.86 per cent of the total variance is explained by three
factors (Fj 55.04 per cent, F^ 22.36 per cent and F^ 11.46 per cent),while
during 1994-95, 90.50 per cent of the total variance is explained by these
three factors (F, 56.97 per cent, F^ 22.30 per cent, F^ 11.23 per cent).
The study of levels of agricultural development based on
composite mean Z-score indicates that even after a lapse of fifteen years,
there is slight change in the spatial pattern of high, medium and low levels
of agricultural development. The farmers belonging to the district of high

levels of agricultural development enjoy better irrigation facilities, use of
fertilizers, use of HYV of seeds and implements and machinery, while in
the low levels of agricultural development, the impact of these variables
are comparatively low. In subsistence farming in Uttarakhand, there are no
saving and therefore no capital formation takes palce. To earn more
returns, the farmers of this region adopted the cultivation of horticulture
rather than crop production.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN
UTTARAKHAND
THESIS
SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
MottOX of
IN
GEOGRAPHY
BY
MUMTAJ AHMAD
Under the Supervision of

Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui
( Reader)
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)
2002
T6052
DEDICATED
To MY
BELOVED MOTHER
(LATE M R S . SHAKIRA K H A T O O N )
"The a n g e l s ... s i n g i n g u n t o o n e a n o t h e r ,
c a n find a m o n g t h e i r b u r n i n g t e r m s of love,
None so devotional a s t h a t of " m o t h e r "

Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui Department of Geography
Reader Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh-202002 (India)
Phone : 0571-2700683 (O)
0571-2701351 (R)
Dated : . }[ .
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify t h a t Mr. Mumtaj A h m a d h a s p u r s u e d
h i s r e s e a r c h work a n d p r e p a r e d the p r e s e n t t h e s i s e n t i t l e d ,
"Agricultural Development in Uttarakhand" under my
supervision. This t h e s i s is h i s original work a n d is being
s u b m i t t e d to t h e Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for t h e
a w a r d of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in G e o g r a p h y .
(DR. SHAMSUL HAQUE SIDDIQUI)

Supervisor
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h e s u c c e s s of my a c a d e m i c e n d e a v o u r d e p e n d s to a g r e a t
e x t e n t o n t h e q u a l i t y of g u i d a n c e a n d h e l p o n e r e c e i v e s . In t h i s
r e s p e c t I w o u l d like to e x p r e s s my h e a r t i e s t g r a t i t u d e a n d sincere
indebtedness to my supervisor Dr. Shamsul Haque Siddiqui,
Reader, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University,
A l i g a r h , w i t h o u t w h o s e s k i l f u l a n d v a l u a b l e g u i d a n c e , it w o u l d b e
beyond my reach to complete the thesis so successfully and
efficiently.
I am sincerely thankful to Prof. Azimuddin Qureshi,
Chairman, Department of G e o g r a p h y , Aligarh M u s l i m University,
A l i g a r h , for p r o v i d i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y facilities to c o m p e l t e t h i s w o r k
w i t h o u t a n y d i f f i c u l t y or f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s .
I am also thankful to Dr. Abdul Munir, Reader,
D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y , Aligarh Muslim U n i v e r s i t y , Aligarh w h o
h a s g u i d e d m e a t every s t a g e for t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s .
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitud to Dr.
M o h a m m a d S h a f i , P r o f e s s o r E m e r i t u s , D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y ,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for t h i s encouragement and
valuable suggestion during the completion this thesis.
I a m t h a n k f u l to m y y o u n g e r s Mr. M o h d . S h o e b , Shakeel
Ahmad, S h a m s h a d A h m a d , Azhar Aleem a n d m y r o o m - m a t e s for
t h e i r s u p p o r t a n d i n s p i r a t i o n in t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e w o r k .
I w i s h to e x t e n d h e a r t i e s t t h a n k s to m y d e a r e s t f r i e n d Mr.
Tauqir Ahmad Abbasi for their co-operation, affection, care,
encouragement, and fruitful suggestion which has been a great

ii
s o u r c e of s t r e n g t h t h r o u g h o u t m y s t u d i e s . I a m a l s o t h a n k f u l to
Dr. Fazlur Rehman, Sagheer Ahmad, advocate, Mohd. Hasan,
Faiyaz Ahmad, Sayeed Ahmad, Kausar Shamim and Jamshed
A h m a d for t h e i r c o - o p e r a t i o n a n d k i n d suggestion.
I w i s h to e x p r e s s m y t h a n k s to Mr. A s h f a q u e A h m a d f o r
h i s h e l p in c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . T h a n k s a r e a l s o d u e t o Mr.
Munnay Khan and Mr. Mohammad Javed for h i s cartographic
a s s i s t a n c e . I a m a l s o t h a n k f u l to Mr. N a s e e m u l I s l a m A n s a r i and
T a l a t A a p a , L i b r a r i a n , R e s e a r c h S e c t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y
for p r o v i d i n g t h e e n c e s s a r y l i t e r a t u r e , I a m a l s o g r a t e f u l to my
r e s e a r c h c o l l e a g u e s a n d f r i e n d s for t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n a n d v a l u a b l e
s u g g e s t i o n d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of s t u d y .
I a m a l s o i n d e b t e d to m y p a r e n t s , s i s t e r s , b r o t h e r s . Dr.
M o h d . A a z a m , M o h d . A s l a m , Aijaz A h m a d , I s h t i a q u e A h m a d and
Feroz A h m a d w i t h o u t w h o s e b l e s s i n g s t h i s t h e s i s w o u l d n o t have
b e e n t h e light of t h e d a y .
The financial assistance from the University Grants
C o m m i s s i o n t h r o u g h G e o g r a p h y D e p a r t m e n t of S p e c i a l Assistance
is g r e a t l y a c k n o w l e d g e b e c a u s e t h i s t h e s i s w o u l d h a v e a r e m a i n e d
incomplete without their assistance.
Above all, 1 e x p r e s s m y g r a t i t u d e to A l m i g h t y A l l a h who
provided and guided all t h e c h a n n e l s to w o r k in c o h e s i o n and
c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d led m e to t h i s p a t h of s u c c e s s .
(MUMTAJ AHMAD)
CONTENTS
Page Nos.
Acknowledgement i -ii
List of Figures iii - V
List of Tables vi - ix
INTRODUCTION 1 - 8
Chapter ! GENERAL AND PHYSICAL SETTING

OF (7TTARAKHAJVD 9 - 73
Chapter-2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 74 - 1 0 3
Chapter-3 TRENDS OF AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT 104-156
Chapter-4 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF

TECHNOLOGICAL AND
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS 157 - 204
Chapter-5 SPATIO-TEMPORAL DEVELOPMENT

OF AGRICULTURE WITH REFERENCE
TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY 205 - 244
Chapter-6 PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT 245 - 282
SUMMARY AND SUGGESTIONS 283 - 296
APPENDICES 297 - 298
BIBLIOGRAPHY 299 - 317
GLOSSARY 318 - 319

iii
LIST OF F I G U R E S
Figure No. Title Page Nos.
1.1 Uttarakhand - Administrative divisions 12

1.2 Uttarakhand - Physiographic divisions 18
1.3 Uttarakhand - Relief 21
1.4 Uttarakhand - Geology 24
1.5 Uttarakhand - Drainage system 31
1.6 Uttarakhand - Mean monthly temperature and
mean minimum and mean maximum
temperature. 40
1.7 Uttarakhand - Monthly quinquennial average
rainfall 46
1.8 Uttarakhand - Soils 56
1.9 Uttarakhand - Natural vegetation 66
3.1 Uttarakhand - Landuse pattern 107
3.2 Uttarakhand - Area and production of major
cereals 118
pulses 121

oilseeds ^^^
cashcrops 127
4.1 Uttarakhand - Percentage of cropped area
irrigated, 1994-95 161
4.2 Uttarakhand - Sources of irrigation, 1994-95 i63
4.3 Uttarakhand - Fertilizer consumption, 1994-95 168

4.4 Uttarakhand - Distribution of wooden plough,
1979-80 175
4.5 Uttarakhand - Distribution of wooden plough,
1994-95 176
IV
4.6 Uttarakhand - Distribution of iron plough,

1979-80 179
4.7 Uttarakhand - Distribution of iron plough,
1994-95 180
4.8 Uttarakhand - Area under high yielding varieties
of seeds, 1979-80 183
4.9 Uttarakhand - Area under high yielding varieties
of seeds, 1994-95 184
4.10 Uttarakhand - Agricultural credit societies per
lakh of populaiton, 1979-80 187
4.11 Uttarakhand - Agricultural credit societies per
lakh of populaiton, 1994-95 188
4.12 Uttarakhand - Distribution of Agricultural
191
workers, 1971
4.13 Uttarakhand - Distribution of Agricultural
workers, 1991 192
4.14 Uttarakhand - Distribution of literate persons,
1971 196
4.15 Uttarakhand - Distribution of literate persons,

1991 197
5.1 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cereals,
1979-80 219
5.2 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, pulses,

1979-80 221
5.3 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, oilseeds,
1979-80 223
5.4 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cashcrops,
1979-80 225
5.5 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, composite

index, 1979-80 226
5.6 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cereals,

1994-95 229
5.7 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, pulses,

1994-95 231
5.8 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, oilseeds,
1994-95 233
V
5.9 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, cashcrops,

1994-95 235
5.10 Uttarakhand - Productivity region, composite
index, 1994-95 236
6.1 Uttarakhand - Factor scores of Agricultural
development, Factor-1 (1979-80) 262
development. Factor-1 (1994-95) 269
6.7 Uttarakhand - Levels of Agricultural
development, 1979-80 276
6.8 Uttarakhand - Levels of Agricultural
VI
LIST OF T A B L E S
Table No. Title Page Nos.
1.1 Seasonal quinquennial average rainfall and its

percentage from total average rainfall in the
districts of Uttarakhand 45
1.2 Showing pressure according to height from sea
level 47
3.1 Land use pattern in Uttarakhand, 1979-80,
1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95. 105
3.2 District-wise landuse pattern in Uttarakhand,
1979-80 109
3.3 District-wise landuse pattern in Uttarakhand,

1994-95
3.4 Intensity of cropping and its percentage growth
112
(1979-94)
3.5 Growth rate in area, production and yield of
major food crops in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 to
1994-95 115

major food crops in Nainital, 1979-80 to
1994-95 130

major food crops in Almora, 1979-80 to
1994-95
major food crops in Pithoragarh, 1979-80 to
1994-95 136

major food crops in Chamoli, 1979-80 to
1994-95 139

major food crops in Uttarkashi, 1979-80 to
1994-95 141
major food crops in Tehri-Garhwal, 1979-80 to
•I rv J /"» r
vli

major food crops in Pauri-Garhwal, 1979-80 to
1994-95 146
major food crops in Dehradun, 1979-80 to
1994-95 149
3.14 Irrigated area and its percentage to total
cropped area of various crops in Uttarakhand,
1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95 152
4.1 Net area irrigated by various sources and their
percentage to the total in Uttarakhand, 1979-80,
1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95 159
4.2 District-wise distribution of irrigated area by
different sources in Uttarakhand, 1994-95 160
4.3 Nutrient wise availability of fertilizers in
Uttarakhand, 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and
1994-95 166
4.4 Levels of fertilizers consumption in Uttara-

khand, 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-
95 167
4.5 District-wise levels of fertilizers consumption
in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 169
4.6 District-wise distribution of tractors in
Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 172
4.7 District-wise distribution of pumpsets in
Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 173
4.8 District-wise distribution of wooden plough in
Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 374
4.9 District-wise distribution of iron plough in
Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 178
4.10 Percentage of area under high yielding varieties
of seed from gross cropped area in
Uttarakhand, 1979-80 and 1994-95 182
4.11 District-wise number of Agricultural credit
societies per lakh of population in Uttarakhand,
'1979-80 and 1994-95 ^86
vill
4.12 Number of Agricultural workers and their

percentage to the main workers in Uttarakhand,
1971, 1981 and 1991 190
4.13 District-wise distribution of Agricultural
workers and their percentage to the main
workers in Uttarakhand, 1971 and 1991 190
4.14 Number of literate persons in Uttarakhand,
1971, 1981 and 1991 195
4.15 District-wise distribution of literate persons in
Uttarakhand, 1971, 1981 and 1991 195
4.16 Number of land holdings under different
categories in Uttarakhand, 1976-77 and 1990-
91 199
4.17 District-wise number of land holdings in

Uttarakhand, 1976-77 201
4.18 District-wise number of land holdings in
Uttarakhand, 1990-91 2 02
5.1 Method for calculating crop productivity index
for district Dehradun 217
5.2 Number of districts under different productivity
region with their indices, 1979-80 218
5.3 Number of districts under different productivity
region with their indices, 1994-95 228
5.4 Areal change in Agricultural productivity in
Uttarakhand from 1979-80 to 1994-95 238
6.1 Variables of Agricultural development 246
6.2 Correlation matrix of fifteen variables of
Agricultural development (1979-80) 247
6.3 Correlation matrix of fifteen variables of
Agricultural development (1994-95) 251
6.4 Factor structure of Agricultural development in

Uttarakhand, through related factor matrix,
1979-80 257
6.5 Standardized Factor score of Agricultural

IX
6.6 Factor structure of agricultural development in

Uttarakhand, through related factor matrix,
1994-95 266
6.7 Standardized Factor score of agricultural
6.8 Levels of Agricultural development 273
6.9 Standard score of variables for Agricultural
development in Uttarakhand, 1979-80 275
6.10 Standard score of variable for Agricultural
development in Uttarakhand, 1994-95 278
Agriculture occupies a place of pride in India's national economy.
It contributes around 32 per cent to the national income. It has a share of
30 per cent in the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country and
acocunts for about 18 per cent to the total value of the country's exports.
Agriculture is a source of livelihood for over 70 per cent of the population
and provides fodder to the cattle and raw material to agro-based industries.
Its importance may be judged form the fact that any economic
developments of the states or region of the country is possible only if
efforts are made to develop agriculture. Agricultural output in India
determines not only the per capita income of farm sector but also
influences the standard of living of rural population and the nutritional
standard of the poor masses.
It is evident that agriculture occupies a dominant position in the
national economy, but the sad part is that its production efficiency is not
upto the mark if compared v/ith other agriculturally advanced countries of
the world. Its yield of crops in India is comparatively low, which is about
0.33 or 0.25 per cent of the yield of such countries. The low yield per
hectare in the country is mainly due to improper cultivation of land and
less use of modern agricultural inputs. The existing situation requires
immediate attention of geographers, planners, economists and agricultural
scientists to study the problems and suggest measures for enhancing
output. One way out may be to conduct field to field surveys of
agricultural areas to ascertain the local needs and satisfy them
accordingly. Increase in per hectare crop yields and total production, can
be achieved mainly through practicing multiple cropping, adopting high

yielding varieties of seeds and through rational use of land resources.
Efforts are continuously being made in this direction and considerable
improvement has been achieved in agriculture during the last four decades.
With the onset of green revolution in the mid 1960's, there has been rapid
increase in agricultural production in India as a result of diffusion of
technological innovations and use of institutional resources i.e. package
of improved cultural practices involving high yielding varieties of seeds,
use of fertilizers, irrigation, application of pesticides and insecticides and
farm mechanization. It is believed that new technology has generated more
income and employment to the rural mass, but the benefits are not evenly
distributed among the different regions and group of people.
India has increased her production of foodgrains particularly of
cereals, like wheat, rice and maize, presently the country is not only self-
sufficient in food grain production but has also stock of foodgrains for
any emergency requirements.
Though country has become almost self-sufficient in foodgrains
production, the planners and agricultural economists have in recent years
expressed serious concern about the slow rate of growth in production of
principal crops. The average growth rate of total foodgrains production
during 1994-95 to 2000-2001 was a dismal 0.81 per cent. Rice production
during the period grew at 1.11 per cent and wheat production rose by 2.24
per cent. During the same period millets recorded a growth rate of 0.02
per cent and pulses registered a negative growth rate of 1.55 per cent. This
trend has to be reversed and the agricultural development in the country
should be put on a faster track to meet the foodgrain demands of the

future. In order to catchup with other developing countries in agricultural
production and emerge as a leader in farm production in the years to come,
the country should drawup an innovative, farmer-friendly and
implementable farm policy. The new policy should make agriculture
economically rewarding and intellectually challenging to attract and retain
the youth in this important avocation.
Keeping in view, the importance of technological and
institutional factors, the author has selected "Uttarakhand" an area for
detailed study, because this is agriculturally backward and need special
attention. The economy of Uttarakhand is agriculture based and more than
80 per cent of its populaiton is dependent upon this resource. Being a hilly
area there is scarcity of agricultural land in Uttarakhand and the share of
per capita cultivable land is very low. Uttarakhand is a natural unit bounded
by Kali river in the east Tibet in the north, Himachal Pradesh in the west
and fluvial Ganga plain in the south. In general the attitude of the region
ranges from 1200 metres to more than 4800 metres. It is mainly drained
by rivers Yamuna, Ganga, western Ramganga, and Kali or Sarda. These
rivers generally take their origin in the snowfed mountains and are a
perennial source of water for drinking, irrigation and power generation.
Variation in altitude, topography, slope, and vegetation have resulted a
varied climatic conditions in Uttarakhand. There is tropical climate at
lower elevation. As one moves to upland upto 1800 metres, the climate
becomes cool to cold temperate. Above 2400 metres in elevation, the
climate is almost alpine to polar. Uttarakhand characterized by a rhythm of
seasons, owing to reversal of winds during the south-west and north-east

monsoon. There are three main seasons in a year - i) The Hot-weather
season (from March to mid-June), ii) The rainy season (from mid-June to
October), iii) The cold weather season (from November to February). The
rainy season is associated with the kharif crops while the cold weather is
associated with the rabi crops. The hot weather season is generally dry and
does not permit cultivation until the onset of the south-west monsoon. The
monsoon results in heavy rainfall in the outer Himalaya. June with 35°C is
the hottest month and January with 4°C is the coldest month of the year.
Nine soil groups namely podzolic, gray brow forest, bhabar, red
sandy loam, mountain medow, tarai, skeltal and snow field have been
identified in Uttarakhand. Depending upon ecological settings, soils too
vaiy from slope to slope and valley to valley. Soils of Tarai-Bhabar, Duns
and valleys differ much from those on slope and ridges. Soils of
Uttarakhand in general are quite thin-layered, stoney and poor in fertility.
Faced further with the problem of soil erosion and landslides due to heavy
rainfall, the economic value of these soils is considerably less, except of
course for cultivation of crops like potatoes and horticulture.
In consistence with the complexities of terrain and climate, the
distribution of population (5.926 million in census year 1991) in
Uttarakhand is highly uneven and sparse. More than 75 per cent population
of Uttarakhand is concentrated in five districts of Nainital, Almora, Tehri-
Garhwal, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun, which together constitute a little
more than 2/5th of the total area. Population has greater concentration in
the tarai-bhabar region and Duns, in valleys and on gently slopping and
sunny uplands. A major part of the Great Himalaya is uninhabited. The
Uttarakhand as a whole has a very low density of population i.e. 133 person
per square kilometre. Areas of higher density are those having good
terrain, better climatic conditions, fertile soils, transport routes and
facilities of water for various purposes.
O b j e c t i v e of the Study
The major objective of the present study are :
1. To analyse the importance of physical setting of the region which
facilitates basic necessities for agricultural practices.
2. To analyse the landuse pattern, cropping intensity and the trends of
growth in area, produciton and yield of major food crops of Uttara-
khand.
3. To assess the spread and diffusion of technological and institutional
factors in the study area.
4. To examine the spatio-temporal development of agriculture with
reference to crop productivity in the study area.
5. To examine the impact of tehcnological and institutional factors on
the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.
6. To measures the levels of agricultural development in the study area.
7. To suggest appropriate guidelines for future development of
agriculture in Uttarakhand.
D a t a b a s e and Methodology
The present study is carried out for the period from 1979-80 to
1994-95; based on secondaiy sources of data, obtained from Directorate
of Agriculture Statistics & Crop Insurance and State Planning Institute,
Lucknow and District Statistical Handbook. The following techniques have
been used by the author for the analysis of present work :
i) The physical setting of Uttarakhand has been described in detail.
ii) To examine the trends of agricultural development, trend lines have
been plotted with the help of regression equation Y = a + bX,
regression lines make it possible to show the exact change in area
and produciton of different crops.
iii) To assess the development of agriculture by the diffusion of
technological and institutional factors, per thousand hectares of
cultivated land has been opted for the analysis of agricultural
mechanization i.e. tractors, pumpsets, wooden plough and iron
plough. Besides, consumption of fertilizers (kg per hectare),
irrigation, agricultural credit societies, agricultural workers,
literacy and land holdings are taken into account.
iv) The indices of crop productivity, have been calculated on the basis
of Yang's yield index method for two periods 1979-80 and 1994-95.
v) The role of technological institutional factors in the development
of agriculture has been examined with the help of correlation
analysis, factor analysis and composite mean Z-score statistical
technique.
Plan of the Work
For better assessment, the present work is divided into six chapters,
which are as follows :
Chapter First deals with physical factors like relief, geology,
drainage system, climate, soil and natural vegetation of Uttarakhand.
Chapter second presents the concept of agricultural development and
highlights theoretical aspects of technological and institutional
factors relating to agriculture.
Chapter third describes the trends of agricultural development with
special reference to landuse pattern cropping intensity, growth rate
of area, production and yield of major food crops and their irrigated
area for four period i.e. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95.
Chapter four describes the spatial distribution of technological and
institutional factors in Uttarakhand.
Chapter five is devoted to spatio-temporal development of
agriculture with reference to agricultural productivity.
Chapter six focusses the patterns of agriculture development and
technological and institutional factors in the study region. The
technological and institutional factors in the study region have been
assessed in three ways. Firstly, an attempt has been made to
determine the inter-relationship among independent variables
through correlation analysis for the period 1979-80 and 1994-95,
secondly, the precise role of various indicators of agricultural

development through Factor analysis. Thirdly, it exmaines the levels
of agricultural development through composite mean Z-score
technique.
At last author has incorporated summary and many more suggestions
regarding the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.

The Himalayas are the most significant features on the surface of
the earth. This mountain chain forms a gigantic arc stretching from the
Naga Prabat peak in the North-west to the Brahamputra gap at the base of
the Nancha B a m a peak in the east. It extends over a length of about 24,000
kilometres from west to east and varies in width from 150 to 300
kilometres. The Himalayan mountain chain could be divided into six
physiographic region
1. Jammu and Kashmir
2. Himachal Pradesh
3. Nepal Himalaya
4. Garhwal Himalaya
Uttarakhand*
5. Kumaun Himalaya
6. Eastern Himalaya (North Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Arunachal
Pradesh)
Historical Background
The name of Uttarakhand or Kedar Khand is extract from the
Puranic literature. Ved Vyas attached so much to it that he wrote an UP
Purana about it. It is because of this, the region is regarded as one of the
holiest parts of the Bharat, being frequented by great saints and kings from
different parts of the country. Every rock and rivulet is dedicated to some
diety or saint and has an appropriate legend attached to it. Some of the
Himalayan Kingdoms such as Dwigarta, Trigarta, and Madra flourished
*Presently a new state known as Uttaranchal has been created incorporating the
entire area of Uttarakhand and one district (Haridwar) from Uttar Pradesh.
10
here. The region had also been under the kingdoms of Brahamputra and
Shrughna, lying to the southeast and northwest of the Alaknanda
respectively. The kingdoms of Madawar and Govisana were confined to the
south of the Brahmaputra covering the bhabar and tarai region as
mentioned by Huen Tsang (Cunningham, 1963). The region had also been a
part of the Maurya and Gupta empires. In the 3rd century B.C., King
Ashoka erected a rock edict on the left bank of the Yamuna at Kalsi in the
Chakrata tehsil of Dehradun. During the medieval period (around A.D. 17th
century), a number of Rajput princes penetrated into the village of the
Himalaya due to the confusion created by Muslim invaders and setup a
number of small principalities. Many places have been named after the
regions from where they migrated e.g. Ajmer Patti and Udaipur Patti,
Katyuris who are known to have a long dynasty lost their stronghold on
Kumaon by about A.D. 1400 and split into scattered principalities (Ponde,
1937). Champawat was the residence of the Chand rulers of Kumaun (A.D.
700-1790). In the middle of the 16th century, Rana Balo Kalyan Chand, a
successor of the chand dynasty, established his fort at Almora. Raja Udyat
Chand was the last successful ruler of Kumaun. In 16th century. Raja Ajaipl
integrated 52 fortress (yams) and their associated territories into Garhwal.
The Kiratas, Seythians and Mangoloid elements have also contributed
profusely to the culture complex of the Garhkum Himalaya.
In A.D. 1743-44, there was a Rohilla invasion on Kumaon, but
they could not establish their foothold. By early 19th century, the Gurkhas
in their long sweep of invaison subdued Garkhum and territories beyond up
to Kangra. Their territorial ambitions brought them into conflict with the
11
British, with the result, Nepal lost the territories of Kumaun and Garhwal
in 1815.After the British occupation Almora become the adminsitrative
seat of Kumaun and Garhwal. The residual state of Tehri was handed over
to the Raja of Tehri by Britishers (Painuli, 1959) after retaining the most
populous part of Garhwal. During this period there was development of
roads, railway lines, education, agriculture and commerce. The latest
political boundaries have been made after the re-organisation of the
districts in the hill region of Uttar Pradesh in 1960.
Administrative Characteristics
Uttarakhand consists of eight districts namely, Nainital, Almora,
Pithoragarh of Kumaun and Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri, Pauri and Dehradun
of Garhwal division (Fig. 1.1). It extends from 28°43'24" and 31°27'30" N
latitude and 77P34'27" and 80°7'22" E longitudes. It encompasses an area
of 51,125 square kilometres and account total population of 5.926
millions (According to Census of India, 1991).
This well defined physical region is bounded by the river Kali in
the east and river Tons in the west, stretching from the foothills of the
Himalayas in the south. This region extends upto Indo-Tibetan international
boundary in the north. It measure an average 357 kilometres from east to
west and 294 kilometres from North to south. The region is situated
centrally in the longsweep of the Himalaya and forms a rather transitional
zone between the pre-humid and the rather dry to Himalayas. It was looks
like the crown of Uttar Pradesh and stand guard to the upper Ganga plain.
The layout of Uttarakhand is mostly uneven, the minimum and maximum

12
76° 79° 80° &v
UTTARAKHAND
ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
r \
v.
^31 UTTARKASHI
N
r-'
< CHAMOLI
TEHRI G A R H W A L
QEHR^DUN PITHORAGARhy
r
r-'
-30 - PAURI G A R H W A L 30H
I— /
INDEX
ALMORA c
INTERNATIONAL
BOUNDARY
, • )
STATE BOUNDARY
/
K
DISTRICT BOUNDARY I
• DISTRICT HEADQUARTERS NAINITAL .5
29-1
SI' 14'
INDIA
I . ''
? ÛTTARAKHAND
ÛTTARAKHAND
hS^'^ J 20 0 20 40
I \ 1 1
Kms
hi:
IJ 0 100 Source C e n s u s ot I n d i a
'Km N New D e l h i
FIG. 1 J
13
elevations being respectively 1000 metre and 7,817 metre above the mean
sea level.
As we know that Uttarakhand is made up of eight administrative
districts.
1. Nainitial : The Nainital district is situated in the south-eastern part of
Uttarakhand (29°24'N lat. & 79°28'E long.). Its border touch those of
Pithoragarh, Almora, Pauri, Moradabad, Bareilly and Rampur districts and
Nepal in the east. The headquarter of this district are located at Nainital. It
is well known for many beautiful lakes and the mountain resorts that have
developed around them. The northern part of Nainital district encompasses
the lower Himalayan hills. In the south are the Dun valleys, Siwalik hills
and the fertile bhabar-tarai tract are along the plains of western Uttar
Pradesh.
The Haldwani area is located in the bhabar-tarai tract, many small
towns have developed in this area. These includes Kathgodam, Lai Kuan,
Bajpur and Rudrapur. The Ramnagar area covers the south-western part of
this district. It is situated in the lower hills and bhabar tarai belt, it is fairly
large town that lies on the main road leading to Almora and Ranikhet.
Kashipur is also large town. The famous Corbett National Park can be
reached from Ramnagar.
Agriculture, tourism and industrial activities are the main stay of
the economy of this district. The principle crops grown are paddy, wheat,
sugarcane, maize,pulse and vegetable. The tarai belt is highly fertile land.
Fruits are also cultivated in various parts of Nainital district.

14
2. Almora : Almora district is situated in the east-central part of
Uttarakhand (29°3'N and 30°19' N lat. and 79<'2r and SO-'E long.). Its
headquarters are situated at Almora. This district is well known for its rich
forests and beautiful hill stations that attract thousands of tourist each
year. The economy of Almora district is largely based on agriculture.The
main agricultural crops are wheat, maize, paddy, vegetables and potatoes.
Apples are other fruits are also grown in the hills and valleys.
3. Pithoragarh : The district occupies the north-eastern part of
Uttarakhand {29°2T N and 30°40' N lat. and long. 79°50' E and 81°3' E
long.). Its border touch the International border with Tibet in the north.
Pithoragarh also has common borders with Almora, Nainital, and Chamoli
districts and Nepal. The headquarters of this district are located at
Pithoragarh. Important towns of this district are Berinag, Lohaghat,
Dharchula, Garbyang, Champawat and Pithoragarh. The principal crops
raised are maize, barley, jowar, ginger and potatoes. Animal husbandary is
another important source of livelihood for the residents of northern parts
of Pithoragarh district. The traditional route to the holy Mansarover lake
passes through Garbyang and Dharchula in the district.
4. Chamoli : Chamoli is the largest district of Uttarakhand. It occupies
the north-central part of this hilly region. Its northern border touch those
of Tibet, Uttarkashi and Tehri in the west, Pauri in the south and Almora
district in the east. The temple town of Badrinath, the holy shrine of
Kedarnath and the famous valley of flowers/Hemkund are a part of this
district. The famous mountain hamlets of Sonprayag, Gaurikund and Kund
are a part of this district. The headquarter of Chamoli districts are located
15
at Gopeshwar, a newly built town. Other important towns of this district
are Karanprayag, Nandprayag, Rudraprayag and Gauchar, Alaknanda river
and its tributaries drain a larg€ part of Chamoli district. The main
tributaries of this river are Mandakini, Dhauliganga, Nandakini and Pindar.
Economy is based on agriculture, livestock and tourism.
5. Uttarkashi : This is a second largest district of Uttarakhand (30°28' &
31°28' N lat. & 77°49' E & 79°25' E long.). It lies in the north-western part
of region. Its border touch Kinnaur and Shimla district of Himachal
Pradesh and Dehradun, Tehri and Chamoli district of the region. In the
northern part of this district lie the sources of the Yamuna and Ganga
rivers. Important townships of Uttarkashi district are Uttarkashi, Purola
and Gangotii. The economy is based on Agriculture and animal husbandary.
6. Tehri-Garhwal District : Tehri district occupies west-central part of
Uttarakhand (29°26' & 30° N lat. & 78°12' & 79°14' E long.). Its border
touch with Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Pauri and Dhradun district. The head-
quarters are located at Narendranagar. This district lies in the lower and
middle Himalayan ranges. Important townships of this district are Tehri,
Chamba, Narendranagar, Muni-Ki-reti, Deoprayag and Kirtinagar. The
economy of Tehri district is largely based on agriculture. The crop raised
here are rice, wheat, maize, pulses and vegetables.
7. Pauri-Garhwal District : The district occupies the south-central part
of Uttarakhand. Its headquarters are located at Pauri a small town located
atop a ridge. The border of this district touch Dehradun, Tehri, Chamoli,
Hardwar, Bijnor and Nainital districts. Pauri districts encompasses the

16
Siwalik hills, dun type villages and the lower Himalayan hills. Pauri is
situated on a lower Himalayan ridge. Kotdwara is a small town in transition
zone between the plains of western Uttar Pradesh and the foothills. Other
important townships of this district are Srinagar, Dogadda and
Landsdowne. The economy of Pauri district is too based on agriculture.
8. Dehradun : Dehradun district occupies the south-western part of
Uttarakhand. The borders of Dehradun district touch of Saharnapur,
Haridwar, Pauri, Tehri and Uttarkashi districts of the region and Sirmur
and Shimla districts of Himachal Pradesh. The headquarters of this district
are situated at Dehradun. The Jaunsar-Bawar area of Dehradun district lies
in the north-west. Chakrata is the main township of this belt. Kalsi and the
famous Lakhamandal caves of Mahabharata times are historical places in
the Jaunsar-Bawar areas.
The Mussoorie hill station is located in the northern part of the
district. It is located at 2000 metres high ridge and attracts many tourists
each year. There are a number of places worth visiting in and around
Mussoorie, for example, Dhanaulti, Surkhanda temple, Happy valley and
Kempty falls. Rishikesh is another important town in this district, it is
situated on the banks of the river Ganga. Rishikesh is an important
religious town for Hindus and other towns are Doiwala and Raiwala.
Agriculture is the backbone (mainstay) of the economy of Dehradun
district. A substantial part of the total geographical area of this district is
under irrigation. The main crops raised here include rice, wheat, maize,
sugarcane, pulses and vegetables. Fruits are also cultivated in some parts
17
of the Dehradun valley. Tourism also contributes to the economy of
Dehradun district in a significant proportion.
Relief
The region has a varied and complex relief features. There are
many ranges of mountain running in a general direction from north-west to
south-east. The slope is steeper towards the southern side and gentle
towards the north. The main rivers of the northern India i.e. the Ganga, the
Yamuna, and the Kali rises from this region and constitute three major
river systems. The area is studded with lakes which follow the general
trend of the range and is studied with their situation form a characteristic
features in the area. On the basis of physiographic attributes, this region
may be divided into three major physiographic divisions (Fig. 1.2).
1) Himadri (Greater Himalaya)
i) Himadri Ranges
ii) Himadri valleys
2) Himanchal (Lower Himalaya)
i) Himanchal Ranges and Hills
ii) Himanchal valleys and Lake Basins
3) Siwaliks (sub-Himalayan Tract)
i) Duns
ii) Siwalik Ranges
I. Himadri (Greater Himalaya)
The Himadri ranges run nearly along the international border of
the country in this region, where glaciated topography is well preserved.

8
UTTARAKHAND
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
I Himadri (Greater Himalaya

II Himanchal( Lower Himalaya)
III Siwaliks ( S u b Himalayan track

25 0 25
I I 1
Kms.
S o u r c e ; S u r v e y of I n d i a m a p s .
FIG. 1-2
19
The Himadri is 50 kilometres wide and has the highest elevation, which
are approximately more than 4000 metres where several high passes viz.
Lipm Lek (4,966 metres), Darma (5,329 metres), Niti (5,579 metres),
Mana (5,609 metres) and Jelu Khaga (5,329 metres) are situated joining
the region with Tibet. Some Himalayas peaks, famous for their heights, are
situated here viz. Nanda Devi (7,817 metres), Kamet (7,756 metres),
Trishul (7,120 metres), Nilkhantha (6,597 metres), Dumagiri (7066
metres), Bander Punch (6,315 metres), Gangotri (6,141 metres) and
Kedarnath (6,940 metres). These slopes and peaks are covered with several
hundered metres thick ice covers, which make many glaciers like Milam,
Gangotri, Pindari and Bhagirathi.
The Greater Himalaya ranges are deeply cut by the head waters of
the river Ganga (Bhagirathi and Alaknanda), the Yamuna and the Kali
(Sarda). The cross profiles of these valleys show convex form with steep
valley walls reflecting the rising phase of the Himalaya and also the
younger characteristic of the rivers.
The river Ganga forms the main valley of this region and drains a
veiy large portion. The Ganga (Bhagirathi) rising from the Gomukh Glacier
(6,614 metres), which is 30 kilometres long and 2 to 4 kilometres wide,
cut a fantastic gorge among the granites of the central axis of the Greater
Himalayas. The Yamuna rises from Bander punch range and it has two
tributaries i.e. the Tons and the Giri. The valley of Kali (Sarda) form the
eastern boundary of the region which ends on the Nepal border. Himadri
may be divided into two relief subdivisions - i) Himadri ranges and
ii) Himadri valleys.

20
Himanchal (Lower Himalaya)
The Himanchal is situated between the ranges of Great Himalaya
in the north and the Siwaliks in the south. Lower Himalayan ridges have a
general elevation of about 1500 metres to 2700 metres and the valleys
bottoms between 500 metres to 1500 metres with a width of 75
kilometres. The region is full of a variety of landscape developed in
different parts (Fig. 1.3).
The lacustrine basins and river terraces are dominant features of
this zone. The valley of the river Ganga and its tributary are in young stage
of profile development. They are immature, as they have been subjected to
rejuvenation again and again. The main boundary thrust separates this
region form Dunes. The ridges of this region, with highly compressed and
altered rocks and separated from each other by deep valleys.
There is a lake basin near the outer range of the lower Himalaya
which makes a zone of approxiniateK' 25 kilometres in length an 4
kilometres in width. The lake region of Kumaun is dotted with big and
beautiful lakes. Some important lakes of the region are Nainital, Bhim Tal,
Naukuchiya Tal, Sat Tal, Khurpa Tal, Sukha Tal, Sarai Tal.
The Sukha Tal, a lake with no water, is situated near Nainital,
while the Gohna lakes is in the Garhwal Himalaya in the valley of a
tributary of Alaknanda named Birahi Ganga. The Diuri Tal is another
important lake lying 10 kilometres the north-east of Ukhumath. The origin
of these lakes is still ambiguous and doubtful. Thomas believes that the
frequency of the lakes in this small region may be connected with the
21
UTTARAKHAND
RELIEF
INDEX
ALTITUDE IN METRES
ABOVE ^800 METRES
3000 - ^ 8 0 0 "
1200 - 3000 "
BELOW 1200
^p 20 0
K ms
Source; S u r v e y of f n d i u maps
FIG .1-3
22
recent movement. The irregularily eroded surface of Siwaliks over which
the Krol Nappe has moved must have contributed to the formation of the
surface irregularities, consequently upon the breaking up of the
thrustmass. Thus the region has two sub divisions - i) Himanchal ranges
and hills and ii) Himanchal valleys & lake basins.
The Siwaliks (Sub-Himalayan Tract)
The word Siwaliks derived from Lord Siwa lock, according to
Hindu's mythology. But here the term Siwaliks is used for a range of
narrow and low hills which lie almost parallel to major ranges of the
Himalayas. It stretches in the north-west to south-east direction and forms
the outer range of the Himalayan system. The hills of Siwaliks are broken
up and are subjected from the lower Himalayan spurs by a series of
structural low lands. The height of the Siwaliks varies roughly from about
550 metres to 1350 metres. Ranges of Siwaliks are intersected by
numerous Siwaliks rivers such as Dabka, Baur, Nihar and Bhakra, at several
places. These rivers have carved out their deep valleys. These ranges are
lithologically quite different from those of lower Himalayan ranges. The
southern slopes have steep scarps and the northern slopes descend gently
to the flat floored structural valleys called Diws.
The sediments of Duns are brought recently from the upper
ranges (Himadri and Himanchal) filled up in this region, which is 350
metres higher than the plain. Many Duns are found in Uttarakhand, such as
Dehradun, Kothri Dun, Chaukhamba Dun, Patri Dun and Kota Dun.
23
Geology
The Uttarakhand hills forms the eastern most part of the western
Himalayas. The geology of this region resembles that of Himachal Pradesh
in the west and Nepal in the east. The main difference between the
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand is that in the former areas, the tethys
zone is very well developed. The Himalayas was formed by the mightest
thrusting of the earth layers and their rise is analogous to Nappe formation
of Alps, a tangential process upheavels and compressions resulting in
excessive rock folds, faults and thrust planes, have changed much of their
original and primitive structure. They are young with sharp relief features
viz. Pyramidal peaks, knife edges, high ridges and deep abyssal valleys.
From south to north, the Uttarakhand Himalaya may be divided into the
following three parallel zones (Fig. 1.4).
1. Sub Himalaya or the Outer Himalaya or Siwalik range
2. Lesser or Lower Himalaya
3. Great or Inner Himalaya
1. Siwalik
The sub-Himalayan zone of the Siwalik range lies in between the
Indo-gangetic plain and the lesser Himalaya. The foothill belt of this
region is built entirely of Siwalik sediments. The Siwalik constitutes a
great thickness of detrital rocks; clays and conglomerates, rising to an
elevation between 5000 and 5,500 metres. These beds of sandstone and
shales are separated from the Eocene belts of the lesser Himalayas by
"Great Boundary Fault". They are of varying width ranging from 10 to 15

24
UTTARAKHAND
GEOLOGY
1|||1>: •.i[lacWO<I«
b-e«»Nooio«iTt.
««4NITe»-
••IIA!I4*IIM,
BAIlC-UCrichauol!
tlAIIC Kms-
Source : Geological Survey of 1 ndia
FIG .1-4
25
kilometres and form a system of foothills, which have an average height of
900 and 1200 metres. Siwaliks are chiefly composed of tertiary sediments
and are related to the latest phase of the Alpine-Himalayan orogeny.
Though its upheavels was accompanied by movements of the Himalayan
mountains themselves and probably by increasing latters. The Siwalik range
is perhaps the most recently formed range of similar magnitudes on the
earth. It is still in a primary stage of growth and it may be expected that in
future it would rise in altitude and expand in width (Burrard & Hayden,
1907).
The Siwalik range is composed of the some little consolidated
materials which forms the deposits of the level plains of northern India. It
was formerly the northern most belt of the flat alluvial region and has been
compressed by lateral forces into a long fold or range. The rocks of the
Siwaliks are entirely of fresh water origin and prove that the sea has not
washed the base of the Himalaya since the eocene period (Burrard &
Hayden, 1907). Geologist believes that Siwalik in the south are burried
under the alluviam of the Ganga. The exposed belt, however passes through
the northern part of Saharanpur, the southern part of Dehradun, and
Garhwal and the middle part of Nainital. To the north,Siwaliks are backed
by a discontinuous series of longitudinal valves known as Duns such as
Dehra, Kantri, Chaukhamba, Palti and Kata, of them Dehradun (35
kilometres long and 25 kilometres wide) is the biggest and most developed
in urban and outdoor facilities. These duns have been filled in only
recently from gravels derived from the central Himalaya. They rise to the
heights of 350 metres from the plain. On the basis of lithology, the
26
Siwaliks may be divided into three units.
1. The Lower Siwaliks
ii. The middle Siwaliks
iii. The upper Siwaliks
i) The Lower Siwaliks
Sandstones of the lower Siwaliks are relatively more compact
than those of the Middle and upper Siwaliks. It is composed of medium to
fine grained compact grey coloured sandstones, interbedded with minor
saltstones, shales and some clays.
ii) The middle Siwaliks
The middle Siwalik consist of essentially fme to medium grained
salt and pepper sandstones with some saltstones and clay beds. These
sandstones are friable due to cementation.
iii) The upper Siwaliks
The upper Siwaliks are embeded with conglomerates and sand-
stones. The pebbles of the conglomerates, consistof sandstones, quartzites,
limestones, shales and phyllite.
2. Lesser Himalaya
This part of the Himalaya lies between the Siwaliks and the great
Himalayan zone is not defined features, though its southern contact, a
steep thrust against the Siwaliks is generally sharp. It is bounded by the
'main boundaiy fault' to the south and the 'main central thrust' to the north
stretches the zones of lesser Himalayas approximately 75 kilometres. It is

27
a crystalline zone of unfossiliferous (or poor fossiliferous) sediments
with complex tectonics rocks have been compressed and metamorphosed
to such an extent that they vary in age from Algankien to the Eocene
(Wadia, 1966). Lithological variation present a mosaic of colours buff,
cream, white, purple, pink, grey, green, yellow and slaty, presenting a feast
to the eye. The variety is pronounced in Uttarkashi region where
investigation proved that Dharaser, Surjuni and Uttarkashi Thrust have
affected rock variations from highly schistose cericite, quartz, litho-
stratigraphica! variations are pronounced in Almora-Askot and Baijnath
reigon in the earth. The contortions of the strata show that the lesser
Himalayan region has everywhere compressed horizontally. These
mountains are the result of not one but of many movements of the crust
and their history is more complex than that of the siwaliks. Here the ranges
have been uplifted and later forced to change their alignments. Thus the
whole region has been subjected to successive compressions and general
wrinkling process is probably still continuing (Burrard & Hayden, 1907).
The lower Himalayan zone may be divided into three main structural
features.
i) Krol Belt - The Krol belt named after the Krol mountains in Shimla,
stretches from the Shimla region in the north-west to Nainital in the
south-east. The rocks of this belt includes slates, pryrites, sandstone and
limestones. This region is marked by the presence of clay shales, with
quarzites. This Krol thrust override a structural and erosional gap in the
Siwaliks (Ganseer, 1964).

28
ii) Deoban-Tejam Belt - It lies south of the main thrust of the greater
Himalaya and forms mainly the inner sedimentary belt of the Lower
Himalaya, stretches from the Shimla area in the north-west to the Kali
valley in the south-east. It is mainly belt of enormously thick limestones
and dolomites tapped by thick quartzites (Ganseer, 1964). To the south is
the Badolisera-Pithoragarh zone which runs just north along the north
thrust border of the Almora-Dudatoli crystalline means. To the north of
Askot-Baijnath crystalline thrust lies the Chamoli-Tejam zone, in which
the sedimentary sectors are thicker than the southern belt and the tectonic
picture somewhat less complicated by secondary disturbances.
Askot-Baijnath, which west of the Kapkot, are nearly connected
to the main thrust zone of the higher Himalayas forming the northern
border. The deepest outcrop of this is met between Tejam and Kapkot in
the Sarju and the Ramganga valleys. The great thickness and rather constant
development of practically unfossiliferous and only slightly metamorphic
sediments, where the metamorphic seems to increase from the
topographically lowest exposures to the top Horizons, is a unique feature
in the inner part of the lower Himalayas. It has been suggested that the age
of this part vary from pre-Cambrian to Mesozoic (Ganseer, 1964).
ill) The Almora-Dudatoli Crystalline mass - The inner sedimentary
zone of the lower Kumaun Himalaya is separated by the large Almora-
Dudatoli thrust sheet from the Krol thrust of Nainital and is subdivided by
two smaller thrust remnants the Almora and the Baijnath thrust.
The Almora thrust forms a huge crystalline syncline. A marked
change in the crystalline composition outcrops are met at bhowali with

29
some quartz, conglomerates, highly crushed quartzites and conspicous
green doloidal epidate diabases, near ranikhet region an increase of alkali
feldspar lead to granite geneisses, south of Almora, then is a coarse to
medium granites of muscovites, biotite, granite. The Almora granite which
dominates the champawat region (Ganseer, 1964).
3. Great Himalayas
The higher or Great Himalayan region lies to the north of the
Main central thrust. It spreads oyer 50 kilometres. It is a region of huge
glaciers, huge U-shaped valley, horns, and the glacial lakes. The main
central thrust separating the higher Himalayan zone form the lower
Himalayan zone is well outlined by the Kali valleys and valleys of
Goriganga and the Pindar rivers. The crystalline sheet of the higher
Himalayan zone is made of old metamorphic rocks and is composed of a
series of highly fossiliferous sediments. The main rocks of this zone are
qartzites, magnetites, gneiss, granites, schists, diorite, amphiboles (Singh,
1993). It is however a difficult and unaccessible area with an average
relief between 4800 and 6000 metres, culminating into some of the
highest peaks of Asia, viz. Bander Punch (6,315 metres), Kamet (7756
metres), Nanda Devi(7,817 metres), Dunagiri (7066 metres) and Trishul
(7,120 metres). Some of the giant glaciers such as Gangotri, Milan and
Kedarnath (largest after Karakoram glaciers) can be seen here (Wadia,
1966).
30
Drainage
The Uttarakhand is drained by short consequent tributary streams
which flow obliquely in the valleys and then join the main streams. The
great Himalayan ranges along with its major branch the Zaskar range forms
the general divide between the two major river system, the Ganga system
and the Indus system (Singh, 1983). The region is well drained by the
numerous rivers and the rivulets (locally known as Gad and Gadhera). The
drainage can be divided into three main system which is shown in Fig. 1.5.
1. The Ganga system
2. The Yamuna system
3. The Kali system
1. The Ganga System
Major parts of the region is drained by the Ganga system and its
tributaries, covering the whole of the Garhwal, except western portion of
Uttarkashi districts and western parts of Almora and Nainital districts
(Singh, 1993). The name Ganga is applied to the river below Devprayag
where the river Alaknanda and Bhagirathi meet. After the confluence at
Devprayag the river continues to flow down in torrents and cascades for a
distance of approximately 160 kilometres, and after cutting through the
Siwalik ranges of hills, its emerges into the plains at Hardwar in Uttar
Pradesh (Report, 1972). Its important tributaries are Alaknanda,
Bhagirathi, Bhillganga and Nayar rivers,
i) The Alaknanda : It is the most important river of the basin as well as
the region. The river derives its name from Alkapuri, the town where
31
UTTARAKHAND
D R A I N A G E SYSTEM
i n d e x
RIVERS ^
GLACIER
PRIMARY DIVIDE — -
S E C O N D A R Y DIVIDE
S O U R C E ; T o p o g r a p h i c a l S h e e t No
20 10 0 20 40
I I I I I I .J
Km-s
FIG'1-5
32
according to Hindu mythology "Kuvera" the God of wealth resides.
Alaknanda enters the Garhwal region where its joins with Mandakini rivers.
It flows to south-west and makes the boundary between the districts of
Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. The Alaknanda flowing with a smooth
surface gently winds around the point of confluence. It is 44 metres in
breadth and rises 14 metres at the same point. The width of the united
stream is 75 metres. The Alaknanda marks the great central line of lowest
elevation receiving rivers as either side which in turn receives minor
streams that got water through numerous rills and rivulets until the great
dividing ridge is met which forms the watershed between the headwaters
of the Kali or Sarda on the east and the Ganga system on the west.
From Rudraprayag upto Devprayag Alaknanda flows in the
westerly direction and receives a large number of stream on both banks,
main stream joining Alaknanda on the right banks are Bhardarigad,
Bariargad, Odiargad and Takaligad. The other branches have their sources
at the Maniknath peak and Gopalpur Dong region. The stream which join
Alaknanda on the left bank are Baohangad, Gewatigad and Kalhunsyungad.
ii) The Mandakini - It is the major tributary of Alaknanda, Mandakini
drains the districts of Chamoli, and Garhwal making boundary between
them and then its joins Alaknanda near Rudraprayag at a height of 1000
metres. Its main streams in the region are Lastargad, Helaungad, Lastergad
descends from Latkhanar (2718 metres). An interesting point to note about
the Mandakini in the break in its thalweg at Sonprayag where it first meet
its major tributary Basaltic Ganga. The waterfall is about 100 metres high,
possibly it is a rock step in the longitudinal profile of previously glaciated

33
valley occuring at its should at the junction of tributary (Bose, 1968).
ill) The Bhagirathi - River Bhagirathi is regarded to be the main source
of the Ganga river, between Tehri and Bhatwari, the river generally flows
in a comparatively broad open form except above Dharasu where it cuts a
deep gorges through quartzites. Bhagirathi flows towards the south and
cuts across the Himalayan axis in the granite gorges. It again turns at right
angles and flows towards the southeast just opposite in direction to its
upper course (Bose, 1968). The actual source of the Bhagirathi is in the
gangotri glaciers (25 kilometres long), some distance north of Kedarnath
at a point called Gaumukh (30°65' & 79H0'N). The gangotri is a few
kilometers down the streams from Gaumukh. The Bhagirathi joins the
western tributary called the Jahnavi, some distance to the north of main
Himalayan range between Banderpunch (6315 metres) and Srikanta (6133
metres) through a gorge in which the river bed is 3960 metres below the
peaks on either sides. This region is said to be silt like opening in the
rocks with practically vertical side reaching down 180 metres, to the bed
of the river (Krishna, 1968). Bhagirathi enters the Garhwal region near
Pratap Nagar. Before coming at Pratapnagar it has made boundary between
Uttarkashi and Tehri garhwal districts. It runs in south-easterly direction
and meet Ganga in Devprayag at the height of 449 metres. Its main
contributary rivers and streams are Bhilganga rivers, Sirkandagad and
Chandbhangad.
iv) The Bhilganga : Bhilganga descends from Kedarnath in the northern
Tehri-Garhwal. It flows in the south-westerly direction and meets
Bhagirathi near Tehri at the height of 672 metres.

34
v) The Ramganga basin : The Ramganga (also called Ruhut or Ruput in
its upper course) rises in Lower Himalaya at an altitude of about 3110
metres above sea level at latitudes SO^S' N and longitude 70°16'E near the
village of Lahba in the Garhwal districts of the Uttarakhand. Initially the
river flows in a south-easterly direction successively through Almora and
Garhwal districts for about 112 kilometres (Report, 1972). It flows with a
very rapid fall, first through Garhwal, again it debounches on the plains
near the Kalagarh fort in Bijnor districts. It is now a large river and 24
Kms lower down receives on its right bank, the Khoh which also rises in
Garhwal (Mishra, 1970). After flowing in south-westerly direction
Ramganga make the boundary of the two districts, Nainital and Garhwal.
Then its makes its way to the west and drains the southern Garhwal. Monda,
Sona and Mandalti are the important tributaries of Ramganga.
Kosi : The Kosi or Kaushalya, which is the third most important rivers of
Uttarakhand is the principal affluents of the river Ramganga. It rises on the
outer Himalaya in patti Borarau of Pargana Baramandal of Almora and does
not join the Ramganga until they have escaped from the mountains and
entered the plains, from its soruces the Kosi flows in southerly direction
upto someswar. In this section of its course the river is fed by streams
coming down the eastern slopes of the high chain of hills in that Patti-
Birchuwa (2568 metres), Gopai Kat (2763 metres), Bhat Kat (2774
metres) and Bhura Pirmath on the east forms the intershed between Kosi
and Gomti, a tributary of the river Sarju. From its junctions with soal upto
Kairna, it forms the boundary between the districts of Almora and
Nainital from Khaima, it flows north wards upto Bujan, then it takes a
35
north weserly course as far as Mohan, where it turns abruptly to the south
east and then south to Ramnagar, where it enters the plains at an elevation
of 366 metres above sea level. Between Kumaria and Ramnagar it is fed by
numerous torrents with very steep beds in which the rain water runs with
great velocity, occassionally causing great damage. The Kosi is a most
erratic and treacherous river in its behaviour, which cause huge damage to
cultivations on its bank and to the irrigation work (Neville, 1922).
The Kosi is the only river which has a very great effect on the
agriculture of the hills, until the floods of 1800 A.D., the village along the
Kosi had some of the finest irrigated lowlying canals in the hills, but they
suffered greatly in that year from diluvian (Neville, 1922).
Pinder : The river rises in the Pindari glacier which lies between
Nandakot and Nandadevi, at an elevation of 3684 metres above the sea-
level, its course is generally toward south from the foot of the glaciers. At
Dwali, it is joined by Kushini river, thence it bends to the south-west by
Khati to Wachham where it receives on the right bank, the Sundardhunga
on the same side. The rest of its course is in the district of Chamoli,
where it meets the Alaknanda at Kamprayag and Ultimately the Ganga.
Gola : The Gola river rises on the southern slopes of the ridge to the
south of Dal in Dalpat in Almora.Its course is southwards from its source
to Khamsyan, then it turns westward upto a point where it receives a
stream from Malwa-Tal. It then turns south for about 3 kilometres and then
again towards north west. It receives on its right bank the Borakheri stream
which takes the flow of Bhim Tal at Ranibagh receives Ballia which takes
36
the surplus of water of Sal Tal and Nainital. The river leaves the hills at
Kathgodam and flows through Haldwani to the Terai and Join the Ramganga
on its left banks. The river is largely utilized for irrigation. In times of
flood, it becomes a violent and dangerous torrent, changing its channel
through a wide bed (Neville, 1922).
2. Yamuna System
The river yamuna rises at Yamunotri glaciers in Uttarkashi district
at an elevation of about 6320 metres, lying on the South-western slope of
the Bandarpunch peak. The Yamuna covers about 1/2 of the western parts
of Uttarkashi, a small western parts of Tehri-Garhwal and about 2/3rd
western parts of Dehradun. Asan is an important river of the Dun valley as
well as tributary of the Yamuna system. The Tons is the biggest tributary of
the river Yamuna. The volume of water brought by this river becomes
nearly doubles to that of the river Yamuna. The river Yamuna and the Tons
separately cutting Mussoorie ranges in to deep valleys and meet together
at Kalsi. The Giri, another important tributary of the river Yamuna comes
farther north-west of the Tons, bringing water from south-east Himachal
Pradesh, the Giri Joins the river Yamuna in Kirada Dun valleys
3. The Kali River System
The Kali river system is depicted by the name of the river Kali,
this is the most important river of this system. This river system covers
the eastern portion of the Uttrakhand region, in which the river Kali flows
for a distance of 195 kilometres from the point of origin to the point exist
from this region. The river Kali which rises near the Indo-Nepal Tibet,
37
trijunction follows a south-westerly course and runs almost at right angle
to the lower Himalayan and Siwalik ranges. The Kali system covers the
district of Pithoragarh and the eastern parts of Almora & Nainital districts.
The Kali system drains near about 1/4 portion of the region. It has two
main head streams i.e. Khuti-Yankti and the Kalapani. The former is
generally regarded as the true source of the Kali, The Kalapani is a
collection of perennial springs while Khuti-Yankti takes its origin from
the snowfield of Himadri, receiving water from the headwaters, the river
Kali flows in a south-west direction upto jauljebi (120 kilometres away)
where it is joined another tributary Goriganga. Another important tributaiy
of Kali is Sarju, which brings a large amount of water and flowing 105
kilometres from the origin. The place where Sarju meets Kali is known as
Pancheswar. The course from Romeswar to Pancheswar is about 20
kilometres. The full length of the Sarju river from its source to its
confluence with Kali is estimated to be about 132 kilometres (Walton,
1910). The Kali (United stream) takes a south-eastern course from
Pancheswar and about 16 kilometres. Further, down streams receives the
largest river on its western bank. Further south, it receives the Ladhiya
river which rises in Nainital District, its important affulents are the
Ratiyagadh and Kuirala which join it near chaura in Talti-Rau and Pal-Belon
respectively, Lower down the Ladhiya is joined by the Babkala river. With
all these accessions. Kali becomes a great river before entering Nainital
district at Barmder, Hence onward is marks the boundary between Nainital
and the Kingdom of Nepal. It enters the plains at a heights of 243 metres
above sea level. Hence further it is known as Sarda.

38
Climate
Uttarakhand experiences a wide range of climatic conditions. In
the tarai and bhabar tract adjoining the plains of western Uttar Pradesh, a
typical tropical climate observes. Sub-tropical climate conditions are
prevails in the Siwalik hills, Dun valleys and upto an elevation of 800
metres in the lower Himalayas, temperate upto about 2,400 metres and
sub-arctic and arctic at higher elevations. Thus while the mercury may rise
to more than 40°C in the terai and bhabar tract, icy winds may be lashing
the Nanda Devi Peak.
Most parts of Uttarakhand receive very heavy rainfall from the
south-west monsoon from early July to the end of September. However
the areas lying in the rainshadow of the main Himalayas, for exmaple, the
upper Darma valley, receive very little rain. Both the south-west and north-
east monsoon systems of the Asian continental mass played vital role in
the climatic and weather conditions of this hilly region. The south-west
monsoons are gigantic land and sea breezes that blow across the Indian
subcontinent each year from July to September. In May and June, western
and central India and the adjoining parts of Pakistan are heated to
atmospheric temperatures of over 42°C. This results in a low pressure belt
in this area, there is a high pressure zone over the sea and as a result,
winds begin to move in towards the heartland of the Indian sub-continent.
As the wind pass over the mass of water, they pickup moisture
and becomes saturated with it. These winds, laden with moisture are known
as the south-west monsoon. They strike the Himalayan mountain chain and
39
cause heavy and widespread rains in most part of India. In winter, this cycle
is reversed. There occurs a zone of high pressure over central Asia and a
low pressure over the seas in the south. These winds are known as the
north-east or winter monsoon. They cause rains in January and February in
many parts of Kumaun, are not as heavy as those by the south-west
monsoons. A fairly long and moderately severe winter is the chief
characteristics of the climate of the region. However in the valleys and
comparatively lower elevated areas in the region, tropical heat may be
experienced during April to May and first half of June. Local population
of the region, however divided the climatic year into three seasons.
1. Purler Kharso : (Hot Weather Season)

(From March to Mid-June)
The hot weather season commence from March when the
temperature rises sharply resulting in a relative fall in pressure and
humidity. The heat is intense, though less severe than that experienced in
the Gangetic plain i.e. Zaid crops.
This period can be divided into two parts i.e.
a) Spring season (March-June)
b) Hot summer season (May-June)
By the month of March, temperature begin to rise rapidly
everywhere and reaches its maximum in the month of May. In this month,
mean monthly temperature recorded as 17.7°C and 16.1°C in Dehradun and
Uttarkashi respectively (Fig. 1.6). From April, the heat further increases
rapidly, while the air becomes dry. During spring season, the night in Tarai
and Bhabar are tolerably cool, though day temperature is somewhat higher.
Generally humidity is low with a marked clear sky.

40
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41
April records a further increase in temperature when the mean
maximum temperature of Dehradun and Uttarkashi rises to 38.2°C and
35.4°C respectively. During May and June, the temperature continue to
increase, though much less rapidly than in March and April until the south-
west mansoon commences when the temperature is higher. In summer
season, low valleys and foot-hill zones are very hot and hot days are
experienced even upto 1600 metres above sea-level but the higher ridges
are cool even in the hottest month. May is even more hot with a mean
maximum temperature of 35.5°C and 35.0°C and mean minimum
temperature of 16.5°C and 9.2°C in Dehradun and Uttarkashi respectively.
Obviously, June is the hottest month of the year and mean monthly
temperature of this month is recorded 29.3°C and 24.9°C at Dehradun and
Uttarkashi.
2. Chaumas Or Baskat (The Rainy Season)

(From Mid-June to October)
The season of general rains or the rainy season in Uttarakhand
generally commence by the middle of June. The begining of rainy season
being a complete change in the weather condition with the advent of rains,
experiences heavy and prolonged rainfall i.e. Kharif crops. In this period,
a diminished range of temperature is found throughout the year. The mean
monthly temperature in mountaneous region in July is 26.9°C in Dehradun,
and 24.2°C in Uttarkashi (Fig. 1.6). July and August have the smallest range
of temperature and these months having higher commodity, receives 80
per cent of the annual rainfall from the south-west monsoon. The monsoon
is weakened by September, though sky is not always clear. The rain is

42
received intermittently and due to low temperature, little change in
humidity is observed. The distribution of temperature in the month of
October shows a slight fluctuation. The temperature condition show that
though, there is a definite increase in the mean maximum temperature in
the month of October, the mean temperature is less than that of September.
This is on account of decrease cloudiness and the influence of the
mechanism of mountain and valley breezes. During this month, the velocity
of wind is generally minimum due to little range in pressure.
3. Hyund or Sheetkal (Cold Weather Season)

(From November to F e b r u a r y )
By the end of October, -the skies clear, rain stop and there is a
further fall in temperature. Significantly the begining of a cold weather
season from November and last upto February. The season experience
heavy and bracing, with only a moderate degree of variation between the
day and night, snowfall is rare, though in exceptional year, it has been
recorded even at on elevation of 900 metres (Walton, 1910).
The cold is comfortable above 1600 metres except during the
middle of day. By December the cold weather season fully set in. January
is the coldest months recording a temperature of 13.8°C at Dehradun and
\2.6°C at Uttarkashi. During the same month, tarai and bhabar zone
enjoys a breaching climate, while the mountaineous part is severe. Nights
are usually heavy and clouds particularly in low lying areas and severe
frost occasionally occur. Clouds often interfere in mild winter and some
rain usually falls in this season, which on the higher elevation occur in the
form of snow, occasionally the snow, falls down to 1600 metres but melt
43
rapidly below 1200 metres and it seldom stays long on sunny slopes. It
may be seen from the Fig. 1.6, the mean minimum temperature in the
month of November range from 6.3°C at Dehradun and 7.4°C at Uttarkashi,
but the mean maximum temperature ranges between 22.1°C and 26.6°C for
the same station. The month of December record a further decrease both
in the mean maximum and minimum temperature. The mean minimum
temperature ranges between 3.9°C and -4.2°C at Dehradun and Uttarkashi
respectively. The lowest temperature is recorded in the month of January
when the mean minimum temperature at Dehradun, and Uttarkashi is 1.7°C,
and 1.0''C respectively. By February temperature begin to rise but still
remain relatively low as compared to that of November. A significant
climatic features of this season is the occurrence of frost as well as
snowfall in the early hours of morning, which adversely effect crops like,
Arhar, peas, gram and rapeseeds & mustard.
Rainfall Rhythm
The monsoon sets in towards the end of June and last till the later
half of September, occasionally prolonging in to October (Mason, 1936).
The period from October to about middle of November is regarded as the
post-monsoon period and thereafter the winter season sets in lasting till
about the middle of march followed by the summer or pre-monsoon season
(middle of march to middle of June).
The rainfall generally increases in the valleys from south-west to
north-east direction and decreases beyond the highest ranges while the
plains of Uttar Pradesh receives 80 per cent of their annual rainfall during
44
the south-west monsoon from June to September. There are however, a few
occasions in the monsoon season, when the rainfall in the plain districts
may be lower but there are heavy rains in the hills causing floods in the
river. In the outer Himalayas, rainfall is heavy, varying between 157.78 cm
(Dehradun) and 169.73 cm (Nainital). Rainfall decreases beyond the outer
Himalayas (Fig. 1.7).
July and August are generally rainest months, accounting for
about 50 to 60 per cent of the total rainfall. November is the least rainy
months, sometimes October is also a fine as November. The month of
October and November are characterised not only by clear skies and calms
but also by a great range of temperature and heavy dews at nights (Walton,
1910). With the exception of monsoon, most of the rain during the
remaining parts of the year occurs in winter and early summer, in
association with the western disturbances across North India. During this
period as much as 30 per cent of the rainfall occurs over these hilly
districts.
It may be seen from the table 1.1 that the average annual rainfall
received in the months from June to September varies from 63.00 per cent
to 88.87 per cent of the total average rainfall in the districts of
Uttarakhand.
The distribution of rainfall in the Uttarakhand follows a contrast
pattern. Guided by relief the Bay of Bengal currents of south-west
monsoon after striking against Himalayas moves westward close to
Himalaya ranges, therefore the region receives heavy rainfall from these
45
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46
UTTARAKHAND
MONTHLY QUINQUENNIAL AVERAGE RAINFALL
J F M A M J J A S O N D
20 0 20 /.o 60
I—-J—I 1 I I
Kms
FIG. 1 7
47
currents in the south-eastern, north-eastern, south-western and north
central part comprising the district of Nainital, Dehradun, Chamoli and
Pithoragarh where the average rainfall is 169.73 cm, 157.78 cm, 152.75
cm and 151.40 cm respectively. Similarly the average rainfal in Tehri
Garhwal, Almora, Uttarkashi and Pauri Garhwal is 130.36 cm, 119.09 cm,
115.32 cm, and 109.87 cm respectively.
Pressure : Like temperature, pressure is also inversely proportional to
altitude, decreasing with the increase of height. The pressure conditions,
according to altitudes, are given below" (Kendrew, 1949).
Table 1.2
Showing pressure according to height from sea level
Height from seal level in metres Pressure in millibar (mb)
00 sea level 1013
609.60 or (2000 feet) 942
1219.20 or (4000 feet) 875
1828.80 or (6000 feet) 812
2438.40 or (8000 feet) 753
3048.00 or (10,000 feet) 697
3657.60 or (12,000 feet) 465
4267.20 or (14000 feet) 301
Humidity : Summer (March to May) is the driest part of the year, with
relative humidity ranges between 30 to 60 percent. During monsoon
season (June to September), the humidity attains a value of about 70 to 90
percent, while it remains between 50 to 60 percent during the remaining
parts of the year.

48
Clouds : In this part of the Himalayas wet days with the exceptions of
monsoon are extremely rare. In the monsoon months of July to September,
skies are generally heavily clouded. Heavy clouding also persists in short
spells during winter months when the district is affected by western
disturbances.
Winds : Winds are generally light with 3 to 4 kilometres per hour in the
valleys and 5 to 8 kilometres per hour at local elevaiton of 2000 metres,
increasing further with higher altitudes. In the wake of western
disturbances and in associated with thunder storm, the winds may become
quite strong. Katabatic winds may also be experienced during night as a
result of local effects produced by nature of terrain.
Climatic Zones
Convective activity is essential for the occurrence of thunder-
storm, with the advance of the summer the activity becomes pronounced
due to ground heating. Thunderstorm occurs throughout the year.
Frequency being least in November and December and generally greatest
during the May and September. During winter and pre-monsoon months
thunderstorm are sometimes accompanied by hail. Dust storms are rare
and occur, if at all, in the valleys in summer. Hill fog is common during
the monsoon months. Fog may also occur in association with western
disturbances. In the valleys, morning fog may occur frequently in winter.
Due to its complicated relief the area has been divided into micro-climatic
region by Kausic S.D. The micro-climatic conditions usually differ from
valley to valley and locality to locality, according to the i) Direction of

49
the ridge, ii) degree of slope, iii) Sunny or shady aspect of slope;iv)
Intensity of forest cover and v) nearness to glaciers. The region can be
divided in to seven broad climatic zones, primarily based on altitude.
i) Subtropical Zone (300-900 metres) : This zone covers the whole of
Bhabar and parts of the siwalik over the southern slope of the outer
Himalaya. The mean annual temperature varies between 17°C to 24°C. The
rain comes mostly from the summer monsoons, the annual figures ranging
between 157 to 170 cm. About 85 per cent of the annual precipitation
occurs in four months form June to September, winter depressions give
about 12 to 25 cm of rain from the beginning of December to April. In
May there is a little convectional precipitation, about 3 cm in the whole
months.
11) Warm Temperature Zone (900-1800 metres) : The mean annual
temperature varies between 13.9''C and 18.9°C in this zone. Summer
season begins from the end of April. In May and June the temperature
varies between 26.1°C and 32.2°C in the day time. In the sunshine, the
temperatures are 12°C to 16°C higher than those under shade. The night
experience a fall of 13°C to 17°C. In higher localities two or three nights
even in May, experience a snowfall from the western depression on the
right tops.
Local temperatures are affected by the forest on the ridges and
slopes of the spurs. The temperatures of the forested ridges and valleys
bottom differ by 5°C to 12°C even on the same slope. In winter snow
descends to about 1370 metres. However, it melts more rapidly on sunnier

50
slopes. The slopes are clear by snow by the begining of June. Monsoon
commence towards the end of June and ceases by the middle of September.
The heaviest precipitation is experienced along the outer ridges, which
form a barriers to check and exhaust the force of the monsoon. Heaviest
rainfall occurs between June 22 and September 21. It is accompanied by
moist and thunder. The streamlets and rivulets swell in floods.
Winter depression cause snowfall on seven or eight day in each
of the three months from January to March. Average number of snowfall
days is four in April and two in May.The amount of winter rain is also
controlled by local topography. The months of April and May are rather
marked by thunder and occasional hailstorms at all elevation. In May and
first half of June, before the break of the monsoon, convectional rain
occurs in the afternoon, in small amounts (12 to 25 cm) practically every
3rd or 4th day.
iii) Cool temperate zone (1800-2400 metres) : In this zone, the mean
annual temperature ranges between IO°C to 13.3°C, rising to 17.2°C to
21. P C in the wormest month and falling to 6 . r C to 2.9°C in January. In
May and June, the daily range of temperature is I5°C to 20°C due to
radiation in the night and dry air. From July onwards, the dialy range
decreases till March,when it again begins to increase. The rainfall from
summer monsoon varies between 125 cm to 150 cm, according to the
local topography, winter rainfall from the western depressions, mostly in
the form of snowfall is 25 to 30 cm.The full force of the monsoon is felt
in August, which has heavier rainfall than July in all the climatic zones of
51
Uttarakhand, irrespective of altitudes. Monsoon generally get exhausted by
mid-September. In November wet days are extremely rare and the
mountains standout for the greater part of the month clear of cloud.
iv) Cold Zone (2400-3000 metres) : The mean annual temperature of this
zone ranges between 4A°C to 10°C. there prevails a large cold winter of
more than 5 months with temperatures below 6.1°C. The daily range of
temperatures in June and July is observed to be more than 25°C. This zone
experiences much lesser amount of summer rainfall than any of the
southern zones. Before reaching the great Himalayan zone, the monsoon
have to cross the Dhaula Dhar range, which checks their advance, only
some clouds are able to cross this range and further the main ridge.
Therefore there are marked differences in the amount of rainfall in the
front and rear of this main range. From June to September, the rainfall
ranges between 37 cm to 50 cm in the frontal zone and 20 to 25 cm in the
rear. Winter depressions cause 3 to 5 metres of snowfall from November
to May and sometimes snowfalls continue upto the mid of June.
v) Alpine Zone (3000-4000 metres) : In this zone, the temperature for 7
months in the year remains below 6.1°C and in this months of January it
falls below -6°C, springs, summer and Autumn occur only for five months
i.e. from May to September, but snowfall occur even in June. Night
temperatures even during the summer remains below 4.4°C. The summer
rains are not only monsoonal but also convectional. The effect of great
snow ranges is two fold. Acting directly on the air in contact with them
they cool it and make it sink to the valleys are drawn up and dynamically
expanded so that if moisture is present in sufficient quantity, rain is

52
deposited. In April and May, showers occur nearly every day in these parts.
After rainfall, the temperature falls usually below 4°C and it becomes
extremely cold even in July. Snow melts in this zone between June and
September. From November to mid May the zone remains under snow ice.
In this zone, the diurnal and nocturnal winds have reverse directions. In the
day time, winds blow up the valleys and in the night they blow down the
valley.
vi) Glacial and Perpetually Frozen Zone : This area is limited to the
altitudes 4000 meters and above. In this zone, the temperatures remains
below zero for ten months and between l . T C and 3.9°C for two months of
summer. Snow melts during mon-soon in July and August. Here the alpie
forests undergo a gradual transition through xerophytic bush land to the
Alpine pastures (bugyab). Sometimes alpine forests may be seen upto
about 4200 metres, but above 4,800 metres, the landscape is a cold desert
with no vegetation, wide variations in the amount of rainfall are observed
depending upon the location and altitude of the recording station. Stations
in the interior in general experience lower rainfall than the station on the
edge of the area. About 90 per cent of the rain fall is recorded in the four
months from June to September. •
Soils
Soil is the natural body derive from the parent materials. It is
said that soil is the mother of agriculture. Therefore, all plant kingdoms
directly or indirectly depend on the soil. As a matter of fact the Human
civilization is depend on the soil for its well being. This is true for
53
Uttarakhand as well as all parts of the country (Negi, 1975). It is very
difficult to give classificaiton of soils of Uttrakhand so far no authentic
soil survey has been carried out for this region. There is wide variation in
soil types. These soils differ from valley to valley, slope to slope and even
on the same slope from place to place, the writer could however obtain
some information regarding soils from settlement reports and from some
studies by soil scientist. The land classification in Uttarakhand is based on
altitude and inigation facilities. According to Pant, the quality of soil is a
minor factor in determine the hill cultivation (Pant, 1935). Based on this
principle, the Agricultural land of Uttarakhand can be divided into the
following three categories :
1. Talaon or irrigated land
2. Upraon or unirrigated land
3. Katil land
Talaon Land : These are found near rivers or perennial streams in the high
land valleys. The soil is usually composed of fine alluvium and deposited
by the rivers. These are two types
a) Sera : These are first class irrigated lands with perennial supply of
water and often lying on the river bed. These fields are used for high grade
rice production. The best seras are situated in Bamsali near Ranikhet,
Mandel in Bageshwar and Khasporja basin near Pithoragarh.
b) P a n c h e r : These are second class of this category and are less fertile,
being composed of coarse detritus. These lands are capable of easy
irrigation, especially during the rain, but in dry years, they are difficult to
be irrigate and are no better than upraon.

54
2. Upraon Land : These are permanently terraced and comparatively dry.
They always depend upon the monsoon for water supply. Usually the
uproan fields possess the following characteristics. They are situated at a
high level, are unirrigated and are sown with dry crops. The value of the
uproan land depend upon such factors as the moisture retention capacity,
accessibility of the slope and the position with reference to the aspect of
the hills. If these factors are favourable, the uproar will be regarded as a
better class land and is termed Talliya. This is generally occupy an
intermediate position between the talaon and the upraon lands.
3. Katil Land : These Katil, khill, Irjan or Kalabanga are the names applied
to unterraced cultivation on virgin soils. The hill tops are cleared and
brought under cultivation after the shrubs have been burnt. They are
generally left fallow by years. After sometimes, they are finally brought
under terraced cultivations. In the Bhabar zone,the soil is mainly alluviam
deposits on a mass of boulders and gravel. In Terai and Kashipur it
resembles the soil of the plains further south. The upper portion of the
Terai, the soil is dark consistant loam, but the east, it is light. The soils of
the Uttarakhand have developed from rocks with biotic schists and phyllite
material under a cool and moist climate with rainfall extending to
more than 150 cms. The soils are shallow, gravelly impregnated with
unweathered fragments of stone with parent rocks occuring within a few
centimetres at elevated spot to about 2 metres in valleys or depressions.
Here generally the soils are not calcareous, and neutral to slightly acidic
in reaction. Moderately acidic soils are only met with or higher elevaiton
where rainfall is high strong enough to leach down the bases from the soil
minerals under temperate climatic conditions.

55
Altitude is the main factor in determining the productivity of
soils of Uttarakhand. The northern slopes in comparison to southern
slopes are usually less denued. So in the northern slopes, the task of
cultivation is easier due to thicker soils than the southern slopes where
the soil is granular. Uttarakhand has a wide variety of soil. The parameters
listed below have been used to delineate the soils of this region into
various types.
a) Structural, textural and chemical composition of the soil.
b) Soil fertility
c) Geographical distribution and extent
d) Soil horizons and their composition
The important soil types of Uttarakhand have been discussed below
(Fig. 1.8) :
1) Tarai soils
2) Bhabar soils
3) Gray-Brown forest soils
4) Podzolic soils
5) Mountain Medow soils
6) Skeletal soil
7) Red sandy-loam soils
8) Snow and snow field
1. Tarai Soils : Away from terraced and unterraced soils of the hills, a
good amount of land lies in tarai. In 1948, a large tract of forests was
cleared for reclamation and colonisation in the Nainital Tarai. In 1955, a
soil survey was made and tarai soils were divided i n t ^ f i n e textural cum
calcimorphic soil associations. s

56
UTTARAKHAND
SOILS
INDEX
t- r- TARAI SOILS
BHABAR SOILS
///A GRAY BROWN FORES

SOILS
PODZOLIC SOILS
MOUNTAIN MEDOWSOtLS
SNOW FIELD •• •• • RED SANDY

20 0 20 40 60
X X
SKELTAL SOI LS
LOAM SOILS
U _L _J I I
Kms
S o u r c e ' . L a n d Resource A t l a s , Survey 0< I n d i a . 1996
FIG-1.8
57
i) Matkota clay loam :
Mildly calcareous, it is a textural clayey loam tending to be silty
clay loam. It is rich in organic matter and the colour is dark grey at
surface. The next layer is of light yellowish brown material with a silty
loam texture, the organic matter is low, the water holding capacity is high
because the sand content (fine and coarse) is low. It is poorly drained and
is mildly alkaline, deficient in phosphoric acid but rich in nitrogen.
11) Matkota Loam - High calcareous :
These are highly clcareous throughout the depths. The depth of
upper layer is 23 cms. colour is dark grey, brown and rich in organic
matter. The next layer is grey brown with comparatively contain less
organic matter. The coarse sand content is high. The organic carbon and
total nitrogen content are high but diminises in subsoil. Total phosphorus
is high but phosphoric acid is less, the soils are mildly alkaline.
Hi) Matkota Loam - Slightly calcareous :
The soil is poor in lime content due to its comparatively elevated
situation. Loam to silty loam in texture and grey brown in colour at
surface. The depth of this layer is 60 cms. with adequate quantity of
organic matter. The next layer is 80 cms deep with pale brown blue colour.
The texture of middle and the lower layer is loam and silty clay loam.
There are coarse sand particles. The nutrients status is poor. The soil is
mildly alkaline which contains low phosphoric acid.

58
iv) Matkota Loam - Non-calcareous
The texture is loam to sandy loam at surface. The colour of the
soil is greyish brown, darker in shade in lower layers. The intermediate
bottom layers are dark brown and yellowish brown. These are not good
soils for crops without irrigation, because the water retaining capacity is
poor. The plant nutrients is average, organic matter is slightly high in the
case with total nitrogen. The available phosphoric content are medium. The
texture of the soil is light.
v) Matkota sandy loam ;
This soil is dark brown to reddish brown in colour and the texture
is sandy loam to sandy. The whole profile is sandy in nature. It is not a
good soil. The percolation is excessive and therefore suffers from
droughty conditions. The soil has a very low water holding capacity. The
nutritional status of the soil is very poor. These soils have medium to high
contents of available phosphates. These soils are not fit for agricultural
crops.
2. B h a b a r Soils : These soils occur in the form of a narrow belt in the
foothill region of Garhwal Himalayas. These soils have developed under a
sub-humid and moist climate which becomes dry during summer months.
These soils are found in the form of small pebbles, coarse
gravels, detritus and mechanically transported from adjoining hills. The
texture of soil is gravelly fine, silly, and invariably calcareous in nature.
The soils are of dark grey to black colour and a moderately alkaline in
reaction. They are rich in plant nutrients but inspite of this, they fail to
59
support normal cultivation, especially due to the scarcity of moisture due
to rapid percolation and underground drainage. This excessive percolation
results from the presence of the boulder substratum below the surface,
which drains out all the water underground and which ultimately emerges
into the adjoining tarai tracts.
The soils supports only inferior crops of shorter maturity whose
water requirements are not high. Lighter dressing of fertilizers are better
manuring practices for these soils.
3. Grey Brown Forest Soil
These soils are found generally in sub-tropical regions between
610 to 915 metres. These soils, generally support deciduous forests.
These soils are rich in plant food because in this region both rainfall and
temperature are higher resulting in this vegetation growth. Decaying leaves
of the trees play an important role in soil formation of organic matter.
These soil supports a thick and dense vegetation which is not only
responsible for the comparatively high fertility but also prevents soils
from being washed away during torrential rain. In cultivated areas some
layers of the soils are washed away every years. Generally this is
compensated by a new soil formation. Madua (Ragi), paddy, wheat and
barley are the dominant crops of this soils groups, where pH value ranges
between 6.0 to 6.5. The main properties of different horizons of forest
soils are given below :

60
Horizon Depth Description

(cms)
A 0-10 Dark brown to brown, sandy loam, fine sub

angular blocky, fine roots abundant
A, 10-30 Yellowish red to redish yellow, clay loam, sub-

angular blocky, roots abundant
B 30-45 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay loam,

subangular blocky, thin clay skin, occasional
quartzite, gravels, slightly sticky but nonplastic
when wet, roots abundant.
B| 45-60 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay loam, thin

clay skin, coarse root abundant
B^ 60-90 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay moderates

to abundant.
B, 90-120 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, clay moderate

to abundant
C Below 120 Yellowish red to reddish yellow, gravelly clay,

subangular blocky, slightly sticky when wet.
4. Podzolic Soils : Podzolic soils are found in the cool temperate zone at
a height of 916 to 1830 metres. These are leached and acid soils with pH
value below 6 with low fertility. This type of soil is generally suitable for
coniferous forests, fruits and potato cultivation. The main properties of
different horizons of podzolic soils are given below.
Horizon Depths Description

(cms)
A 0-10 Black, sandy to clayey loam, rich in under

composed organic matter
Aj 10-30 Black, sandy to clayey loam, loose, rich in

humus, acidic
B 30-50 Black, though of a relatively higher shade,

sandy to clay loam,acidic
61
B, 50-70 Brownish black, sandy to clay loam, more

compact than the other horizons acidic.
B^ 70-90 Brownish, sandy loam, large pockets of

parental materials may be found in this
horizon, acidic
C Below 90 Brownish, parental rocks may be found in the

lower layers.
5. Mountain Medow Soils : This type is usually met near streams cool
and low lying shady places, due to very high ground water level, the soil
always remain moist and the organic matter is not completely decomposed
into humus. The morphology of typical soil type is given below.

(cms)
A 0-15 Darkgrey, granular with brown spots, sandy

loam, micaceous, more dark when wet
A, 15-35 Granular, dark grey, sandy loam, darker than A,

bluish and brown spots at dirty brown spots
round mica piece. This horizon contains mica
stores.
B+C 35-45 Yellowish micaceous, sandy soils, brownish

yellow when wet.
6. Skeletal soils : These shallow skeletal soils have their genesis over
sloping land of high plateaux and small valleys. They are formed from
variety of parent materials. This lithic and light textured soils are rich in
humus and have mobile form of sesquioxides. The other pecularity of these
soils is an altered "B" horizon. These soils are found in Uttarkashi,
Chamoli and Pithoragarh. These soils are suitable for wildlife, forestry and
grazing.
bZ
7. Red Sandy loam soils : This soil type is usually sandy in nature and
mostly found along slopes of the hills and ridges. It occurs at places which
receive maximum solar radiation and is dry due to their situation on slope.
The analysis and morphology of a typical red loam, soil profile is as
follows :

(cms)
A 0-15 Brownish grey, slightly organic loamy soil with

plenty of undecomposed orgnaic matter, darkens
slightly in colour, when wet
B 15-50 Loamy, reddish brown soil containing little

humus, deep red brown when wet
50-115 Loamy, sand, yellowish, brown soil, more yellow

when wet
C 115-150 Loamy, ash grey, micaceous, soil of hydrogenic

nature, more green when wet.
8. Snow and snow field : The perpetual snow fields are not actually soils,
but barren areas of the Himalayas, the present glacier zone in the
Himalayas lies approximately between 3350 metres and 7000 metres
above mean sea level and found in districts of Pithoragarh, Chamoli and
Uttarkashi.
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
The soils of Uttarakhand have very thin alluvium, as described
above and hence are highly susceptible to sheet erosion and gully erosion.
Landslides are common here due to heavy rainfall.
Kumaun is subjected to widespread and extensive soil erosion,
But the problem has not attracted much notice and adequate measures to
63
combat it are (acking. In the lower hills excessive erosion has led to
increased setting of the rivers and ruining the agriculture of the hill areas.
One major factor responsible for this state of affairs is the upsetting of
the balance of nature, especially removal of the forests and overgrazing,
where the natural vegetation has not been tempered with, there is little
erosion, but in areas where the vegetal cover has been removed and the
rainfalls occured on bare grounds,extensive erosion is caused. Similarly
the result of grazing and lopping is the disappearance of the forest and
pastures and wholesole erosion of the soil (Hamilton, 1953). These
methods play a three fold role in soil conservation namely.
a) by reducing and controlling the surface runoff.
b) by enabling the moisture to be retained in the soil for a longer period
c) by protecting the soil from erosion etc.
For the conservation of soil, crops production and following
slope is most important and have been suggested following indicator for
Uttarakhand (Roychaudhari).
1. The land with slope gradient not exceeding 15 feet per miles is fit
for agricultural purposes without any particular conservation
method.
2. The land with a slope gradient of 15 to 50 feet per mile is fit for
cultivation only after the applicaiton of some soil conservation
measures.
3. The land with a gradient between 50 to 100 feet per mile is not fit
for Agricultural purposes, but can be used as pastures with control

64
grazing. It can be used for agriculture only after very intensive soil
conservation measures have been taken.
4. The land with a gradient of over 200 feet per mile and above is only
fit for afforestation purposes.
5. Unclassified slopes, such as ravines etc. should remain permanently
under forests and never to be allowed to be grazed.
Natural Vegetation
Forest plays an important role in economy of our country. A
major part of the Uttarakhand is covered with forest (about more than 60
per cent area) and also constitute enormous wealths of the region. There
are four main factors which determine the broad features of vegetation of
the region.
i) Climate
ii) Soils
iii) Relief and
iv) Biotic factors
Geonomically, the natural vegetation of the region can be divided into
three broad groups (Mathur, 1980).
i) Broad leaves forests
ii) Coniferous forests
iii) Scrub and other similar flora
Hooker (1909) and Champian (1909) have presented a very
comprehensive material on the vegetation types of Himalayas for the first
time.
65
Champian and Seth (196S) have studied the complicated structure
of the region and divided the Himalayan region into six vegetation belt
according to height above sea level.
1. Upto 3000 feet - Tropical moist deciduous forest (Sal trees)
2. 3000-6000 feet - Sub-tropical pine trees (often upto 7500 ft
on the southern slope)
3. 6000-11,000 feet - Moist temperate: mainly conifers, some
oak trees
4. 6500-8000 feet - Dry temperate, often conifers, (mainly in
drier inner valleys)
5. 9500-11500 feet - Alpine: dense, small crooked trees, fern
and rhododendrons)
6. Above 11500 feet - Alpine, dry shrubs
Rautela (1963) classified the natural vegetation of Uttarakhand
into four types, according to climate and altitude of the region (Fig. 1.9) :
1. Sub-tropical forest zone (300-1200 meter)
2. Temperate forest zone (1200-1800 meter)
3. Sub-Alpine forest zone (1800-3000 meter)
4. The Alpine zone forest zone (3000-4500 meter)
1. Sub-tropical Forest Zone
This zone is characterized by greater rainfall (170 cm or more
annually) with fairly warm temperature. The climatic condition of this
zone make the soil rich with humus for the growth of vegetation. This zone
66
UTTARAKHAND
NATURAL VEGETATION
i' \
INDEX
SUB TROPICAL
TEMPERATE
SUB ALPINE
ALPINE
0 25 50
SNOW CAPEO AREA WITH GLACIER 1 I L
Kms
S o u r c e : Nafinal Atlas Maps ^Forest surveyof India
FIG.19
67
extending from north-west to south-east, almost covers the sub-Himalayan
tract of the region. It occurs upto height of 750 metres towards northern
slope and upto the height of 1200 metres towards the southern slope. Sal
(Shera robusta) is the most important species of this zone, it is found upto
the height of 11,525 metres, it attains a height of usually 25 metres and
sometimes 35 metres. These trees (sub-deciduous forest) shed their
leaves with the begining of dry season. Sal trees are of great commercial
value as they fulfill the needs of households purpose. Sal trees are quite
prominent along the coarse of rivers. Besides, sal, the other species are
also found in this zone are Haldu (Adina cordifolia), Dhuari (larger stromia
purviflora). Sain (Terminalia lomentosa) and Tun (Cedrelaloona), Bhyunal
is another important tree of this region which usually grows in the valleys
and lower hillslopes. Mango, pipal and Banyan trees of plains are also
found on the lower slopes of the hills. In the low and high rainfall region,
dry deciduous and moist deciduous trees appear. The floristic composition
in diy is "angle marmelos", dry bamboo break (Dindrocalmus strictus) and
in the moist forest is Kamja (Halentela integrifolia), Kuri (Nyelanth
esarbottrists), Semal (Samila malabasica), Amaltas and Dhundi.
2. Temperate Forest Zone
The temperate forests are found between sub-tropical and sub-
Alpine zone from 1500 metres to 1800 metres. The temperate forest
appears upto 1900 metres on the southern slopes and upto 1800 metres
towards the northern slopes (Osmaston, 1987). The dominant tree of this
zone is "chir" which is light green in colour and forms a open forests of
20-30 metres height. There are a few shrubs and undergrowth grass which
68
appear during the monsoon. The chir produces useful timber for furniture,
boxes, building and railways sleepers. Resin is extracted from these forest
from which tarpentine oil is obtained. The valleys of Gori and the Tons
rivers are full of chir trees. They are also found in the Yamuna, Bhagirathi,
and Alaknanda river valleys. Extensive forest appears around Ranikhet and
Almora.
3. Sub-Alpine Forest Zone :
This vegetation starts from 1800 metres and continues upto 3000
metres. The forest of this zone covers a considerable area of the region. It
can be divided into two parts
i) The lower sub-Alpine zone
ii) The higher sub-Alpine zone
The lower sub-Alpine zone is dominated by oak trees. There are
various varieties of oak trees are found in this zone such as Banj oak
(Quercus income), Maru oak (Quercus dilatala) and Bruns oak (Quercus
semicarpifolia) (Singh, 1993). Banoak is used for making agricultural
implements due to its hardened wood, it is also used as fuel.
In the higher Alpine zone, the varieties of trees differ according
to the elevations as follows
i) Silver fir (Albies pundrow)

ii) Blue pine (Pinies excelsa) 1900-3100 metres
iii) Sprunce (Picea morinda)
iv) Birch (Betula utilis) 2950-3600 metres
v) Cypress (Cupressus torulesa) 2000-3000 metres
vi) Deodar (Cedrus deodara) 2400-3050 metres

69
Cyprus is the most dominant trees found at the height of 2000 to
3000 metres. Its fine durable wood is commonly used in construction and
also as timber and railway sleeper (Spate, 1967). The tree attains a height
of 20 meters. Blue pine, silver fir, and spruce may be seen from the height
of 1900 metres to 3000 metres. Blue pine frequently grow in poor soil
and an steep slopes. Birch is found from 2950 metres to 3600 metres in
Bhagirathi valley.Its bark is used as substitute for paper.Some undergrowth
and Alpine herbs are also found, walnut and chestnut also grows in the
Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, and Pindar valleys. Thin Bamboo called Ningola are
found in the area specially around Almora, all types of conifers provide
huge quantity of wood for different puiposes.
4. The Alpine Forest Zone
The birch of higher sub-Alpine zone continues to grow in the
Alpine zone also. The vegetation makes the upper most unit of the tree
line i.e. 4200 metres and sometimes may be seen in small patches even on
higher elevation. Above this line, there exists temperate grassland upto the
snowline (4500 metres). The environmental aspects generally gives way to
shrubs in the northern part and grasses in the southern part. Alpine grasses
provide highly nutritive grazing grasses. Some medicinal and plenty of
Gaggl a scented shrub grow in Pindari and Nilkanth valleys. It is collected
to produce incense. There are a number of varieties of medicinal shrubs
available in higher Himalayas, which are get to be explored and put to use.
Mamiri a kind of root, is also collected in Uttarakhand, it is used in
making surma, an ash like material applied in the eyes. Ratan-Jyot another
shrub is collected in Yamunotri region. There is a large variety of flowers

70
in alpine meadows as in the valley of flowers. A good number of herbs
found in the region are getiana, prunula, saifraga, geranium and astern.
Palsatillum, aconitum are important medicinal plants.
Fauna and Flora
Wild animals are integral part of natural heritage, some of our
best known animals are threatened with extinction. Earlier the killing of
wild animal was regarded as a sports. Flora has usually associated
with fauna buthuman interference either directly or indirectly through
deforestation, hunting, recreation and development has caused a great
depletion of wild life, creating ecological imbalances on the whole.
Attempts have been made by the government to preserve and enrich the
various species by maintaining their natural habit. A number of parks and
sancturies have been established and maintained e.g. Kedamath sanctuary,
valley of Flowers National Park, Corbett National Park (extensive in area
and has a wide valley of fauna), Govind wildlife sanctuary, Nanda-Devi
National Park and Rajaji National Park (Singh, 1983). The representative
of these regions are Elephants, Tigers, Panthers, Slath bear. Swam deer,
Spotted deer, hogdeer, four horn antelope and many colourful birds. In the
Alpine zone, there are some rarest animal found in India, Manal Pheasant,
(one of the most beautiful bird) brown beer, snow leapard, musk deer, and
thar are rare animals, lake in Nainital district, the Ramganga and Kosi
rivers invite Mahasheer anglers.

71
References
1. Atkinson, E.T. (1973) : The Himalayan Gazetteer, Vol. II, Part 11 and
Vol. I, part 1, Delhi.
2. Auden, J.B. (1937) : The structure of the Himalaya in Garhwal, Rec.

Geological Survey India, 71(4), pp. 407-433.
3. Burrard, S.G. and Hayden, H.H. (1907): A sketch of the geography

and Geology of the Himalaya Moiwtains and Tibet, vol. 4, Calcutta,
pp. 85-87.
4. Rose, S.C. (1968) : "Source rivers of the Ganga" Mountains and

Rivers of India (21st International Geographical Congress), New
Delhi, pp. 362-369.
5. Cunningham, A. (1963) : The Ancient Geography, Indological Book

House varanasi, pp. 299-302.
6. Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth (1968) : A revised survey of forest

types of India, Govt, of India Press, Nasik.
7. Calder, James and J.D. Herbert (1981) : Geology of the Indian

Subcontinent, New Delhi, pp. 187-218.
8. Gansser, A. (1964) : Geology of the Himalayas, London, pp. 81-247.
9. Ghildyal, B.P. (1981) : Soils of the Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya,

in J.S. Lall and A.D. Moddie (eds). The Himalaya, India International
Centre, Delhi, pp. 120-137.
10. Hamilton, A.D.F. (1953) Siwalik Erosion "Himalayan Journal, Vol.

VII, P. 88.
11. Idem and H. Prasad (1980) : Drainage system of Uttar Pradesh, The
Journal of Scientific Research, B.H.U., Varanasi.
12. Kendrew, W.G. (1949) .• Climatology, London, P. 284.

72
13. Krishna, M.S. (1968): Geology of India and Burma Madras, pp.
24-25.
14. Kumar, G. Prakash and Singh, K.N. (1974) : Geology of the

Deoprayag area, Garhwal, Chamoli and Almora District, U.P.,
Himalayan Geology, vol. 4, pp. 323-447.
15. Kaushic, S.D. (1962) : "Climatic zones and their related socio-
economic in the Garhwal Himalaya", Geographical Review of India,
vol. 24, pp. 22-41.
16. Mishra, S.D. (1970) : Rivers of India, New Delhi, pp. 59-60.
17. Mason, K. (Lent colonel) (1936) : Rainfall and rainy days in

Himalayan, West of Nepal, Himalayan Journal, vol. 8, pp. 84-96.
18. Millar, E.G., Task, L.M. and Path, H.D. (1958) : Fundamental of soil
science. New York, pp. 141-45.
19. Mathm-, P. (1980) : Forest Resources of U.R Himalaya, Project
Dissertation, Kumaun University, Nainital.
20. Neville, H.R. (1922) : District Gazetter of Nainital, vol. 34,

Lucknow, pp. 8-9.
21. Negi, S.S. (1995) : Uttarakhand, Land and People, New Delhi, pp.
35-37.
22. Osmasten, A.E. (1927) : Forest flora of Kumaiw (Allahabad,

suprintendent. Govt. Press), p. 16.
23. O.H.K. Spate (1954): India and Pakistan, Methuen & Co., London.
24. Pande, B.D. (1937) : Kumaun Ka Itihas, Almora, Shakti, Press,

p. 221.
25. Painuli, P (1959) : The valley of God (Tehri), p. 11.

73
26. Pant, S.D. (1935) : The social economy of Himalaya, London, p. 73.
27. Report of the Irrigation Commission, Ministry of Irrigation and

Power, New Delhi, vol. 3 (part 1), pp. 60-180.
28. Raychaudhary, S.P. : Soils of India, p. 428.
29. Singh, R.L. (1965) : The Tarai region ofU.P. : A study in Human
Geography, Allahabad.
30. Singh, R.L. (1993) : India, A Regional Geography, NESl, Varanasi,

pp. 447-456.
31. Singer, O.P. (1983) : The Himalaya : Nature, Man and culture, pp.
1-78.
32. Shipton, E. (1937) : Survey work in the Nanda Devi Region,

Himalayan Journal, vol., 9, p. 75.
33. The Tehri forest working plan Dehradun (1950), Ch. II, Climate, pp.
21-24.
34. Wadia, D.N. (1966) : Geology of India, London, p. 10 & 363.
35. Walton, H.E. : District Gazetteer of Almora, vol. 35, p. 251.
36. Walten, H.G. (1910) : District Garhwal : A Gazetteer, Allahabad,

p. 28.
99
Agriculture has witnessed over all development in the world since
the begining of this century. Indian Agriculture has also undergone change
owing to the governmental efforts and scientific utilisation of land. The
government has setup commissions and committees for the promotion of
the welfare and prosperity of rural population in India e.g. the Famine
commissions and committee on co-operation of 1915 and Royal
commission on Agriculture in 1926. These commissions and committee
made many recommendations for the development of Agriculture in India.
After independence, the economists, geographers. Agriculture
planners and the government of India have all been concerned with
agriculture and its development. According to Khare (1987) due to certain
inbuilt constraints of a backward area development in certain parts could
not be spread to the rest of the area. The agriculture development should
be co-ordinated with dispersal process through a chain of agrobased
industries and it is through such a decentralized strategy that one can
achieve the balance regional development in the country. Shafi (1972) has
given a formula both to determine the productivity of a particular crop
with reference to yield per hectare and the area of that crop in the districts
in relations to the national level. Tara Shukla (1969) pointed out certain
problems of growth of traditional agriculture, stages of increasing
agricultural production, spread of new technology and bases of
technological research.
According to Shafi (1981), The optimum use of land for
production depends on to a large extent on the level of technology and the
system of farming. In his opinion there are two ways for increasing food
75
production :
a) increasing the area under cultivation
b) increasing the output per head.
He also points out that one of the major hinderance in the optimal
use of the land lies in the land tenure system. Noor Mohammad (1981) has
emphasized that the use of modern technology for bringing about a change
in Agricultural output. He pointed out that the technological factors such
as fertilizers, improved seeds,pesticides and new farm implements are
capable of increasing the Agricultural productivity. According to Commen
(1966) the term technological change means all kinds of innovations and
inventions which are aimed at increasing the efficiency of agricultural
productivity, Bhalla (1977) has concluded that the variations in the
agricultural productivity is introduced mainly by the nature of various
inputs of technology.
In view of Kanwar (1969) for maximum output from land, it is
required to bring more land under inigation, fertilizers, High yielding
varieties of seeds and better organic technology.
According to S. Thirumalai (1954) the developoment programme
based on technology are related to the conservation of soil resources,
expansion of irrigation facilities, intensive farming through the application
of modern techniques, manures, fertilizers and HYV of seeds.
According to Pal (1968) the imgation alone can not increase the
required agricultural production, it is other inputs also used with adequates
water supply which can increase the agricultural production.

76
The immediate out come of the green revolution was in the form
of increased Agricultural production, but in view of Arshad(1986) it has
failed to make any appreciable differences in the overall rate of
agricultural growth. According to him, the introduction of high yielding
varieties of seeds along with new technology and fertilizers alone can not
balance agricultural production. An all round production and growth in all
the crops in all the regions is the only solutions.
Sharma (1976) has suggested that the development of Agriculture
should be assessed not only by productivity levels but also with reference
to inputs such as fertilizers improved varieties of seeds and irrigation.
The policies of increasing the fertilizer use as suggested by
Desai (1986) should be based upon a strategy which aims at both rapidly
converting the untapped potential in to actual use and contineuously raising
the economic potential of fertilizer use through upward shifts in response
functions. It has been seen that fertilizer diffusion has been most rapid on
crops and varieties which respond to fertilizer use dramatically, even
though they did not have best price environment.
According to the Jaine Quizon (1985) fertilizer is the crucial
input in raising the agricultural productivity, it is because of its importance
that the government intervention in the fertilizers market to encourage its
more widespread production and use has been a common phenomenon. As
the availability of fertiliser is limited. Arora and and Sharma (1981) have
proposed to increase under pulses or other non-fertilizers using crops
whereas HYV of wheat and Paddy may be raised under irrigated conditions.
77
Jain (1970) concludes that Agriculture is now paying well on account of
the availability of a wide array of HYV of seeds and hybrid seeds. If
institutional finances are made available to the farmers, they can purchase
all these costly inputs and agricultural productivity can be increased. Rege
(1969) pointed out the relationship between soil, water and plant and
suggested use of irrigation to get assured crop especially during drought.
It is now widely recognised that in plans for agricultural regeneration in
India, irrigation has to play a catalyst role. Bhatia (1984) feels that the use
of the fertilizers and HYV of seeds requires assured water supply of the
farmers.
Roy (1979) suggested that the irrigation development and
improved water management are crucial to India's agricultural
development. The supply of land being inelastic accelerated growth in
production is possible only through increased multiple cropping and
relisation of higher crop yields per unit area, both of which are heavily
dependent on irrigation.
Vasant (1987) suggests that efficient management of the
developed water resources and supply and application of all other inputs
needed for irrigated agriculture can produce sufficient foodgrain for the
over increasing population of India.
Barter (1957) state that the agricultural implements and
Machinery can raise the agricultural production and it was therefore
suggested that machinery and implements should be introduced in areas
where they are not used.

78
The Food and Agriculture organisation has published two reports
in 1953 and 1955. The report published that the machinery is more cheaper
than labour. The second report published in 1955 gives an idea of progress
in technology for agriculture. Another report published in 1968 deals with
the problem of raising agricultural production by applying modern
technology. Jain (1966) also concluded that mechanization is highly
responsible for raising the agricultural productivity, Mathur (1969) has
revealed in relation to pest studies that the use of HYV of seeds and seed
treatment with organomercury compound is an important step towards the
control of a number of seed-born diseases.
According to Singh (1984) increasing the agricultural production
is a must and their protection from pests is as important as use of
irrigation, HYV of seeds and fertilizers. He has suggested that the farmers
need to be educated about judicious use of fertilizer otherwise boon can
turn in to bane.
According to Khanna and Mittal (1970) there are about 85
species of insect pests reducing the yield of rice in Uttar Pradesh. In a
recent study made in U.P. the key question was raised as to how the
increase in Agriculture productivity, is dependent on variable like
irrigation by canal, tubewell and from other sources, HYV of seeds,
fertilizers per thousand hectares and tractor per thousand hectares. Shafi
(1981) pointed out that for optimum utilization of land resources, the
programme of land reform, consolidation of fragmented holdings,
irrigation and drainage should be integerated and executed in proper
sequence.
79
According to Raza (1968) the output of food per head can be
raised out by increasing the yield or productivity per acre. This can be
achieved through carrying out necessary land reforms. He pointed out that
there are strong reasons to support the view that there has been some
casual link between the land reform and Agricultural productivity. Singh
and Mishra (1964) after making a survey of land reform in Uttar Pradesh,
suggested certain changes for increasing the area under cultivation
including current fallow by more than eight percent.
According to Jather and Beri (1949) the most important feature
of backwardness of Indian Agriculture is the endless subdivisions and
fragmentation of holdings. In the-light of their occurences the author have
suggested remedial measures to control this problem. Report of National
Commission on Agriculture (1976) pointed out that one of the major
causes of low agricultural productivity in India is the fragmentation of
holdings. It suggests, the consolidation of holding as the only answer to
improve the agricultural structures.
According to Thirumalai (1954) agricultural credit is the pivotal
problem in the scheme of agricultural development in India. Credit is the
motive power for setting on its wheel the productivity machinery in
agriculture conceived and planned on scientific basis.
According to Goud (1987) the strategy of agricultural
development is the extending for proper financial assistance to the farmers
so as to improve them from clutches of money tenders and for rapid
agricultural development. He reveals that there should be a separate agency

80
to finance the farmers at village level. He also state that primary
agricultural co-operative credit societies play an immense role in
transformation of the traditional agriculture into a modern one.
Chawdhari (1970) pointed out that in India, the first
comprehensive analysis of the whole problem of Agricultural credit was
made by the Committee of Director of All India Rural credit survey
appointed by the RBI in August 1951, its report suggested three important
ingredients
a) the Governments concern must assume major responsibility for
provision of funds.
b) the realisation of the intimate relationship between the Agricultural
credit and marketing of agricultural credit and marketing of agricultural
produce.
c) the agricultural credit based on the productive capacity of the borrower
is feasible and ought to replace credit based on the security of immovable
property.
Kumarswamy (1969) pointed out that a study published by Union
Ministry of Co-operatives and Panchayati Raj shows the importance of
cooperative in the development of Agriculture providing loans and other
important inputs. Cooperatives ensure the full share of all the farming
community through balanced growth of production.
According to the Nath (1970) that the development of
cooperatives and expansion of infrastructure will help in the development

81
of Indian Agriculture. Agricultural development throughout the world is
strongly motivated by the incentive of the farmers, which may take the
form of pride and ownership, security of occupancy and expectation of a
just division of farm income between landlords and tenants. These factors
eveiy where have the impact in improving the conditions of land.
Agricultural development is unquestionably a multi-dimensional
concept, of which crop production, crop-diversification and commercia-
lization of agriculture are the main components. Agricultural development
in a particular region means by and large, an improvement of land
productivity with the application of higher degree of modern inputs. In
most areas, this implies provision of inputs to farmers to enable them to
increase the yield productivity as such does not merely means the quantity
of production but includes in its perview, the variety and the quality of the
produce. Igbozurike (1971) pointed out that the variety of agricultural
produce can be noted from the crop diversification index. Diversification
of cropping as an element of agricultural development is being supported
not on economic grounds but on consideration of self-reliance in
agricultural production and maintenance of soil fertility.
Diversification of Agriculture must be constructed as the second
vital aspect of Agricultural development. It stands for promotion of
dairying, cattle-rearing, pig raising, bee-keeping and fishing.
These activities not only significantly contribute to the basket of
agricultural products but also generate additional employment for the
surplus agricultural population, especially in crowded agricultural

82
countries like India. Commercialization of agriculture is still another
dimension of agricultural development.
Hutner (1969) concluded that the degree to which market forces
have penetrated an area and the scale upon which they operate will be the
crucial factors in almost every question of Agricultural development. The
percentage of cropped area under cash crops may be used as a parameter
of commercialization of agriculture. The density of market centres per
1000 sq.km of area can also provide a clue to the degree of
commercialization of agriculture.
Davey (1975) pointed out that the development of agriculture is
also to be judged from the degree of equity in farm incomes and the nature
of agrarian relations. The test of any development is the extent to which it
delivers social justice. The unequal distribution of land ownership and
economic power makes it possible and profitable for the landowner to
combine various modes of exploitation of the rural poor. Frankel (1971)
concluded that one of the conspicuous weaknesses of the Green
Revolution was that it widened the disparities in farm income. An
endeavour of agricultural development however should not produce
deteriotation in ecological conditions. It should not lead to defacement of
forests, exhaustion of soil nutrients, depletion of underground water and
emergence of water logging conditions. Conseration of physical
resourcfes is an integral part of any agricultural development. A review of
geographical literature reveals that in India very few attempts have been
made to define agricultural development and to select criteria in the light

83
of any conceptual framework. Rarely a distinction is made between the
elements of agricultural development and the factors in agricultural
development. Among all the studies the dominating focus is only on
productivity dimension.
A composite index of Agricultural development based on three
factors :
i) Growth rate of Agricultural output
ii) Use of modern inputs in Agriculture and
iii) The producticity per hectare. It was put forth by Nath (1962) to
compare the level of agricultural development in various states of
India.
Sharma (1971) pointed out that Agricultural development should
be assessed not only by the levels of productivity or trends in agricultural
productionn but also with reference to various physical inputs like
irrigation, fertilizers, improved seeds and extent of cultivated area."
Alam (1974), using data for individual tehsils in his study of
disparities in development in the Andhra Pradesh, employed six indicator
for the agricultural sector. Two of these related to productivity
(agricultural output per agricultural worker per acre) and four to factors in
agricultural development (percentage of gross irrigated,canal irrigated, and
double cropped area).
Raza (1978) after analysing 41 indicators of agricultural
development, grouped into four subsets of productivity, production
conditions agrarian relations, and change in agriculture. Productivity was

64
measured in terms of output per hectare, per worker, per tractor, per
tubewell, and per unit of fetilizers.
Mohammad A. (1979) pointed out that the stages of development
of Agriculture can be measured by two factors of labours and land
productivity. It is well accepted fact that the higher the stage of
development of Agriculture, the greater is the land and labour productivity.
Since agricultural development depends on Agro-technological
determinants like irrigation, fertilizers, high yielding varieties of seeds
and agricultural mechanization, it together form a developed kind of
agricultural landscape and provide a frame of parameter to measure the
level of agricultural development of a region. For agricultural
development, the process of diffusion of agricultural innovations must be
accelerated and the new farm technology should be made available to the
cultivators so that they understand it easily. A speedy and extensive change
could only be brought about bringing technological change and adoption of
innovation and by fonnulating labour intensive oriented scheme in various
sector.
Krishna (1992) pointed out in this paper, that agricultural
development, in true sense, denote the quality of agricultural system of a
region in terms of productivity, diversification and commercialization
consistent with desired state of Agrarian relation and ecological balance.
According to Thakur (1992), after independnce, particularly
during the last two decades, there considerable change in almost all the
parameters of agriculture in India, due to the variation in physical and

85
socio-economic conditions, these changes in agriculture are not uniform
all over the country either spatially or temporally.
According to M.R. Khurrana (1992) the differences in the levels
of Agricultural development in a particular districts are largely in terms of
differences in irrigaiton facilities, rural electrification, use of chemical
fertilizers, adoption of HYV of seeds and so on.
Gangwar (1997) pointed out that since, the mid 1960's there have
been rapid increase in agricultural production in India as a result of
diffusion of package of improved cultural practices involving high yielding
varieties of seeds use of fertilizer irrigation, application of pesticides and
farm mechanization.
Swaminathan (1999) concluded that before the mid sixties,
increase in foodgrain output in the country was attributed mostly to the
growth of the cultivated area and the extension of irrigation, since, then,
the new farming system symbolized by HYV of seeds, use of agro-
chemical qîd mechanization had the powerful impact on the food sector of
the countiy. ^
Technological Factors
Technological factors are an important parameters which
modified the structure of Agricultural production process. The term
technological change defined as all kind of inventions and innovations
aimed at increasing the efficiency of agricultural production, it is a key to
rapid growth of Indian agriculture which requires to continuous economic
adjustment of farm organisation to adopt technological improvements on a
beneficial basis (Commen, 1966).

86
The suitable combination of various technological factors i.e.
mode of irrigation, use of chemical fertilizers, high-yielding varieties of
seeds, modern agricultural implements and machinery and enormous
improved farming technology are liable to increase agricultural
productivity and yield. In recent past the technological factors have played
a significant role not only in overcoming various environmental constraints
on agriculture, but also in bringing up yield level and promote the
development of agriculture. "A different types of method have been
evolved to increase productivity by using fertilizers and better techniques
of using the soil fertility and the control of pests and diseases through the
development and manufacture of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides. In
short, the speedy and extensive development of agriculture more or less
depends on technological change and spatial diffusion of agricultural
innovations, increase in the cultivated area and double cropped area are
often due to technological improvements" (Mohammad.Noor, 1981).
The farmers uses mechanical power and machinery either to
increase food production or to maintain a given volume of production at a
smaller cost. Power and equipments costs today represents an important
and increasing proportion of total farm costs differ from farm to farm. "It
is important to note that the farmers have such knowledge of power and
machinery as enable to - i) choose the equipment well suited to their
needs, ii) understand the working principles of the machines so that they
may be kept in good conditions, iii) understand the application of the
equipments in order that it may be operated efficiently (Robinson, 1972).
The present supply of agricultural implements is quite insufficient to meet

87
the existing demands. This serious gap in the agricultural programmes
undertaken during the plan period has been in the field of improved
agricultural implements (Jain, 1966).
Fertilizers
Application of fertilizers input is recognised as one of the
quickest ways in boosting agricultural production, the provision of
fertilizers at reasonable costs and at all the suitable time is an essential
requirements for the development of agriculture (Champa, 1976).
Fertilizers are usually regarded as the alternatives for animal
manures but that is not true. Animal manures improves soil conditions and
supply nutrients to the plants and its effect remain for long time. Animal
excreta and green manure contribute directly to the soil matter. Fertilizer
do so indirectly by increasing the quantity of crop residues available for
incorporation into the ploughed lands (Ignotieff, 1976).
Nitrogen,phosphorus and potash are required by the plant in large
are known as primary nutrients. While calcium, magnesium and sulphur are
secondary nutrients. The requirements of these nutrients are generally
supposed by the use of common NPK fertilizers. Lack of nitrogen results
in poor growth of plant and a uniform yellowing of the leaves. Indian soils
are deficient mainly in nitrogen. The sources from which the required
nitrogen can be used are farmyard manures like cowdung and vegetables
refuse, elements of nitrogen can be applied through the nitrogen fixation
process (Durray, 1986). Deficiency of potash is usually associated with a
purple leaf colour, particularly at the edges but in certain crops such as
88
cotton and tobacco, the leaves became dark green. The effect of potash on
sugarcane differ with soil and rainfall. The sugar content of the cane is
increased by the use of potash. Thus an important process towards
increasing the agricultural efficiency is to ensure the appropriate use of
fertilizers and this can be done not only by just going alongwith the
general recommendation. Infact fertilizers and manures constitute a
crucial input in agricultural production (Thirumalai, 1954).
During the last 25 years or so the importance of fertilizers in
India has grown phenomenally. The total annual consumption increased by
over 40 times. "What underscores the importance of fertilizers at this
stage, however, is the increasing dependence of growth in agricultural
production on frtilizers due to limited scope for extensive cultivation.
Clearly fertilizers is important in any strategy of intensive cultivation of
land because yield depends on soil fertility (Desai, 1979). Singh and
others (1970) have emphasized the role of fertilizers as "the use of
fertilizers, apart from irrigation, is regarded as one of the fastest way of
increasing productivity of crops".
High Yielding Varieties of Seeds
As we know that India is a labour abundant country and therefore
labour using input should be preferred. High-yielding varieties of seeds
are capable to increasing production, and planners also realize that
production of quality seed will continue to be an important inputs for crop
production strategy (Five year plan, 1978-83). Improved varieties of seeds
is an essential ingredients on the recent green revolution and rightly

89
named as miracle seed (Sadhu & Mahajan, 1985). The importance of better
seed can be judge from the statement of H.B. Sprague (1958) that if the
U.S. we suddenly to revert to older strains and varieties, we would be
plunged into a famine a food shortage of calossal proportion (Salamon &
Hanson, 1964). In 1960-61, a package project in seven intensive Area
development Programme (lADP) districts were experimented. These areas
were such which had an assured supply of irrigation and were free from
natural hazards. The project decided to introduce HYV with recommended
dose of chemical fertilizers. The lADP districts showed 25.53 per cent
high yield than non-IADP. In some case it was 50 per cent agricultural area
under HYV seeds is in great increasing. A considerable amount of increase
in area under HYV seeds of wheat, paddy, maize, jowar and bajra have been
reported every year. The highest area under wheat and the lowest area
under jowar. For most traditional varieties of wheat and rice, fertilizer
responses fall at about 40 to 50 Kg of nitrogen per hectare. In India
recommended fertilizer doses for the Mexican wheat are 80 to 120 kg
nitrogen, 40 to 60 kg P p , and about 40 kg K p per hectare (F.A.O. UN,
1969).
The success of high yielding programme has modernise
agriculture and brought about rapid increase in the food grain production
(India Annual, 1981). So the application of the package of inputs of HYV
and recommended doses of fertilizers have resulted in increase in yield
per hectare (Dutt, 1986).
As a result of the introduction of HYV, rice production is also
increasing at a faster rate in the wheat growing states, like Punjab, haryana
90
and western Uttar Pradesh. The new maxican varieties like Lerma-Rajo,
Sonara-64, Kalyan and PV-18 became so popular that the government was
unable to meet the demand of farmers for better seeds and it also could
not supply adequate quantities of fertilizers against the rapidly rising
demands.
The introduction of genetic science has revealed possibilities of
increasing yield of crops, through new varieties, sometimes based on
hybrid seeds (Thirumalai, 1954).
Irrigation
In India farmers are most dependent on rainfall for the supply of
water to their fields but monsoons are highly uncertain and irregular. In
any particular years, the rains may not arrive at all or it may come in
torrential form. Again the monsoon may start too early or too late. All this
upsets agricultural works, resulting in partial or complete failure of crops.
Therefore irrigation can afford security against the vagaries of monsoon
(Agarwal, 1953). Due to inadequate rainfall, farmers could cultivate only
one crop without irrigation in the limited period. Therefore irrigation
development and improved water management are crucial to India's
agricultural development. The accelerated growth in production is possible
only through increased multiple cropping and realisation of higher crop
yields per unit area, both of which are heaivly dependent on irrigation
(Roy, 1979). In monsoon lands where the rainfall and its distribution
shows wide fluctuations, irrigation facilities are must for achieving
assured and high level of agricultural production (Batra, 1978). In areas
where the rainfall is plentiful and well distributed over the year, there is
91
no problem of water,but rainfall is very scanty in certain areas as well as
uncertain. In these areas, artificial inigation is essential (Dutt & Sundram,
1971). It is fact that the agricultural development lies in the extension of
irrigation. The main sources of irrigation in India are canals, perenial
rivers, tubewells, and other sources like Tanks, ponds and wells. For
getting the maximum benefits from irrigation, a planned system of
irrigaiton has taken into account :
a) the supply of required water to the crops in season, b) the
damage and disposal of excess water, c) Prevention of flood damages, d)
Conservation of soils, e) Conservation of water for dry period, f) the
prevention of erosion by natural agencies.
The command area development programme was introduced
during fifth plan. The programme highlight development of irrigation
system by the construction of field channels, land levelling and
landshaping, introduction of rotational water supply system and irrigated
crop soil water management practices. "A number of analytical studies
have proved that India can increase its agricultural production to a large
extent. If adequate and assured irrigation facilities are available
(Mohammad, Noor, 1981).
Mechanization
The term mechanization is used to cover any means of
mechanisation from the most simple to the most complicated, for carrying
out agricultural operations from the first preparation of the land to the
final preparation of the harvested products. The means of mechanisation

92
can be - i) simple land tools or land operated machines, ii) animal drawn
tools and iii) moterised equipments, either with tractors or with static or
carried engines, including those engines used for crop protection and
irrigation etc.
The term mechanisation implies the introduction of tools,
implements and machines which replace human and animal labour.
Mechanization is a most important system that can revolutionise Indian
agriculture. The electric power and diesel power play significant role in
the mechanization and rationalization of farm operations. The electric
pumps and oil engines pumpsets are widely used for lifting water for
irrigation purposes. Besides, power is used for spraying of plant pesticides
and for harvesting, threshing of crops and crushing of sugarcane also. The
use of machinery depends on certain prerequisites of which size of fields
occupies prominent position. Most of the farm implements and machines
are used beneficially in large size fields but their efficiency suffers if the
plots are small. Indian agriculture is characterized by small size of land
holding which stand in the way of mechanization. Therefore the Govt, as
well as researchers has suggested that use of mechanized tools as first
step towards the development of agriculture sectors. Mechanisation of
agriculture will help in developing the economy upto marks (Agrawal,
1953).
Modern agriculture machines are very powerful tools which can
bring great benefit by appropriate and timely use. Mechanization has
increased the yield of crops, in case of timely preparation of the ground
seeding, cultivaiton and harvesting (SalmOn & Hanson, 1964).

93
Insecticides and Pesticidcs
Crop insects, pests and its diseases produce a hinderance in the
way of agricultural production, fanners are always conscious everywhere,
crops and the corpping pattern and the variable climate conditions place an
ideal environment for the generation and thriving of insects, pests and
weeds. Therefore there is a continuous activity of pests, diseases and
weeds throughout the year posing a threat to our agriculture (Reddy,
1980). The analysis of various pesticides is done by several institutes i.e.,
Mysore and the Indian Agriculture Research Institute New Delhi. Different
types of pesticides, insecticides, nematicides and other chemicals are used
in agriculture, D.D.T. has improved the economic, social and health status
of developing country.
The task of increasing food production has many problems, one
of the most important is the control of pests, weeds and insects (Rao,
1971). It has been estimated that the average annually loses due to weeds
in crop land is greater than due to animals and plants diseases. The
seasonal weeds with broad leaves are the most effective in shading the
corps and decreasing the yields.The only way to reduce loses in production
by weeds is its control by practising clear cultivation. There are various
controlling measures used for insects, diseases, pests and weeds for
preventing their damages and reduction in yield i.e. Mechanical, physical,
chemical, cultural and biological, cultural practices such as crop rotation,
mixed cropping, date of sowing, depth of sowing and field sanitation
through removal of diseased debris and weeds play a most important part
in the control of plant diseases. The use of chemical for controlling the
94
diseases and pests are widespread in the world today, it is the only best
way to achieve the quick results, it is used in different forms such as dusts
and sprays. The use of pesticides therefore should increase together with
the use of modern technology for proper agricultural development.
Institutional Factors
Institutional factors play an important role in the development of
agriculture. The institutional factors include land consolidation, credit
supply, co-operative society and size of land holdings. All these factors
play a veiy significant role in the development of agriculture.
Land Consolidation
Agriculture is the most important and basic occupation of the
Indians. The term land consolidation has been implies as an amalgamation
and redistribution of all or any isolated and scattered units of individual
plot into one consolidated compact field (Government of India, 1972). As
we know division and subdivisions of holding result in the inefficient and
unprofitable farming. By means of consolidation, all the scattered plot, of
an individual farmers are consolidated in a compact are of larger size,
which is equivalent to the area of all the scattered plots put together. Once
all the agricultural plots of a farmer become compact or consolidated, it
becomes easy to make use of the modern techniques for agricultural
operations. On his consolidated fields, the farmers can erect tubewell and
can use newly developed techniques of Agriculture viz. HYV of seeds,
fertilizers, pesticides and tractors etc. Moreover he can take care his
consolidated farm in a much efficient manner. Thus we can conclude that

95
the consolidation of holdings has a direct impact on the productivity of
agriculture and in this way Indian agriculture has been developed in a right
direction.
C r e d i t Supply
Credit is an essential for agriculture as for trade and industries.
The farmers require for purchasing seeds, fertilizers and agricultural
implements and machinery. Therefore we can say that credit supply is the
backbone of Indian agriculture. In agriculture, one of the main hinderance
is the smaller income of the farmers. Generally there were five agencies
which provide agricultural credit in the country such as
1. Indigenous money landless including even the zamindars and tenants.
2. Co-operative societies including credit societies, large land
morgage bank and marketing societies.
3. Bankers
4. State managed and controlled credit agencies including the R.B.I.
5. The state
For the agricultural development in general and adoption of
agricultural innovations in particular, substantial amount of capital is
required, but the Indian farmers are so poor that they can not afford it
properly. They take money at a very high rate of compound interests from
various sources like middle man, money lenders and commission agent for
their daily life. They exploit the poor farmers to the maximum extent. The
result is that the farmers hardly get rid of the debt of these agencies, it is
96
very rightly state that Indian farmers by and large are bom in debt, grow up
in debt and die in debt. For the development of agriculture, the government
and other vairous institution are trying to help them by providing credit
facilities at a lower rate of interest. If these facilities are available to the
farmers they could grow double or even triple crops in a field within a
year. As a matter of fact, availability of adequate and timely credit
facilities promote fast development of agriculture.
Co-operative Society
It plays a very important role in the development of agriculture.
The co-operative society in India so far have been able to provide long
term, short term and medium term loans to such farmers who are only the
members of the co-operative. They are regarded as best agencies to
provide productive loans to the farmers. The chief merit of co-operative
finance is that it provide urgent and immediate financial help to the
farmers.
The problem of agricultural marketing i.e. the pattern of the
selling the agricultural produce are primitive and very defective. Now the
co-operatives are the best remedies with respect to agricultural marketing.
Cooperative society is the best medium for a progressive in and developed
agriculture. Major items of agricultural inputs are provided by co-
operatives society. The supply and distribution of chemical fertilizers,
HYV of seeds, implements and machinery,irrigation facilities, pesticides
and spraying have also done by this society.

97
Land Holdings
It is a very crucial factors in the development of agriculture. It is
marked as a problematic factor of Indian agriculture, because large number
of holdings are declared as uneconomic. During the British rule in our
country, the condition of farmers and scope of agricultural development
was veiy unsatisfactory. This was because the evils of institutional factors
had reached to their maximum. In the pre-independence period, the story
of agriculture was a story of feudalism. In that system of agriculture a
very large proportion of agricultural produce had to go into the pockets of
landlords and the farmers could get a very small share from it, therefore
their interest towards the farming ultimately decline. Size of land holding
is another institutional factor and it is most important to measure socio-
economic status. In the study area the size of land holding is generally
marginal as well as small, a large number of farmers have the average size
of holdings from <1 to 4 hectare. According to one group of scholars
there is a positive and high co-relationship between the size of holding and
adoption of agricultural innovation. The argument proposed by these
scholars is that, many innovations such as tractors, harvesters, threshers,
sprayers, power tractors and other agricultural machinery can be used
economically only in contiguous and large strip of land, it is therefore
assumed that larger the size of holdings, higher is the use of agricultural
innovations and higher is the agricultural productivity. Further if the size
of holding is large, mechanical power can be easily used on this holding at
cheaper rate with a great productivity.

98
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C h a p t e r ' 3
T R E N D S OF AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
104
Uttarakhand region was a mountaineous area of Uttar Pradesh,
here there agriculture and allied occupation are the main sources of
income for bulk of the population of Uttarakhand. It not only provides food
to 5.926 million (1991) but also supplies raw material to numerous agro-
based industries. In the rural areas of the interior hills upto 90 per cent of
the people are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture. As a whole
over 80 per cent of the population is involved in agriculture in the rural
areas.
Land Use Pattern
Landuse is an important aspect of geographical studies and the
progress of an area can be measured to a certain extent by the way in which
its land is used and maintained (Rao, 1986). The landuse pattern is
determined by various inter-related factors like the environmental, socio-
economic, and also the scientific management of the land itself. Table 3.1
shows the area under different categories of landuse as percentage to total
reported area for four period of time viz. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and
1994-95*. The percentage of area under forest is very high, which means
small percentage of land available for cultivation. The area covered by
forest is 64.0 per cent in 1994-95,while it was 64.57 per cent of the total
*The author has selected four periods at five years interval viz., 1979-80, 1984-
85, 1989-90 and 1994-95, to study changes in landuse pattern, cropping intensity
and growth rate in area, production and yield of major foodcrops. The base year
has been selected to know the conditions prevailing after the onset of Intensive
Agricultural Area Programme which started in 1964-65 and green revolution of
1966-67. The period under review shall therefore reveal the success or failure of
lAAP and the impact of green revolution in the study area. Due to non-availability
of the data for the study region during 2000-2001, the study has been concluded
during the year 1994-95.
105
Table 3.1
Landuse Pattern in Uttarakhand
(Area in hectares)
Crop/year 1979-80 1984-85 1989-90 1994-95
Reported Area 5323230 5418108 5372625 5369589

Forest 3437056 3437405 3240767 3435513
(64.57) (63.44) (60.31) (63.98)
Usar & not 289356 298832 284628 290644
suitable for (5.43) (5.51) (5.30) (5.41)
cultivation
Area under other 118817 123760 131035 135076
uses excluding (2.23) (2.28) (2.44) (2.51)
cultivation
Culturable waste 315726 318832 301781 312158
(5.93) (5.88) (5.62) (5.81)
Permanent pastures 217198 272263 211584 218998
& other grazing (4.08) (5.02) (3.94) (4.07)
Land
Area under 185772 207803 204892 214059
miscellaneous trees (3.49) (3.84) (3.81) (3.98)
Curren fallow 21195 12011 7538 7918
(0.40) (0.22) (0.14) (0.15)
Other fallow 31516 44255 60553 62968
(0.60) (0.81) (1.12) (1.17)
Net sown area 706594 702975 731846 692255
(13.27) (12.07) (13.62) (12.89)
Area sown more 431103 389138 456552 449379
than once (9.00) (7.18) (8.50) (8.36)
Gross cropped 1137697 1152413 1107398 1141634
area (21.37) (21.27) (20.61) (21.26)
Figures given within the brackets shows percentage from the reported area of the
whole region
Source : Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurances
(1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95) Krishi Bhavan, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh
106
area in 1979-80. The usar and uncultivable area is remain constant from
5.43 per cent in 1979-80to 5.41 per cent in 1994-95, while area under
other uses is merely increased from 2.23 per cent in 1979-80 to 2.51 per
cent in 1994-95.
The percentage share of area under miscellaneous trees, crops
slightly increased from 3.49 per cent to 3.98 percent, while the area under
permanent pastures and other grazing land, minor increased from 4.08 per
cent in 1979-80 to 4.77 per cent in 1994-95. The percentage share of
culturable waste land registered negligible, but negative change from 5.93
per cent in 1979-80 to 5.81 per cent in 1994-95.The current fellow has
also undergone change from 0.40 per cent in 1979-80 to 0.15 per cent in
1994-95 but other fallow land is increased from 0.60 per cent in 1979-80
to 1.17 per cent in 1994-95. It is evident that difficult terrain indicates
the fluctuation in the area available for cultivation. It has been observed
that net sown area slightly decreased from 13.27 per cent in 1979-80 to
12.29 per cent in 1994-95. The decrease in net cultivated area is due to
construction of new settlements and roads in the region. The multiple
cropping area or double cropped area (area sown more than once) has also
beeb decreased from 9.0 per cent in 1979-80 to 8.36 per cent in 1994-95.
Consequently the total gross cropped area has been merely declined from
21.37 per cent in 1979-80 to 21.26 per cent in 1994-95 (Fig. 3.1). There
are numerous streams, 'Gad' gadhera in the region but very little use of
them is made for irrigation because of rugged topography, difficult
undulating landform features and high cost of lift irrigation scheme.

107
UTTARAKHAND
LANDUSE PATTERN
1979-80 1984-85
1989-90
1994-95
B Forest B Usar & not suitable for cultivation

S Area under othenises exd cultivation • Culturable waste
B Permanent pastures & other grazing land OArea under misci Trees
B Current fallow • Other fallow
m Net sown area g Area sown more than once
Fig. 3,.l
108
District-wise Distribution of Landuse Pattern
District-wise distribution of different categories of landuse area
has been analysed over two period i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95. It may be
seen from Table 3.2 that in 1979-80 Nainital district had the largest
netsown area being 29.63 per cent of the total reported area of the district,
followed by Dehradun (17.64 per cent), Almora (15.60 per cent), Pauri-
Garhwal (14.50 per cent), Tehri Garhwal (12.74 per cent), Pithoragarh
(12.11 per cent), Chamoli (5.22 per cent) and Uttarkashi (3.93 per cent).
The area sown more than once in all the district varied from 1.95 per cent
to 18.81 per cent. About 77.75 per cent of the netsown area was double
cropped in the district Pithoragarh, but the Uttarkashi has the least area
(1.95 per cent) under double cropped in the region. Chamoli district
discourage following, with the result that only 0.13 per cent of the area
was left uncultivated during this period, there was little scope for further
extension in cultivated area through waste land reclamation, as in all the
district, the culturable waste was below 11.00 per cent of the total area.
Uttarkashi and Chamoli had below 3 per cent of their total area, available
for reclamation.
Table 3.3 shows that during 1994-95, the percentage of netsown
area however decline. In Nainital the net sown area declined to 28.35 per
cent, while the other districtacquiring netsown area, namely Dehradun
(16.96 per cent), Almora (15.65 per cent), Pithoragarh (13.18 per cent),
Tehri-Garhwal (12.42 per cent), Pauri Garhwal (11.70 per cent) and
Chamoli (5.70 per cent) and Uttarkashi (4.20 per cent). The practice of
double cropping (multiple cropping) has flourished in the region, three

109
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district had more than 10 per cent of their area under multiple cropping
and the remaining district shown below 10 per cent of their area. District
Dehradun had a large percentage (20.32 per cent) of its total area under
multiple cropping,while Uttarkashi recorded 2.12 per cent of their area
under multiple cropping. The practice of fallowing is still common,its area
has increased from 1979-80 to 1994-95. Only one district namely, Pauri-
Garhwal had more than 2 per cent of their land under fallow. In the
remaining all district,the percentage of fallow land ranged between 0.20
and 1.87 per cent of the total reported area.The percentage of culturable
waste of the region remain constant duringthe period from 1979-80 to
1994-95, there were three district, namely Tehri-Garhwal, Almoraand
Pithoragarh where more than 8 per cent of culturable waste is present, the
remaining districts have below 6 per cent of cultural waste of their
respective reporting area.
Cropping Intensity
This is an indicator of the extensive or intensive use of landuse
for crop production. The intensity of corpping pattern implies to the
number of crops grown in a field during an agricultural year. The rapid
growth of population has been exerting pressure on land. Land are being
unextensible, therefore intensification of cultivated area is the only
alternative measures for increasing production. The cropping patterns are
mainly guided by physical, technological and institutional factors like
favourable climatic conditions, irrigation facilities, agricultural mechani-
sation, adoption of chemical fertilizers and high-yielding varieties of
seeds. A congegerate impact of these factors transforms the landuse

112
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113
efficiency, which means the degree of extent to which the net-cultivated
area is re-sown. The percentage of gross cropped area to the net sown
gives a measure of landuse efficiency, which in other words, may be
termed as cropping intensity.
The table 3.4 represents the corpping intensity of various
districts of Uttarakhand from 1979-80 to 1994-95. The cropping intensity
varies from district to district in the area studied. The highest percentage
of cropping intensity are recorded in the district of Nainital. It has
achieved 5.61 per cent growth rate between the year 1979-80 and
1984-85, whereas in the same period, the percentage growth of the
remaining districts are found below 2.0 per cent. The highest percentage
growth rate of cropping intensity are recorded between 5.00 to 5.61 per
cent in three districts namely, Nainital, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun,
during the year 1979-80 to 1994-95 in this region. The rest of the
districts fall under 2.0 per cent growth rate in the area studied.
Major Food Crops : Trends of Growth
The distributional pattern of individual crops varies in space and
time, according to the local forces governing their cultivation. A study of
rate of increase or decrease of major crops over time will shows the
combined impact of forces playing their part and will help in understanding
the direction of agricultural development. The linear growth rates in area
and production of major food crops grown in Uttarakhand have been
calculated using regression equation. It is expressed as Y = a + bX, where
Y refers to linear growth trend model for area and production separately
and X is time variable. The trend values thus obtained for area and
114
production were plotted and jointed to show the general trend. The area
and production data for years , from 1979-80 to 1994-95 have been
obtained from various issues of Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of
Agriculture & Crop Insurance, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
The growth rate in area, production and yield of individual crops
in Uttarakhand are given in Table 3.5 for three quinquennial periods i.e.
1979-84, 1984-89 and 1989-94 and the year-wise trend of area and
production of major cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops are shown in
Fig. 3.2, 3.4 and 3.4. An attempt has also been made to explain the changes
in trends of growth rate in area, production and yield of each crop in the
region.
W h e a t : Among individual crops wheat followed by rice, accounted for
the highest growth rate in Uttarakhand with respect to area, production,
and yield per hectare. Wheat is the leading crop and occupied an area of
367.71 thousand hectares in Uttarakhand and the area under its cultivation
increased to 385.04 thousand hectares in 1984-85. In 1989-90 the area
again increased to 391.18 thousand hectares but it decreased to 371.39
thousand hectare during the period 1994-95. As against this the production
of wheat continuously rose from 441.92 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to
493.72 thousand ones in 1984-85, 572.41 thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and
678.76 thousand tones in 1994-95. The Average yield rose up from 12.0
quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 12.82 quintal per hectare in 1984-85,
14.63 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and it further increased to 18.27
quintal per hectare in 1994-95.

115
Table 3.5
Growth rate in area, production, and yield of major food crops in
Uttarakhand
(Figures in percentage)
Crop/year 1979-84 1984-89 1989-94 1979-80-1994-95
Rice A -1.70 + 1.77 -0.95 -0.91

P +50.32 +8.83 +3.32 +68.88
Y +52.90 +6.97 +4.19 +70.42
Wheat A +4.71 + 1.59 -5.05 + 1.00

P + 11.72 + 15.93 + 18.58 +53.50
Y +6.83 + 14.11 +24.88 +52.25
Maize A -3.67 -6.72 -7.34 16.75

P +23.29 -12.95 -19.20 -13.27
Y +27.99 -6.67 -12.77 +4.18
Barley A -18.55 +40.92 -17.43 -5.23

P -36.24 +83.35 -13.19 + 1.48
Y -21.78 +30.14 +5.18 +7.06
Gram A -57.42 +2.40 -5.40 -58.75

P -22.88 -7.87 + 14.53 -18.63
Y +81.06 -10.08 + 17.65 +91.54
Peas A +57.75 +7.07 +61.36 + 172.53

P + 136.58 +0.82 +33.13 +217.58
Y +50.15 -5.85 -17.47 + 16.67
Aihar A +45.46 -4.97 -0.24 +38.15

P + 178.24 -37.03 -30.07 +22.13
Y +91.36 -33.85 -30.07 -11.48
Masoor A +5.14 -3.00 -3.92 -2.02

P +0.71 + 10.07 +20.96 +34.10
Y -4.12 + 13.27 +25.90 +36.74
Urd A +56.76 +21.83 -7.81 +76.08

P -1.56 +34.63 + 17.02 +55.09
Y -37.07 + 10.00 +27.27 -11.91
116
Sesamum A +55.27 +3.26 -13.90 +38.06

P -26.84 +61.83 -25.96 -12.34
Y -52.84 +56.89 -14.28 -36.58
Rapeseed A +33.68 -17.46 +2.35 + 12.93

& Mustard P + 100.99 -18.38 +24.15 + 103.67
Y +50.44 -1.18 +21.32 +80.35
Soybean A +30.68 + 19.77 +41.24 + 121.07

P +28.95 +44.42 +9.02 + 103.02
Y -1.37 +20.59 -22.77 -8.17
Sugarcane A -0.36 +29.82 -3.78 +24.46

P +22.06 +70.25 -6.68 +93.90
Y +22.50 +31.14 -3.02 +55.79
Potato A +65.31 + 14.14 + 10.63 + 108.95

P +113.80 +23.14 +9.59 + 188.54
Y +29.32 +7.79 -0.90 +38.14
Onion A + 13.71 -0.90 +25.35 +41.25

P + 16.24 -21.42 +32.46 +20.99
Y +2.22 -20.70 +5.67 -14.34
A - Area, P - Production, Y - Yield
Source . Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop Insurances

(1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95) Krishi Bhavan, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh
117
The trend lines of area and production as plotted and depicted in
Fig. 3.2 show a rising trend. It may be seen from Table 3.5 that wheat has
registered a linear growth in area and production in the region by 53.50
per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95 due to the adoption
of modern inputs in the region.
Rice : Rice is the second leading crop in this region, it covers an area of
283 thousand hectares in 1979-80, however the area decreased to 278.18
thousand hectares in 1984-85. But it has further increased to 283.10
thousand hectares in 1989-90 and again declined to 280.41 thousand
hectare in 1994-95.Although it recorded a fluctuation in area but the
production and yield per hectares achieved a significant increase. The
quantum of production rose from 326.38 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to
490.64 thousand tones in 1984-85, 533.99 thousand tonnes in 1989-90
and reached at the level of 551.19 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. Similarly
the yield increased from 11.53 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 17.63
quintal per hectare in 1984-85, 18.86 quintals per hectare in 1989-90 and
19.65 quintal per hectare in 1994-95.
The trend lines of area and production of rice shows an upward
movement (Fig. 3.2). It may be evident from the Table 3.5 that the area
under rice decreased by 0.9 per cent while the production increased by the
68.88 per cent during the period from 1979^80 to 1994-95.
Barley : The area occupied by Barley was 29.97 thousand hectares in
1979-80 and it decreased to 24.41 thousand hectares in 1984-85. But it
further expands to 34.40 thousand hectares in 1989-90 and then declined

118
UTTARAKHAND
TRENDS OF GROWTH IN AREA AND PRODUCTION OF
MAJOR CEREALS (1979 - 94)
RfCE WHEAT
600 700
...
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1979 89 1 994 1979 84 89 1994
60 r M AlZ E 50 r- BARLEY
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1979 84 89 1994 1979 84 89 1994
AREA IN HECTARES
P R O D U C T I O N IN M E T R I C T O N N E S
REGRESSION LINE
FIG-3-2
119
to 28.40 thousand hectares in 1994-95. It shows a fluctuation in both area
and production but the yield shows different trend, and decreased from
11.75 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 9.19 quintal per hectare in 1984-
85 but it again increased to 11.96 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and 12.58
The trend lines of area and production of barley shows an elevated
pattern (Fig. 3.2). The linear growth of area and production are given in
Table 3.5. It may be evident from the table that the area under barley
decreased by 5.23 per cent while production increasedby 1.48 per cent
from 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Maize : The area under maize was 38.06 thousand hectares in 1979-80 but
it continuously declined to 36.66 thousand hectares in 1984-85 to 34.20
thousand hectares in 1989-90 and 31.69 thousand hectares in 1994-95. As
again this the production and yield of maize was 43.65 thousand tonnes
and 11.47 quintal per hectare in 1979-80, which rose to 53.82 thousand
tonnes and 14.68 quintal per hectare in 1984-85. But during the subsequent
year the production as well as yield declined to 46.86 thousand tonnes and
13.70 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and 37.86 thousand tonnes and 11.95
The trend lines of area and production of maize depict downward
movement (Fig. 3.2). It is obvious from the Table 3.5 that the maize has a
negative linear growth in area and production in various quinquennial
periods. The area as well as production declined by 16.75 per cent and
13.27 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.

] 20
G r a m : The area under gram was 4.29 thousand hectares during the period
1979-80 but it decreased to 1.82 thousand hectares in 1984-85, 1.87
thousand hectares in 1989-90 and 1.77 thousand hectares in 1994-95.
There has also been a gradual delcine in the production of gram from 1.92
thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 1.48 thousand tonnes in 1984-85, 1.36
thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and further increased to 1.56 thousand tonnes
in 1994-95 but the yield shows fluctuation during the period studied.
The trend lines plotted in Fig. 3.3 shows a downward movement.
It may be seen from the Table 3.5 that the linear growth rate of area under
gram has a negative growth of 58.75 per cent while production decreased
by 18.63 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95. Like arhar,
gram is also sensitive to frost during flowering time and therefore needs
special attention.
Peas : Peas is an important crop as compared to other pulses in
Uttarakhand because it uses as pulse and sell in the market as cash crop.
The area and production has continuously increased from 0.85 thousand
hectares and 0.56 thousand tonnes respectively in 1979-80 to 1.34
thousand hectares and 1.33 thousand tonnes in 1985-85 to 1.43 thousand
hectare and 1.34 thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and 2.32 thousand hectares
and 1.78 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. As against this the yield increased
from 6.60 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to 9.91 quintal per hectare in
1984-85. But it declined to 9.33 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and 7.70
quintal per hectare in 1994-95, due to bad weather condition in the region.
The trend lines of area and production as plotted in Fig. 3.3 shows
a rising trend. It may be seen from the Table 3.5 that peas has registered a
121
UTTARAKHAND
TRENDS O F GROWTH IN AREA AND PRODUCTION O F
MAJOR PULSES (1979 - 94)
6RAM 4r PEAS 4r ARHAR
/
/ \
/
0' • I 1 1 1— Ol I I L.
199^ 1979 8/, 89 199i 1979 89 199-i
520, MASOOR lOr URD

o
e
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<Q-J2I AREA IN HECTARES
PRODUCTION IN METRIC
UJ
IT TONNES
<
REGRESSION LINE
i.1 "'i—r—I—I—1_
1979 8A 89 1994 1979 84 89 199^
FIG. 3-3
122
gradual linear growth in area and production in the region. The area under
peas increased by 172.53 per cent while production increased by 217.58
per cent during the period studied.
Arhar : Arhar is one of the most important crop in this region, there has
been fluctuation in its area, production as well as yield. The area under
arhar was 1.19 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 1.73
thousand hectares in 1984-85 but it declined to 1.64 thousand hectares in
1994-95.Similarly the production and yield also followed the same trend
as area.
The linear growth rate of Arhar given in Table 3.5 shows that area
under arhar increased by 38.15 per cent while production increased by
22.13 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Masoor : Masoor is a leading crop among the other pulses in this region.
The area under the masoor was 15.54 thousand hectares during 1979-80
and increased to 16.33 thousand hectares in 1984-85. But during the
remaining period it declined to 15.84 thousand hectares in 1989-90 to
15.22 thousand hectares in 1994-95. As against this, the production
continuously rose from 8.67 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 8.73 thousand
tonnes in 1984-85, 9.61 thousand tonnes in 1998-90 and 11.63 thousand
tonnes in 1994-95. But the yield has gradually declined from 5.58 quintal
per hectare in 1979-80 to 5.35 quintal per hectare in 1984-85 but it
further rose to 6.06 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 to 7.63 quintal per
hectare in 1994-95.
The trend lines of area and production in Fig. 3.3 shows different
pattern. The area shows downward while production shows an upward trend.
123
The linear growth rate of both area and production of masoor has been
given in Table 3.5, the area under masoor decreased by 2.02 per cent while
the production and yield increased by 34.10 per cent and 36.74 per cent
respectively during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Urd : Urd ranked second after masoor in terms of area. The area under urd
was 5.32 thousand hectares during 1979-80 but it recorded an insignificant
increased to 8.34 thousand hectares in 1994-95. But the production and
yield followed the same patterns. The production and yield decreased from
2.36 thousand tonnes, and 4.45 quintal per hectare in 1979-80, to 2.33
thousand tonnes, and 2.80 quintal per hectare in 1984-85, but it further
expand to 3.13 thousand tonnes, and 3.08 quintal per hectare in 1989-90,
and 3.67 thousand tonnes, and 3.92 quintal per hectare in 1994-95.
The trend lines of area and production as plotted in Fig. 3.3 show
an elevated trend. Table 3.5 clears that the area under urad increased by
76.08 per cent while the production increased by 55.09 per cent during
the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Sesamum : The area under sesamum enhanced from 1.87 thousand
hectares in 1979-80 to 2.91 thousand hectares in 1984-85 and 3.0
thousand hectares during 1989-90 but it declined to 2.59 thouand hectares
in 1994-95. Conversely the fluctuation occurs both in terms of production
and yield. The trend lines of area and production shown in Fig.3.4, the area
shows a rising trend but the trend lines of production depict a straight line.
The linear growth rate of area and production of sesamum given in Table
3.5 shows that area under seasmum increased by 38.06 per cent. As against
124
UTTARAKHAND
T R E N D S O F G R O W T H IN AREA AND P R O D U C T I O N O F
M A J O R OILSEEDS (1979 - 94)
SESAMUM 60 RAPESEED &

MUSTARD
3 45
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1979 8/, 89 199A 1979 84 89 1994
40 SOYABEAN
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o TONNES.
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19 79 84 89 1994
FIG.3.^
125
this the production decreased by 12.34 per cent during the year from
1979-80 to 1994-95.
Rapeseed and Mustard : Among oilseeds, rapeseed and mustard have a
leading position as they cover greater area than any other oilseeds. The
area under mustard was 11.41 thousand hectares in 1979-80 increased to
15.25 thousand hectares in 1984-85. Later on t declined to 12.59 thousand
hectare in 1989-90 but it further arose to 12.88 thousand hectares in
1994-95. The production and yield under rapeseeds and mustard
significantly increasing from 5.11 thousand tonnes and 4.48 quintal per
hectare respectively in 1979-80 to 10.27 thousand tonnes and yield 6.74
quintal per hectare in 1984-85 but it declined to 8.38 thousand tonnes and
yield 6.66 quintal per hectare in 1989-90 and it further increased to 10.41
thousand tonnes and yield 8.08 quintal per hectare in 1994-95, due to
favourable climatic conditions.
The trend lines of area and production plotted in Fig. 3.4 show
upward movement. The area and production under rapeseed and mustard
increased by 12.93 per cent and 103.67 per cent respectively during the
period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Soyabean : Soyaban is the main source of protein and hence it occupied
an important position in Uttarakhand. Soyabean shows a significant
increase both in terms of area and production, the area under soyabean
increased from 8.45 thousand hectares in 1979-80 to 11.04 thousand
hectares in 1984-85, it further increased to 13.22 thousand hectares in
1989-90 and 18.68 thousand hectares in 1994-95. The production of

126
soyabean increased from 12.35 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 15.93
thousand tonnes in 1984-85, it further increased to 23.0 thousand tonnes
in 1989-90 and 25.0 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. Conversely the yield has
shown meagre decrease from 14.62 quintal per hectare in 1979-80 to
14.42 quintal per hectare in 1984-85 but it again increased to 17.39
quintal per hectare in 1989-90 but it further decline to 13.43 quintal per
hectare in 1994-95.
The trend lines of area and production as plotted in Fig.3.4 shows
an upward movement. It may be seen from the Table 3.5 that soyabean has
registered a linear growth in area and production in the reigon, the area
under soyabean increased by 103.02 , it further increased to during the
session 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Sugarcane : Uttarakhand is not an important producer of sugarcane as
compared to the sugarcane belt of western and eastern U.P. The area and
production has increased in the first three subsequent year, later on
declines during the last session. The area under sugarcane was increased
from 38.49 thousand hectares in 1979-80 to 49.79 thousand hectares in
1989-90 but it gradually declined to 47.91 thousand hectares in 1994-95,
but the quantum of production and yield rose from 1,508.0 thousand
tonnes and 391.88 quintal per hectare respectively in 1979-80 to 1,841.0
thousand tonnes and 480.0 quintal per hectare in 1984-85 to 3,135.0
thousand tonnes and 629.0 quintal per hectare in 1989-90. But declined to
2925.0 thousand tonnes and 610.0 quintal per hectare during 1994-95.
In Fig. 3.5 the trend lines of area shows a downward pattern but
the trend lines of production shows an elevated trend.

127
UTTARAKHAND
T R E N D S O F G R O W T H IN A R E A A N D P R O D U C T I O N O F
MAJOR CASHCROPS (1979-94)
ôoor SUGARCANE 400 POTATO

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1979 89 1994
FIG.3-5
128
Potato : Potato is the most famous and evergreen crops in the world and
named as the "KING OF VEGETABLES". In 1979-80 the area under potato
was 6.90 thousand hectares but in 1984-85 it rose to 11.40 thousand
hectares in 1989-90 to 13.03 thousand hectares and 14.41 thousand
hectares in 1994-95. Similarly the production has attained a continuous
rise from 90.28 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 193.02 thousand tonnes in
1984-85, 237.68 thousand tonnes in 1989-90 and 260.49 thousand tonnes
in 1994-95, and the yield also increased from 130.84 quintal per hectare
in 1979-80 to 169.21 quintal per hectare in 1984-85, 182.39 quintal per
hectare in 1989-90 but it gradually declined to 180.75 quintal per hectare
during 1994-95.
The trend lines of area and production plotted in Fig. 3.5 shows
an elevated trend. It may be obvious from the Table 3.5 that potato has
recorded a positive linear growth in area and production, the area under
potato expands by 108.95 per cent while the production increased by
188.54 per cent during the study period.
Onion : The area occupied by onion was 0.87 thousand hectares in
1979-80 and increased to 0.99 thousand hectares in 1984-85 but it
delcined to 0:98 thousand hectares in 1989-90, it further expand to 1.23
thousand hectares in 1994-95. Similarly the production and yields also
followed the same trend as area.
The trend lines of area and production shows a rising trend. The
linear growth rate of area and production of onion shown in Table 3.5, the
129
V
area under onion increased by 41.25 per cent wile the production
increased by 20.99 per cent during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95.
District-wise Growth Rate in Area, Production and Yield of

M a j o r Food Crops in Uttarakhand
Nainital
The change in area, production and yield of major crops are
shown in Table 3.6. The table reveals that Nainital district depicts an
increasing trend in the area of cereals in one period i.e. by 13,586
hectares (5.60 percent) in 1979-84 but in the remaining period, the area
under cereals shows a decreasing trend i.e. by 13,300 hectares (5.91 per
cent) in 1984-89 and by 6,728 hectares (2.77 per cent) in 1989-94. The
overall decrease in area between 1979-80 to 1994-95 under cereals area
is 6,442 hectares or 2.65 per cent.
The area under pulses shows a decreasing trend in all the three
quinquennial periods. The highest decrease in area was recorded in
1979-84 i.e. by 4,157 hectares (34.51 per cent)) but the lowest decrease
recorded in 1989-94 i.e. 38.0 hectares (0.52 per cent). The overall
decrease in area under pulse is 4,815 hectares (39.97 per cent).
The area under oilseeds also shows an increasing trend except in
second quinquennial periods. It increased by 3,736 hectares (20.95 per
cent) in 1979-84 but it decreased by 1,233 hectares (5.71 per cent) in
1984-89 but it again increased to 3,354 hectares (16.50 per cent) in
1989-94. The overall increase in area under oilseeds from 1979-80 to
1994-95 is about 5,857 hectares (32.85 per cent). The area under cash
130
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crops shows an elevated trend in first two quinquennial period. It increased
by 1,329 hectares (3.82 per cent) in 1979-84, by 10,970 hectares (30.36
per cent)in 1984-89 but it decrease in area by 2,345 hectares (4.98 per
cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in area under cash crops fi-om
1979-80 to 1994-95 is 9,954 hectares (28.60 per cent).
On the other side, the production of cereals shows a fluctuating
trend, it increased by 1,93,361 metric tonnes (47.70 pe rcent) in the first
quenquennial period, but it declined by 11,572 metric tonnes (1.92 per
cent) in 1984-89 and it again rose by 1,02,229 metric tonnes or 17.32 per
cent in 1989-94. The overall increase of production under cereals is
2,84,018 metric tonnes (69.55 per cent).
As far as pulses is concern, the production trend shows downward
in the first two quinquennial period i.e. by 105 metric tonnes (1.98 per
cent) and 1,564 metric tonnes (30.10 per cent) but in the last period it
rose by 2,828 metric tonnes (77.84 per cent). However the overall
increase under pulses is about 1,159 metric tonnes (21.86 per cent). The
production of oilseeds shows an increasing trend throughout the period,
because of the shifting of areas of cereals and pulses to oilseed and cash
crops respectively, it is increased by 7,374 metric tonnes (49.40 per cent)
in 1979-84, 4,602 metric tonnes (20.63 per cent) in 1984-89 and 380
metric tonnes (1.41 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in
production of oilseeds is 12,356 metric tonnes (82.77 per cent). But the
production trend of cashcrops also shows an increasing trend except in
last quinquennial period, it increased by 3,19,160 metric tonnes (24.81
percent), 11,67,897 metric tonnes (72.74 per cent) during the period
132
1979-84 and 1984-89 respectively but it reduced by 2,00,130 metric
tonnes (7.21 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in production of
cashcrops is 12,86,927 metric tonnes (100.00 pe rcent).
The yield of cereals shows a positive trend in all quinquennial
period. The overall increase in yield under cereals is 12.50 quintal per
hectare (74.18 per cent) in 1979-84. The yield of pulses shows fluctuating
trend, the maximum increase in yield in pulses i.e. 3.93 quintal per hectare
was recorded in 1989-94, the maximum decrease in yield of 1.60 quintal
per hectare (24.24 per cent) under pulses are seen in the period of
1984-89. But the overall shows an increase in yield by 4.53 quintal per
hectare (102.95 per cent), the yield of oilseeds shows a mixed trend
synonyms to pulses, but on the whole there is an increase in its yield by
3.15 quintal per hectare (37.63 per cent). The yield of cash crops shows
an increasing trend except in 1989-94, when it decreased by 14.34 quintal
per hectare (2.43 per cent). The highest increase in yield of 144.92 quintal
per hectare under cash crops was observed in 1984-89. The overall
increase in yield is about 205.33 quintal per hectare (55.54 per cent) in
1979-80 to 1994-95.
Almora
The patterns of area, production and yield of different crops
during 1979-80 to 1994-95 are shown in Table 3.7. Table demonstrates
that the district of Almora shows fluctuating trend in terms of area of
cereals, it decreased by 9,723 hectares (8.31 per cent) but it enhanced by
13,000 hectares (12.13 per cent) in the next quinquennial period and it
133
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further declined by 11,947 hectares (9.89 per cent). The overall decrease
in area under cereals is 8,064 hectares (6.89 per cent). While area under
pulses shows an increasing trend except in 1989-94, it increased by 1,413
hectares (68.13 per cent) in 1979-84, 631 hectares (18.10 per cent) in
1984-89 but it reduced by 533 hectares (12.94 per cent) in 1989-94,
whereas the overall increase of area under pulses is 1,511 hectares (72.85
per cent).
The area under oilseeds and cashcrops enjoys an increasing trend
throughout. In case of olseeds, the highest increase of area was recorded
in 1979-84 and the lowest in 1984-89, while in cashcrops the maximum
increase was recorded in 1989-94 and the lowest in 1984-89. The
expansion in areas during these years are a witness to constant impact of
developing technology which help in recalamation of waste land. As against
this the production of cereals also shows fluctuating trend, it decreased by
20,022 metric tonnes (19.56 per cent) in 1979-84, and it rose by 47,808
metric tonnes (58.10 per cent) in 1984-89 but it again decline by 11,473
metric tonnes (8.82 perc ent)in 1989-94. On the whole, the increase in
production of cereals is about 16313 metric tonnes (15.94 per cent), while
the production of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops shows an elevated trend,
the production of pulses, oilseeds and cash crops has increased by 136
metric tonnes (8.70 per cent), 289 metric tonnes (138.94 per cent) and
cashcrops 6,944 metric tons (43.47 per cent) in the year 1979-84. During
the year 1984-89, the production of these three crops have increased by
694 metric tons (40.77 per cent), 201 metric tonnes (40.44 per cent) and
3,238 metric tonnes (14.13 per cent). In 1989-94, the production of
pulses have increased by 251 metric tonnes (10.47 per cent), oilseeds 517
135
metric tonnes per cent) and cash crops 6,956 metric tonnes (26.60
per cent), whereas on the whole the production of pulses have increased
by 1,081 metric tonnes (69 per cent), oilseeds 1007 metric tonnes
(484.13 per cent) and 17,138 metric tonne (107.30 per cent).
The yield of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops exhibits an
increasing trend. The highest increase of yield was recorded in cashcrops
during the period 1979-84, i.e. 30.65 quintal per hectare (22.35 per cent)
and the lowest was 0.12 quintal per hectares in cereals during 1989-94,
but the yield of pulses decreased by 2.65 quintal per hectare (35.10 per
cent). However on the whole, the maximum increase was recorded in cash
crops i.e. 37.53 quintal per hectare (27.34 per cent), during the same
period.
Pithoragarh
The performance of various crops with respect to area,
production and yield can be examined from the Table 3.8. It is evident
from the table that the area under cereals increased by 13,393 hectares
(14.27 per cent) in 1979-84 but it reduced by 6,044 hectares (5.63 per
cent) in 1984-89 and again increased by 9,447 hectares (2.42 per cent) in
last quinquennial period, whereas the overall increase in area under cereals
is about 9,796 hectares (10.44 per cent). In case of pulses the areal extent
shows a fluctuating trend, the area under pulses increased by 1,038
hectares (18.07 per cent) and it declined by 512 hectares (7.55 per cent)
in 1984-89, but it again increased by 858 hectare (13.70 per cent) in
1989-94, the overall increase is 1,384 hectares (24.10 per cent), while
136
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the area under oilseeds and cashcrops depicts an increasing trend in all
quinquennial period. The area under these crops has increased by 215
hectares (138.70 per cent) and 887 hectares (64.41 per cent) in 1979-84,
238 hectares (250.33 per cent) and 22 hectares (0.97 per cent) in
1984-89, 1,522 hectares (250.33 per cent) and 623 hectares (27.25 per
cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall increase in area under these crops
are 1,975 hectares (1274.00 per cent) and 1532 hectares (111.25 per cent)
respectively.
As against this, the production of cereals, pulses oilseeds and
cashcrops exhibits an increasing trend. In case of cereals, the production
increased by 18,815 metric tonnes (20.29 per cent) in 1979-84, 17,381
metric tonnes (15.58 per cent) in 1984-89 and 20,632 metric tonnes
(16.00 per cent) in 1989-94. While the production of pulses decreased by
768 metric tonnes (17.86 per cent) in first quinquennial period, but it
expand by 557 metric tonnes (15.77 per cent) in 1984-89 and it further
rose by 1,051 metric tonnes (25.70 per cent) in 1989-94. The production
of oilseeds and cash crops has increased by 143 metric tonnes (106.71
per cent) and 17,502 metric tonnes (81.8 per cent) in 1979-84, 220 metric
tonnes (79.42 per cent) and 2,020 metric tonnes (5.20 per cent) in
1984-89 and 1,702 metric tonnes (342.45 per cent) and 10,755 metric
tonnes (26.30 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas on the whole, the production
of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops has enhanced by 56,828 metric
tonnes (56.85 per cent), 840 metric tonnes (19.54 per cent), 2,065 metric
tonnes (1541.00 per cent) and 30,277 metric tonnes (141.50 per cent)
during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95.

138
The yield of cereals shows an increasing trend throughout the
periods it increased by 0.52 quintal per hectare (5.26 per cent) in
1979-84, 2.34 quintal per hectare (22.50 per cent) in 1984-89, and 1.69
quintal per hectare (13.26 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase in
yield of cereal is 4.56 quintal per hectare (46.65 per cent) while the yeild
of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops depicts a mixed trend. On the whole the
yield of oilseeds and cashcrops has increased by 1.68 quintal per hectare
(19.44 per cent) and 22.24 quintal per hectare (14.31 per cent), whereas
in case of pulses itis diminish by 0.29 quintal per hectare (3.86 per cent).
Chamoli
Viewed over a period of Fifteen years( 1979-80 - 1994-95) the
relative changes in area, production and yield can be examined from the
Table 3.9. It can be seen from the table that the area under cereals has
decreased by 2,928 hectares (6.92 per cent) in first quinquennial period
butit increased by 7,253 hectares ( 18.41 per cent) in 1984-79 and it again
decline by 2,690 hectares (5.76 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall
increase under cereal is 1,635 hectares (3.86 per cent), while the area
under pulses and oilseeds shows an increasing trend during all
quinquennial period. The overall increase of area under pulses and oilseeds
is 413 hectares (187.72 per cent) and 528 hectares (320.0 per cent)
respectively. The area of cashcrops shows a mixed trend, it increased by
926 hectares (136.17 per cent) and 208 hectares (12.95 percent) in
1979-84 and 1984-89 respectively, but it declined by 1,121 hectares
(61.90 per cent) in 1979-94. The overall increase of area under cashcrops
is 13.0 hectares (1.91 per cent).

139
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As against this, the production of cereals, pulses and oilseed
shows an increasing trend, on the whole the production under these crops
increased by 18,120 metric tonnes (42.44 per cent), 207 metric tonnes
(166.95 per cent) and 580 metric tonnes (644.44 per cent) respectively.
While the production of cashcrops show a mixed trend whereas the overall
increase in production of cashcrops is 23,409 metric tonnes (260.42 pe
rcent).
The yield of cereals, oilseeds and cashcrops shows an increasing
trend except in pulses. The overall increase of yield under cereals 3.74
quintal per hectare (37.06 per cent), oilseeds 4.22 quintal per hectares
(77.43 per cent) and 335.30 quintal per hectare (253.63 per cent). The
yield of pulses increased by 0.27 quintal per hectare (4.80 per cent) in
first quinquennial period, but it declined by 0.33 quintal per hectare in
1984-89 and further reduce by 0.34 quintal per hectare (6.10 per cent) in
1989-94, but the overall decrease was also recorded in case of pulses i.e.
0.40 quintal per hectare (7.10 per cent).
Uttarkashi
Crop-wise area, production and yield in Uttarkashi district is
shown in Table 3.10. It is obvious from the table that the area under cereals
and pulses shows a mixed trend, the area under cereals has decreased by
890 hectares (3.48 per cent) in first quinquennial period but it increased
by 2,353 hectares (9.53 per cent) in the next period and it further
increased by 1,870 hectares (6.9 per cent) in 1989-94. However the
overall increase of area under cereals is about 3,333 hectares (13.03 per
141
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cent), while in case of pulses, the area added by 1,015 hectares (130.63
per cent) in 1979-84 but it reduced to 601 hectares (33.54 per cent) in
1984-89 and it again enhanced by 211 hectares (17.71 per cent) in
1989-94. The overall increase in area under pulses is 625 hectares (80.44
per cent). On the other hand, in case of oilseeds and cashcrops, there was
an increasing trend in respect of area, on the whole, the increase in area of
oilseeds and cashcrops is 1,026 hectare (144.30 per cent) and 1492
hectares (232.76 per cent) respectively. On the other side, the production
of cereals and pulses shows a fluctuating trend, the overall increase in
production of these two crops are 14,318 metric tonne (59.26 per cent)
and 516 metric tonnes (155.42 per cent) while the production of oilseeds
and cashcrops shows an increasing trend, the overall increase in production
of oilseeds and cashcrops is 815 metric tonnes (332.65 per cent) and
30,301 metric tonnes (358.97 per cent) respectively. As against this, the
yield of cereals shows a fluctuating trend, it increased by 3.05 quintal per
hectares (32.30 percent) in 1979-84, 2.15 quintal per hectare (17.21 per
cent) in 1984-89, but it reduced by 1.34 quintal per hectare (9.15 per cent)
in 1989-94, whereas the overall increase in yield is 3.86 quintal per
hectare (40.88 per cent), but in case of pulses, the yield decreased by
0.58 quintal per hectare (13.50 per cent) in first quinquennial period but it
expand by 2.01 quintal per hectare (54.03 per cent) in 1984-89 and further
rose by 0.32 quintal per hectare (5.60 per cent) in 1989-94.
As far as oilseeds is concerned, the yield of this crops shows an
increasing trend throughout. It increased by 0.66 quintal per hectare
(19.20 per cent) in 1979-84, 1.10 quintal per hectare (26.82 per cent) in
143
1984-89 and 0.90 quintal per hectare (17.30 per cent) in 1989-94,
whereas the overall increase in yield of oilseeds is 2.66 quintal per
hectare (77.32 per cent). The cashcrops show as synonyms to cereals in
respect of yield.
Tehri-Garhwal
The trend of change in area, production and yield can be seen
from the Table 3.11 that except the cash crops the pattern of area of
cereals, pulses and oilseeds follows a fluctuating trend. From the table,
the area under cereals increased by 599 hectares (0.97 per cent), pulses
2,024 hectares (113.90 per cent), and oilseeds 593 hectares (72.40 per
cent) in 1979-84 but it decline by 3643 hectares (5.85 per cent), 562
hectares (14.80 per cent) and 390 hectares (27.62 per cent) in each crop
during 1984-89 and it again delcine in area of cereals by 8,059 hectares
(13.74 per cent), while in case of pulse and oilseeds, the area increased by
286 hectares (8.90 per cent) and 627 hectares (61.35 per cent)
respectively in 1989-94, whereas on the whole there is an increase in area
under pulses and oilseeds except in case of cereals (1,103 hectares or
1.78 per cent). While the area under cash crops shows an increasing trend.
The overall increase of area under cashcrops is about 955 hectares (158.11
per cent).
As against this, the production of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and
cashcrops shows an increasing trend in all quiunquennial period. On the
whole there was an increase in production of cereal by 32,394 metric
tonnes (70.53 per cent), pulses 1,374 metric tonnes (159.40 per cent),
144
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oilseeds 957 metric tonnes (310.71 per cent) and cash crops 19,663
metric tonnes (235.66 per cent). The yield of cereals, pulses and
cashcrops shows an increasing trend throughout except in case of oilseeds.
The overall increase in yield of these crops are 5.49 quintal per hectare
(73.79 per cent), 1.49 quintal per hectare (30.72 per cent) and 41.50
quintal per hectare (30.00 per cent), while the yield of oilseeds increased
by 0.55 quintal per hectares (14.62 per cent) in 1979-84 and 3.39 quintal
per hectares (78.65 per cent) in 1984-94 but it deduct by less than one
percent in 1989-94. However, on the whole there was an increase in yield
of oilseeds by 3.91 quintal per hectare (104.00 per cent).
Pauri-Garhwal
In the district Pauri-Garhwal the cereals has a declining trend in
areal extent throughout the period (Table 3.12). The area under cereals has
decreased by 6,983 hectares (7.96 per cent) in 1979-84, 1,893 hectares
(2.34 per cent) in 1984-89 and 3,708 hectares (4.70 per cent) in 1989-94.
Whereas the overall area under cereals has also declined by 12,584
hectares (14.35 per cent), while the areal extent of pulses and oilseeds
have a fluctuating trend. The areal extent of pulses has increased by 2,470
hectares (189.85 per cent) in 1979-84 and 1,311 hectares (34.76 per cent)
in 1984-89, but it has declined by 399 hectares (7.85 per cent) in the last
quinquennial period, whereas on the whole, the areal extent under pulses
has increased by 3,382 hectares (259.95 per cent). The area under oilseeds
also shows a fluctuating trend, it has increased by 12.00 hectares (1.54
per cent) in 1979-84, 220 hectares (27.92 per cent) in 1984-79 but it has
declined by 190 hectares (18.85 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall
146
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area under oilseeds has increased by 42.00 hectares (5.71 per cent) but in
case of cashcrops, the areal, extent shows an increasing trend. The area
under cashcrops has increased by 160 hectares (47.62 per cent) in
1979-84, 77 hectares (15.52 per cent) in 1985-90 and 107 hectares
(18.67 per cent) in 1989-94. The overall increase of area under cashcrops
is about 3,44 hectares (94.00 per cent). As against the production of
pulses, oilseed and cashcrops show an increasing trend in all quinquennial
periods except in case of cereals. The production of cereals has decreased
by 7,193 metric tonnes (10.13 per cent) in 1979-84 and it increased by
21,295 metric tonnes (33.40 per cent) in 1984-89 but it again declined by
2,905 metric tonnes (3.4 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall
production under cereal has increased by 11,197 metric tonnes (15.78 per
cent). On the whole the production of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops have
increased by 1,150 metric tonnes (91.05 per cent), 325 metric tonnes
(101.24 per cent) and 5,733 metric tonnes (111.90 per cent) respectively.
The yield of cereals and oilseed exhibits an increasing trends in all
quinquennial periods, while the yield of pulses and cashcrops shows a
fluctuating trend. The yield of cereals and oilseeds have increased by 0.19
quintal per hectare (2.34 per cent) and 0.73 quintal per hectare (36.58 per
cent) and 0.78 quintal per hectare (16.05 per cent) in 1984-89 and 0.15
quintal per hectare (1.39 per cent) and 2.26 quintal per hectare (40.07 per
cent) in 1989-94. The overall yield of these crops have also increased by
2.85 quintal per hectare (35.22 per cent) and 3.77 quintal per hectare
(91.30 per cent) resepectively. The yield of pulses has decreased by 4.06
quintal per hectare (41.85 per cent) in 1979-84, 1.14 quintal per hectare
148
(20.12 per cent) in 1984-89 but it expanded by 0.65 quintal per hectare
(14.44 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall yield of pulses has
decreased by 4.55 quintal per hectare (46.90 per cent), while the yield of
cashcrops has increased by 16.19 quintal per hectare (10.62 per cent) in
first quinquennial period but it declined by 8.54 quintal per hectare (5.06
per cent) and 0.47 quintal per hectare (0.30 per cent) in remaining periods.
The overall yield of cash crops has increased by 7.18 quintal per hectares
(4.70 per cent).
Dehradun
In the districts Dehradun, the trend of change in area, production
and yield can be seen from the Table 3.13. The table indicate that the area
under cereals has increased by 507 hectares (0.89 per cent) in 1979-84
and 2,957 hectares (5.19 per cent) in 1984-89 but it reduced by 4,838
hectares (8.07 per cent) in last quinquennial period, whereas the overall
area of cereals has also decreased by 1,374 hectares (2.43 per cent), while
the area under pulses shows a decreasing trend throughout. The overall
area has also decreased by 1,105 hectares (33.17 per cent). The area under
oilseeds has increased by 1,433 hectares (107.44 per cent) in 1979-84,
but it declined by 199 hectares (7.20 per cent) and it further reduced by
412 hectares (16.07 per cent) in 1989-94, whereas the overall area under
oilseeds has increased by 822 hectares (61.80 per cent). The area under
cashcrops has decreased by 534 hectares (8.02 per cent) in first
quinquennial period, but it increased by 1,139 hectares (18.60 per cent) in
1984-89 and further increased by 591 hectares (8.13 per cent) in

149
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1989-94. The overall area of cashcrops has also increased by 1,196
hectares (17.95 per cent).
On the other hand, the production of all reported major crops
show a fluctuating trend. The production of cereal has increased by 12,090
metric tonnes (18.72 per cent) in 1979-84 and 16,658 metric tonnes
(21.73 percent) in 1984-89, but it reduced by 9,968 metric tonnes (10.68
per cent) in 1989-94, whereas on the whole the production of cereal has
increased by 18,780 metric tonnes (29.09 per cent). The production of
pulses and cashcrops follow the same patterns of cereals. The overall area
of pulses has increased by 86.00 metric tonnes (6.02 per cent) and
cashcrops 1,75,655 metric tonnes (67.87 per cent), while the production
of oilseeds has increased by 1310 metric tonnes (318.73 per cent) in
1979-84, but it reduced by 374 metric tonnes (21.73 per cent) in 1984-89
and it again increased by 212 metric tonnes (15.74 per cent) in last period,
whereas on the whole, the production has increased by 1,148 metric tonnes
(279.32 per cent).
The yield of cereals, pulses and cashcrops shows an increasing
trend in first two quinquinnial period but it decline in last period. The yield
of cereals, pulses and cashcrops have increased by 2.04 quintal per
hectares (17.88 per cent), 0.85 quintal per hectare (19.76 per cent), and
101.59 quintal per hectares (26.14 per cent) respectively in 1979-84 and
further increased by 2.11 quintal per hectare (15.68 per cent), 2.25 quintal
per hectare (43.70 per cent) and 120.28 quintal per hectare (24.54 per
cent) in 1984-89, but it decreased by 0.44 quintal per hectare (2.82 per
cent), 0.60 quintal per hectare (8.10 per cent) and 57.43 quintal per
151
hectare (9.40 per cent) in 1989-94 whereas the yield of oilseed have
increased by 3.13 quintal per hectare (100.96 per cent) in 1979-84, but it
declined to 0.98 quintal per hectare (15.73 per cent) in 1984-89 and in
again rose to 1.99 quintal per hectare (37.90 per cent) in 1989-94. The
overall yield of all the above crops viz cereals, pulses oilseed and
cashcrops have increased by 3.71 quintal per hectare (32.51 per cent) 2.50
quintal per hectare (58.14 per cent), 4.14 quintal per hectare (133.55%)
and 164.44 quintal per hectare (42.32 per cent) respectively.
Area under Irrigation
The development and expansion of irrigation facilities have
enhanced the irrigated area of various food crops. Table 3.14 indicates that
irrigated area under different crops were 3.00 lakh hectares in 1979-80
which increased to Rs. 3.36 lakh hectares in 1984-85, 3.68 lakh hectares
in 1989-90 and 3.78 lakh hectares in 1994-95. The extent of irrigation for
each crop varies according to water requirements of individual crop and
therefore, attempts were made to find out actual cropwise irrigated area in
Uttarakhand. It will also help to introduce new cropping pattern in the
region, due to existing irrigation facilities. Table also indicates the
irrigated area under each crops and their percentage to the total cropped
area for four period at five years interval viz. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90
and 1994-95. Table indicates that during 1994-95 3.78 lakh hectares of
land under all food crops in the region, acquired irrigation which
acocunted for 44.98 per cent of the total cropped area of the region.
Among all the food crops, sugarcane was heavily irrigated and covered
more than 90.0 per cent of the total area under irrigation, other crops such
152
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153
as gram, rice, onion, mustard and wheat with 60.22 per cent 57.05 per cent,
54.61 per cent, .47.53 per cent and 43.17 per cent area respectively, comes
under irrigation, and peas and potato with 35.65 per cent and 17.60 per
cent area under irrigation. There are other crops like maize, barley,
masoor, urd, soyabean and sesamum which were irrigated but their area
was less than 10 per cent of the total area under irrigation. Arhar remained
an unirrigated crop because it received only a negligible amount of
irrigation i.e. 0.46 per cent of the total area. It can also be visualize from
table that rice, wheat, gram, rapeseed and mustard, sugarcane, and onion
have recorded continuous increase in the irrigated area from 1979-80 to
1994-95. The irrigated area under rice was 45.76 per cent in 1979-80,
49.97 per cent in 1984-85, 53.50 per cent in 1989-90 and 57.05 per cent
in 1994-95. The irrigated area under wheat was 37.78 per cent in 1979-80,
41.0 pe rcent in 1984-85, 53.50 per cent in 1989-90 and 57.04 per cent in
1994-95. The irrigated area under gram is gradually increasing in the
region. The percentage of irrigated area under gram was 18.78 per cent in
1979-80, rose up to 29.22 per cent in 1984-85, 40.24 per cent in
1989-90 and 60.22 per cent in 1994-95. The irrigated area under sugarcane
was 48.11 per cent in 1979-80, rising to 64.45 per cent in 1984-85, 85.0
per cent in 1989-90 and 90.76 per cent in 1994-95. The irrigated area
under gram and sugarcane has increased much faster than any other crops
in the region, mainly due to the diffusion of new variety of concern crops
which is grown with the help of irrigation. The irrigated area under peas
was 58.80 per cent in 1979-80 and rose to 62.27 per cent in 1984-85,
later on it declined to 42.94 per cent in 1989-90 and 36.65 per cent in
154
1994-95. The total area of rapeseed and mustard under irrigation was
49.71 per cent in 1979-80 and it increased to 48.35 percent in 1984-85,
but slightly diminished to 45.87 per cent in 1989-90 and further increased
to 47.53 per cent in 1994-95.
During 1979-80, only 36.90 per cent of the total area under food-
crops were irrigated in the region. But afterwards with support of
governmental agencies and expansion of irrigation facilities, extensive
area of food crops came under irrigation. In the year 1979-80 irrigated
area of food crops was 36.90 per cent which expands to 40.33 per cent in
1984-85, 42.46 per cent in 1989-90 and 44.98 per cent in 1994-95. The
increase in the irrigated area under various crops may be seen as a
consciousness and awakening among farmers and the begining of
revolution which is highly diffused in the agricultural development of
Uttarakhand.
155
References
1. Chand, K.P. and Swarup, R. (1988) : Development of Agriculture in

Himachal Pradesh, some issues, Agricultural Situation in India, vol.
XLII, No. 11, p. 951.
2. Coutinho, O. and Shara, T.C. (1992) : Cropping intensity in Uttar

Pradesh, in Noor Mohammad (eds.) : Spatial dimension in
Agriculture, Concept publishing company, New Delhi, pp. 237-244.
3. Hayami, Y. and Ruttan, Vernon (1971) : Agricultural Development:

An International perspective, the John Hopkins, University Press,
Baltimore.
4. Kharkwal, S.C. and Teli, B.C. (1987) : Landuse and cropping pattern
in Garhwal Himalaya, in U.P.S. Pangtey and S.C. Joshi (eds).
Western Himalaya : Problem and Development, vol. II, Gyanodaya
Prakashan, Nainital, pp. 463-475.
5. Mohammad, Noor and Bamdooni, S.K. (1992) : Monitoring of

landuse and Agriculture in a Hilly Region : A Case Study of Pauri-
Garhwal District, The Geographer, vol. 39, No. 2, July, pp. 7-19.
6. Mohammad, Noor (1978) : Agricultural landuse in India, Inter-India

Publication, Delhi, pp. 75-76.
7. Munir, A. & Siddiqui, S.H. (1994) : Agricultural modernization in

Uttar Pradesh, The Geographer, vol. XLI, No. 1, January.
8. Pant, B.R., R.C. Joshi and Jalal, D.S. (1992): Agricultural Panorama
of Uttarakhand in Noor Mohammad (ed), Spatial dimension in
Agriculture, Concept publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 81-94.
9. Shafi, M. (1983) : Trends in Area, and production of foodgrains in

India, The Geographer, vol. 30, No. 2.
156
10. Singh, Jasbir et al. (1988) : Agro-Environmental Units and Agri-

cultural Landuse Planning.
11. Shukla, S.P. (1983) : Agricultural Potential and planning, Hill

Regions in India, with special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh,
Chugh Publication, Allahabad.
12. Singh, G. (1979) : Agricultural Development in the Hills, Case Study

of Operaitonal Research Project, Fakat (Tehri-Garhwal), Journal of
Himalayan Studies and Regional Development, pp. 27-31.
13. Swarup, R. et al. (1983) : Agricultural Development in Himachal

Pradesh, Agricale Publishing Academy, New Delhi.
14. Siddiqui, S.H. (1990) : Trends of Agricultural Development in the

North Bihar Plain, The Geographer, vol. 38, NO. 2, July, pp. 46-57.
15. Siddiqui, S.H. (1994) : The Pattern of Irrigation in the North Bihar
plain. Geographical Review of India, vol. 51, pp. 55-64.
16. Siddiqui, F.M. (1990) : Agriculture in Bundelkhand (U.R) : A Study

of Post-independence Changes, The Geographer, vol. 38, No. 1, Jan.
pp. 50-56.
17. Tewari, R.T. (1983) : District-wise Pattern of Development in Uttar

Pradesh, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow.
18. Rao, V.L.S. Prakash (1986) : Landuse Survey of India, in RS. Tewari
(ed). Agricultural Geography, vol. VIII, Herotage Publication, New
Delhi, pp. 28-43.
19. Verma, K.K. (1982) : Agricultural Growth of Major Oilseeds Crops

in India, Agricultural Situation in India, vol. 35, No. 5.
157
The development of irrigation affects agriculture in several ways,
first it makes the outcome of crops more certain than its absence.
Instability of yield should decline with the advent of irrigation, it
immediately leads to change in croping pattern. The crop that remain under
dry cultivation in the concerned region may not enjoy this benefit of
reduced instability. Thus the immediate impact is on cropping pattern
leading to a shift from less remunerative to more remunerative crops such
as paddy, and sugarcane which required an assured water supply. Irrigation
is also expected to increase overall agricultural productivity, having low
yielding crops and unstable yields,enjoys the privilege of a more stable
and higher value of output with the introduction of irrigation.
Irrigation
Irrigation in hilly region in general depends on precipitation for
agricultural crops. Rainwater and snow both get soaked into the soil and
then percolates into the ground through pores and crevices and reappear in
the form of spring. Spring water may be collected in tanks, and stored for
irrigation during the periods of scarcity and it can be used for irrigation at
almost all altitudes. The water is carried through surface channels called
gools in to the fields located at lower levels. Besides, irrigation in
Uttarakhand is also achieved through two different sources, firstly by
channelising surface water from rivers, wells and other sources and
secondly, by taping subsoil water through wells, tube wells and pumpsets.
The main sources of irrigation in the region are canals, tubewells and other
sources i.e. wells, ponds, lake and tanks.

158
The substantial increase of the net area irrigated by various
sources in the Uttarakhand is given in Table 4.1. The data in table refers to
four periods i.e. 1979-80, 1984-85, 1989-90 and 1994-95. It may be
concluded from the table that tubewell alone irrigates 40.31 percent of the
total irrigated area whereas canal irrigation occupy second position with
33.42 percent of the total irrigated area.
There has been significant increase in areas irrigated by tubewells
and other sources during the same periods. It may be seen from the Table
4.1 that 0.34 lakh hectares of irrigated area was added between 1979-80
and 1989-90 and 0.16 lakh hectares from 1989-90 to 1994-95. It is also
noticeable that there was an increase in net irrigated area of about 0.51
lakh hectares between the periods 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Table 4.2 shows the district wise irrigated area under three major
sources viz. proportion of area irrigated by canals, tubewells and other
sources. The table also shows intensity of irrigation with respect to the
net irrigated area in each of the districts of Uttarakhand region. The overall
intensity of irrigation on the basis of percentage share of the net irrigated
area to the district-wise net cropped area have been grouped into high,
medium and low grade. It can be seen from the Fig. 4.2 in which the share
of all the eight districts with respect to different sources of irrigation is
presented. It is quite clear from the table 4.2 that the districts having more
than 30 per cent of the net cropped area under irrigation fall under high
extent of irrigation availability. The districts having an irrigated area
between 15 to 20 per cent of the net cropped area was considered as
medium grade while the areas less than 15 per cent of the net cropped area
under irrigation are place under low grade of irrigation.

159
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160
There are two districts, namely Nainital and Dehradun which have
high extent of irrigated area. The irrigated area in these districts varies
from 90.8 to 38.38 per cent of the net cropped area. The high extent of
irrigation is seen in south eastern and south-western part of the
Uttarakhand. The area with medium extent of irrigation is covers only two
districts, namely Uttarkashi and Tehri Garhwal, whereas the low extent of
irrigation is found in large areas, lying east-central, north-eastern, north-
central, and south-central part of the region. It includes the district of
Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal (Fig. 4.1).
Table 4.2
District-wise distribution of irrigated area by different sources in

Uttarakhand (1994-95)
(Figures in percentage)
Name of the Canals Tube-wells Other Net Irrigated

Districts Sources area to net
cropped area
Nainital 31.53 53.56 14.91 90.08
Almora 39.85 - 60.15 9.73
Pithoragarh 21.27 - 78.73 7.57
Chamoli 62.06 - 37.94 5.60

Uttarkashi 60.60 - 39.40 17.35
Tehri-Garhwal 13.21 - 87.79 15.04
Pauri-Garhwal 37.31 5.58 57.11 9.63
Dehradun 47.96 10.46 41.58 38.38
Total 33.42 40.31 26.27 35.40
Uttarkhand
Sources : Agricultural Statistics (1994-95) Directorate of Agriculture
and Crop Insurance, Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh.
161
UTTARAKHAND
P E R C E N T A G E OF C R O P P E D A R E A I R R I G A T E D
1 9 9 4 - 95
INDEX VALUE
H I G H A B O V E 30
MUDIUM 15-30
LOW BELOW 15
20 0 20 40 60
Urn I I I
Km$
nG.4.10
162
Canals
It is evident from Table 4.1 that the area irrigated by canal in
1994-95 was 0.82 lakh hectares or 33.42 per cent of the net irrigated area
in the region. Canal irrigation is extensive in Chamoli and Uttarkashi
district, where more than 60 per cent of the net irrigated area receives
water through this source. Inspite of it, there are four more district viz.
Nainital, Almora, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun where canal irrigates 31.53
to 47.96 per cent of the net irrigated area while the remaining two districts
namely Pithoragarh and Tehri-Garhwal have a lower share with less than 30
per cent of their cultivated area under canal irrigation (Fig. 4.2).
Tube wells
Tube well irrigation is of recent origin in India and the rate of its
adoption to every parts of the country has been very fast. It has changed
the cropping pattern of many parts of the country, which were earlier
beyond the reach of irrigation water.
The net irrigated area by tube-wells in Uttarakhand was 0.98 lakh
hectares or 40.31 per cent of the total irrigated area in 1994-95. The
tubewells irrigation is the most extensive in Nainital districts, where more
than 50 per cent of the net irrigated area covered under this source, while
there are two more districts namely, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun,
comprising 6.0 per cent and 10 per cent of the net irrigated area
respectively, irrigated by tubewells. The tube well irrigation is absent in
Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-
Garhwal (Fig. 4.1).

163
UTTARAKHAND
SOURCES OF IRRIGATION
199A- 95
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Ih4
Other Sources
In the areas where irrigation from canal and tube wells are not
appropriate, irrigation from other sources acts as a good supplement. The
other sources includes tanks, lakes, ponds and wells, irrigated 0.64 lakh
hectares or 26.27 per cent of the net irrigated area in 1994-95 in
Uttarakhand. Table indicates that there are only three districts namely
Pithoragarh, Tehri-Garhwal and Almora district which occupies more than
60 per cent of the net area irrigated from other sources. While the
districts of Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Dehradun and Pauri Garhwal, where
irrigation from other sources irrigate 37.94 per cent to 57.11 per cent of
the net irrigated area. The remaining districts namely, Nainital has a least
share with less than 30 per cent of their cropped area under irrigation by
other sources (Fig. 4.2).
Fertilizers
The finding of first and second five year plan pointed out that
under conditions prevalent in India, fertilizers are responsible for an
increase of about 45 per cent in the agricultural production. In the new
strategy, fertilizer has been regarded as kingpin, because when soil fertility
is low, better performance of crop productivity failed to achieve. The
continuous deteriorating soil fertility on account of regular cultivation can
also be replenished to a great extent by re-supplying nitrogen in the soil
through the use of fertilizer, and subsequently enhance the agricultural
productivity per unit area. Recent studies and FAO's reports have pointed
out that the use of fertilizers is the most important component of
agricultural development, because wherever efforts are being made to

165
increase agricultural efficiency and productivity to meet the demand of
rising population; more fertilizers and manures have been invariably used.
Application of fertilizers normally have positive effect to increase crop
yield per hectare. Generally, it is observed that application of fertilizer
with irrigation can ensure an increase in the quantum of production. It has
also been experienced that even during abnormal rainfall, fertilized crops
give higher yields, than unfertilized crops. The reason is that fertilized
crops get a good initial start and better development of both root and
shoot, which enable them to endure drought to a greater extent than
unfertilized crops. The Indian farmers became fertilizer minded and is
ready to invest in the field, if its supply is assured to him at prices within
their reach. The researches reveal that continuous use of chemical
fertilizers reduce the humus content of the soil. In the absence of the
humus, the physical structure of soil undergoes vast changes and the
texture of fertile soil is lost and ultimately soil may lose its water
retaining and absorbing capacity. Substitution by organic manures,
therefore is necessary to save the fertility of soil.
In view of its overwhelming impact on agricultural production, it
seems necessary to study the consumption level of fertilizers in
Uttarakhand. Table 4.4 shows that the consumption of fertilizers has
substantially increased in the region from 1979-80 to 1989-90 but it
declined in 1994-95. Nutrient-wise consumption indicates that the
application of nitrogen was 24,924 metric tonnes in 1979-80 but its
quantity rose one and half times to 37,490 metric tonnes in 1984-85, it
further rose VA times to 54,049 in 1989-90 and it again increased to

166
57,373 metric tonnes in 1994-95. The other nutrients, like potassium has
shown a similar pattern of increased in region. In the year 1979-80, 3,247
metric tonnes of potassium was distributed to the farmers but in
subsequent year it increased to 4,869 metric tonnes in 1984-85, 5,019
metric tonnes in 1989-90 and 5,663 metric tonnes in 1994-95. But the
phosphate application has not shown similar pattern of increased
utilization during the year 1979-80 but it went upto 12.486 metric tonnes
in 1984-85, and 19,465 metric tonnes in 1989-90 but it decreased to
13,947 metric tonnes in the subsequent year i.e. 1994-95. The overall
consumption of fertilizers (NPK) has considerably increased in ten years
period from 35,580 metric tonnes in 1979-80 to 78,533 metric tonnes in
1989-90, but it declined to 76,983 metric tonnes in 1994-95 (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3
Nutrient-wise availablity of fertilizers in Uttarakhand
(in metric tonnes)
Year PzO. K,0 Total
1979-80 24,924 7,409 3,247 35,580

1984-85 37,490 12,486 4,869 54,845
1989-90 54,049 19,465 5,019 78,533
1994-95 57,373 13,947 5,663 76,983
Sources : Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop

Insurance, Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh.
The total consumption of fertilizers in kilogram per hectare of
cropped land is given in Table 4.4. It is obvious from the table, that the
farmer has gradually become aware of the benefit of fertilizer application

167
and has therefore progressively increased its per hectare consumption in
the region. The actual quantity of fertilizers applied in 1979-80 was 31.26
kg per hectare but it rose upto 67.43 kg per hectare in 1994-95.
Table 4.4
Levels of fertilizers consumption in Uttarakhand
(Kg per hectare)
Year P.O, K,0 Total
1979-80 21.90 6.51 2.85 31.26

1984-85 32.53 10.83 4.22 48.58
1989-90 48.80 17.57 4.53 70.90
1994-95 50.25 12.22 4.96 67.43
Sources : Agricultural Statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop

Insurance, Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh.
There are however local variations in the extent of fertilizer
consumption in the region. Table 4.5 shows that the district-wise consump-
tion level of fertilizers in Uttarakhand. It reveals that in 1979-80, the
application of fertilizers ranged from 1.76 kg per hectare in district Tehri-
Garhwal to 94.60 kg per hectare in district Nainital, but in 1994-95 the
use of fertilizers varied from 2.91 kg per hectare in district Pauri Garhwal
to 206.09 kg per hectare in Nainital. The distribution of fertilizers
consumption has depicted in Fig. 4.3 for the year 1994-95 shows that
Nainital and Dehradun districts have high doses of fertilizer consumption
with 206.09 kg per hectare and 46.37 kg per hectare respectively.
Table 4.5 reveals that with the exception of a few pockets of high
consumption of fertilizer, the overall consumption of fertilizers are

168
UTTARAKHAND
FERTILIZER C O N S U M P T I O N
1994 - 95
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 30
MEDIUM 5-30
LOW BELOW 5
20 0 20 40 60
u. 1 I I I
Km$
nG.4.10
169
recorded low in Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal
and Pauri-Garhwal, where the rate of consumption of fertilizer varies from
2.91 to 5.69 kg per hectare. However, two districts namely Almora and
Uttarkashi have decreased in their fertilizer consumption as compared to
previous years.
Table 4.5
District-wise levels of fertilizers consumption in Uttarakhand

(Kg per hectares)
Name of 1979-80 1994-95

the Districts Metric NPKkg Metric NPKkg
tonnes per hectares tonnes per hectares
Nainital 31913 94.60 70534 206.09
Almora 803 4.30 717 3.81
Pithoragarh 239 1.88 505 3.43
Chamoli 221 3.40 281 3.87
Uttarkashi 288 6.10 291 5.69
Tehri-Garhwal 205 1.76 340 2.95

Pauri-Garhwal 282 1.90 408 2.91
Dehradun 1629 18.26 3904 46.37
Total Uttarakhand 35580 31.26 76983 67.43
Sources : Agricultural statistics, Directorate of Agriculture and Crop

Insurance, Krishi Bhavan, Lucknow, Uttar-Pradesh.
Agricultural Implements and Machinery
All agricultural operations, particularly those concerning cultiva-
tion of plants necessitates the use of some implements or machine. Most
of the tools and implements that are in use today in our country is
] 70
undergoing through continuous and gradual changes based on farmers
experience and technological innovations. Therefore, these are in
consonance with the local conditions of soil, climate, cropping practices,
working capacity of men and animals, availability and use of power. In
order to create favourable soil conditions for the germination of seeds and
for a proper growth of crop plants, land needs to be tilled. It is generally
done with the help of various types of ploughs, of which the wooden one is
the most common. In hilly area where the fields are stony and sometimes
so narrow as not to allow turning of the bullocks, spade and pick-axe, are
the only options employed for this purpose. Therefore agricultural
implements and machinery are strong inputs for better productivity of land,
because their use increases farm efficiency, save time and minimize
production cost. The kind of machinery is changing fast, the older ones are
replaced by better performing new ones leading to further increases in
farm efficiency. It is better to know the position of agricultural
implements and machinery in two periods for assessing the nature of
agricultural development.
Tractors
It is estimated that in India about one million farmers have their
own tractors and another three million farmers depend on hiring facilities.
Tractors have helped them to raise agricultural production, enhancing their
returns and saving. It is also a means of transportation of agricultural

171
inputs and agricultural produce from rural area to market for sale, It is
also used in operating other machines like irrigaiton pumps, winnowers
and threshing.
Table 4.6 reveals that the average number of tractors was 5 per
thousand hectares of cultivated land in the period 1979-80 which rose up
to 15 tractors per thousand hectares of cultivated land in 1994-95. Table
4.6 also shows that during 1979-80, the high concentration of tractors per
thousand hectares of cultivated land is found in Nainital districts i.e. 17
tractors, while in Dehradun it is 5 tractors but the remaining districts of
the region is having negligible number of tractors, due to the stony hill
areas that creates an obstacles in the process of land tilling, which required
improved tools such as harrow and cultivator being used extensively in the
hill districts of Uttarakhand.
In 1994-95, the number of tractors have increased to 47 and 19
tractors per thousand hectares of cultivated land in Nainital and Dehradun
respectively, whereas the remaining districts of Uttarakhand have less than
1 tractors per thousand of cultivated land.

172
Table 4.12
District-wise distribution of tractors in Uttarakhand
1979-80 1994 -95

Name of Total Number of Total Number of
the Districts Number tractor per number tractor per
'000' hectare '000' hectarc
cultivated cultivated
land land
Nainital 3715 17.44 7464 46.76

Almora 2 0.02 11 0.09
Pithoragarh - - 1 0.06
Chamoli - - - -
Uttarkashi - - 2 0.06
Tehri-Garhwal - - - -
Pauri-Garhwal 4 0.03 50 0.56

Dehradun 304 5.10 1031 18.74
Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economics and Statistics Division, State

Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
Pumpsets
Pumpsets (diesel and electric both) plays a vital role in the
development of agriculture. The use of pumpsets for irrigation registered
a sharp increase during the period between 1979-80 and 1994-95. In 1979-
80, the total number of pumpsets was 8,418 which rose up to 23,464 in
1994-95. Their intensity of use in relation to the cultivated land on an
average stands at 12 pumpsets per thousand hectare of cultivated land in
1979-80 which increased to 33 pumpsets per thousand hectares of
cultivated land in 1994-95. The distribution of pumpsets, used in each

173
districts of Uttarakhand is shown in Table 4.7. Table reveals that
concentration of pumpsets are found in two districts namely, Nainital and
Dehradun in session 1979-80 and 1994-95. Whereas the rest of district is
having negligible number of pumpsets viz. less than 1 pumpsets per
thousand hectares of cultivated land.
Table 4.7
District-wise distribution of pumpsets in Uttarakhand
1979-80 1994-95
the Districts mumber pumpset per number pumpset per
'000' hectare '000' hectare
land land
Nainital 8169 38.36 23172 114.50

Almora 9 0.08 14 0.12
Pithoragarh 2 0.02 5 0.06
Chamoli - - - -
Uttarkashi - - 2 0.06
Tehri-Garhwal 3 0.03 7 0.10
Pauri-Garhwal 4 0.03 10 0.11
Dehradun 231 2.86 5.50

Wooden plough
Table 4.8 shows the distribution of wooden plough per thousand
hectare of cultivated land in Uttarakhand. The number of wooden plough
per thousand hectare of cultivated land has increased during the year 1979-
174
80 to 1994-95. There is only one district namely, Chamoli which placed
under high concentration of wooden plough with index range above 1000
whereas the medium level of concentration of wooden plough exists in
extensive areas of Uttarakhand. It includes the districts of Almora,
Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal, with index
ranges between 500 to 1000. The remaining two districts viz. Nainital and
Dehradun placed under low level of wooden plough concentration with
index below 500 (Fig. 4.4).
Table 4.8
District-wise distribution of wooden plough in Uttarakhand
(Area in hectares)
1979-80 1994-95
the Districts Number wooden plough number wooden plough
'000 hectares •000 hectares
land land
Nainital 44552 209.24 36614 180.91

Almora 105014 915.60 113459 988.90
Pithoragarh 67053 854.74 87946 1033.67
Chamoli 53377 1175.26 62636 1303.00
Uttarkashi 30410 931.10 32830 955.11
Tehri-Garhwal 67000 884.93 85487 1196.40
Pauri-Garhwal 70587 652.70 88252 990.81
Dehradun 28642 479.30 24266 441.14
Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economic & Statistics Division, State

175
UTTARAKHAND
D I S T R I B U T I O N O F ^^'OODEN P L O U G H
(1979-80)
INDEX VALUE
MEDIUM 500 - 1000
LOW B E L O W 500
20 20 40 60
u. I I I
Kms
FIG. 4 . 4
176
UTTARAKHAND
D I S T R I B U T I O N OF W O O D E N P L O U G H
(1994 95)
INDEX VALUE
MEDIUM 500 - 1000
LOW B E L O W 500
20• • 0• 20 40 60
Kstii
nG.4.10
177
During 1994-95, three district namely Pithoragarh, Chamoli and
Tehri-Garhwal have occupied the place of high concentration of wooden
plough, while the medium range of concentration of wooden plough also
covered in three district namely, Almora, Uttarkashi and Pauri-Garhwal.
The low level of wooden plough concentration is almost the same as in
previous year (Fig. 4.5).
Iron plough
Table 4.9 indicates that the concentration of Iron plough per
thousand hectare of cultivated land in Uttarakhand. The trend of use of iron
plough in all the districts has increased during the year 1979-80 to 1994-
95. The substantial increase during above period is due to technological
breakthrough in the region. The highest use of iron plough was recorded in
only two districts namely, Nainital and Dehradun, with index range above
60. The medium concentration of the number of iron plough ranging
between 30 to 60 per thousand hectares of cultivated land is found in
Pauri-Garhwal district, while the low concentration of iron plough per
thousand hectares of cultivated land has been found in the remaining
districts like Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal.
In these districts number of iron plough was below 30 (Fig. 4.6).

178
Table 4.12
District-wise distribution of iron plough in Uttarakhand
1979-80 1994-95
the districts number iron plough number iron plough
'000' hectare '000' hectare
land land
Nainital 43662 205.00 46009 227.33

Almora 383 3.34 1304 11.36
Pithoragarh 914 11.65 1415 16.63
Chamoli 1169 25.75 2114 43.97
Uttarkashi 55 1.70 657 19.11
Tehri-Garhwal 66 0.90 4 0.05
Pauri-Garhwal 3470 32.10 2849 32.00
Dehradun 5611 93.10 8729 158.70
Total Uttarakhand 55330 74.41 63.081 90.10
Sources : Statistical Abstract, Economic & Statistics Division, State

During 1994-95, there are two districts namely, Nainital and
Dehradun which remained same as in the previous year. The medium
concentration of iron plough is shown in Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal
district and the remaining all districts occupies the low level of
concentration of iron plough. They includes the district of Almora,
Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal. In the above districts, the
concentration of iron plough per thousands hectare of cultivated land is
recorded below 30 (Fig. 4.7).

179
UTTAR.4KHAND
DISTRIBUTION OF IRON PLOUGH
(1979-80)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 60
MEDIUM 3 0 - 611
LOW B E L O W 3U
20 20
' 40
• 60
•
Kms
nG.4.10
180
UTTARAKHAND
DISTRIBUTION OF IRON PLOUGH
(1994-95)
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
nG.4.10
181
Area u n d e r high yielding varieties of seeds
The Green Revolution in mid sixties, which emphasized the
research & development and use of high-yielding varieties of seeds throw
new rays of hope and confidence towards increasing the agricultural
productivity in India to assured the food security for the growing
population of India. The HYV of seeds is an important inputs of
agricultural production under the green revolution. They help in double
cropping, their short stem can easily carry a heavy fertilizers load and
resists wind damage and their larger leaf surface helps in the process of
photosynthesis. A number of high yielding varieties of seeds of major
cereals have developed at various agricultural institute since 1966-67 and
released by various agricultural department to the farmers for use. Table
4.10 shows the district-wise area covered by HYV of rice, wheat and maize
in the year 1979-80 and 1994-95 in Uttarakhand and their percentage to
the total cropped area are shown in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9.
The coverage of area under high yielding variety in 1994-95 was
6,83,543 hectares in the region. The adoption has phenomenally increased
from 27.73 per cent in 1979-80 to 59.87 percent in 1994-95. It can be
seen from Table 4.10 and Fig. 4.8 that in 1979-80, only one district namely
Nainital was under high category with more than 50 per cent of gross
cropped area under HYV seeds. The medium category of adoption was seen
in two district namely, Uttarkashi and Dehradun where the total area under
HYV of seeds ranges between 20 to 40 per cent of the gross cropped area.
The remaining districts were placed under low category where the area
under HYV of seed lying below 20 per cent of the gross cropped area.
182
The performance of cereals under this programme was better in
1994-95, in comparison to that of 1979-80. The district of Nainital and
Dehradun was placed under high category with more than 60 per cent of
the gross cropped area under high yielding varieties of seeds. The medium
range of utilization was seen in four district viz. Almora, Pithoragarh,
Chamoli and Uttarkashi where the total area under HYV of seeds range
between 50 to 60 per cent of the gross cropped area. All the remaining
districts lying in the west-central and south central part of Uttarakhand
also improved their areas and yet they placed in low range as in previous
year. The high yielding varieties of seeds under this category occupies
below 50 per cent of the gross cropped area in the study region (Fig. 4.9).
Table 4.10
Percentage of area under high yielding varieties of seeds from

gross cropped area in Uttarakhand
1979-80 1994-95
Name of Area in Percentage to Are in Percentage to
the districts hectares gross cropped hectares gross croped
area area
Nainital 172221 50.75 234911 68.64

Almora 30255 16.06 103424 55.02
Pithoragarh 20680 15.40 96885 54.60
Chamoli 10565 15.30 42443 57.69
Uttarkashi 15225 32.22 28470 55.08
Tehri-Garhwal 20906 18.00 56642 49.14
Pauri-Garhwal 19875 12.64 67295 47.98
Dehradun 25749 29.93 53473 63.52
183
UTTARAKHAND
AREA U N D E R HIGH YIELDING VARIETIES OF S E E D S
1979 - 80
INDEX VALUE
MEDIUM 20-40
LOW B E L O W 2U
20 20 40 60
I— I I I
Km:
nG.4.10
184
UTTARAKHAND
A R E A U N D E R fflGH YIELDING VARIETIES O F S E E D S
1 9 9 4 - 95
INDEX VALUE
H I G H A B O V E 6(1
MEDIUM 5i.>. 60
LOW B E L O W 5f)
20 0• 20
• 40
• 60
•
u-
Kms
nG.4i>
185
Agricultural credit societies
The role of agricultural credit is of immense importance in the
process of agricultural development. Farming as a business, need a large
amount of capital, therefore farmers requires agricultural credit for
various purposes such as to meet the cultivation expenses, purchase of
agricultural implements and other materials, to purchase new land for
cultivation, to acquire irigation facilities. Hence co-operative banks are
regarded as one of the best agencis to povide productive loans to the
farmers for purchasing different agricultural inputs. The loan is sanctioned
to farmers according to the expenditure incurred in production in various
crops. Table 4.11 indicates that the total number of agricultural credit
societies has slightly increased from 738 to 747 during period 1979-80 to
1994-95. As against this," the number of agricultural credit societies per
lakh of population was 19.30 in 1979-80 but it declined to 12.60 in
1994-95.
Table 4.11 also shows district wise availability of agricultural
credit societies per lakh of population for the period 1979-80 and 1994-
95. The distribution of agricultural co-operative societies for the period
1979-80 is shown in Fig. 4.10. It can be seen from the figures that only
two districts namely, Pithoragarh and Uttarkashi was placed under high
category with more than 30 agricultural credit societies per lakh of
population. The district which falls under medium category with 15 to 30
co-operative societies per lakh of population are Chamoli, Tehri-Garhwal,
and Pauri-Garhwal. The remaining all districts namely, Nainital, Almora
and Dehradun with below 15 agricultural co-operative societies were

186
placed under low category. During 1994-95, there were recorded decrease
in the number of agricultural credit co-operative societies in each district
as compared to earlier session (1979-80). It may be seen from the Figure
4.11 that the district Pithoragarh and Uttarkashi retain in the high category
with more than 20 agricultural co-operative societies per lakh of
population, while the medium category occupying four district namely,
Almora, Chamoli, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal, ranges between 10 to
20. The district of Nainital and Dehradun having less than 10 agricultural
co-operative society and falls under low category.
Table 4.11
District-wise number of agricultural credit societies per lakh of

population in Uttarakhand
1979-80 1994-95
the districts number agricultural number agricultural
credit societies credit societies
per lakh of per lakh of
population population
Nainital 84 10.75 89 5.77

Almora 106 14.13 107 12.78
Pithoragarh 137 43.66 138 24.36
Chamoli 76 25.96 77 16.92
Uttarkashi 51 34.50 51 21.27
Tehri-Garhwal 105 26.42 106 18.27
Pauri-Garhwal 138 24.95 136 19.92
Dehradun 41 7.10 43 4.19
Sources : Statistical Abstract, Directorate of Economics and Statistics

Division, State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
187
UTTARAKHAND
AGRICULTURAL C R E D I T S O C I E T I E S
( P E R LAKH OF P O P U L A T I O N )
1979 80
INDEX VALUE
H I G H ABOVE 30
MEDIUM 15 - 30
LOW B E L O W 15
20 G 20 40 60
I I I
Kms
nG.4.10
188
UTTARAKHAND
AGRICULTURAL CREDIT SOCIETIES
( P E R LAKH OF P O P U L A T I O N )
1994-95
INDEX VALUE
MEDIUM 10-20
LO\X B E L O W 10
20 0 20 40 60
I I I I I I
Kms
nG.4.10
189
Agricultural Workers
The agricultural workers directly or indirectly plays an important
role in numerous activities such as preparation of field, showing of seeds,
application of fertilizers, irrigation and threshing, specially in traditional
agricultural economy. On the other hand, its expands, is explained regional
disparities in rural economic development in general and agricultural
growth in particular. The total number of agricultural workers are
increasing gradually but the percentage of agricultural workers to the main
workers are decreasing year after year. Table 4.12 illustrates that the
number of agricultural workers were 12,05,618 lakhs in the year 1971 in
the region but it rose upto 13,90,495 lakhs workers in 1991. The total
increase in the number over the base year (1971) was of 1,84,877 lakhs
workers (15.33 per cent). As against this, the share of agricultural workers
to the main workers was 75.23 per cent in 1971, but it declined to 64.53
per cent agricultural workers in 1991. The total decrease in percentage
over the previous year was 10.7 (-14.22 per cent). The district-wise
distribution of agricultural workers and their percentage to the main
workers are shown in Table 4.13 and their concentration focussed in Figs.
4.12 & 4.13. Table reveals that the percentage of agricultural workers to
the main workers are decreasing in each districts during 1971 to 1991
census year.
190
Table 4.12
Number of agricultural workers in Uttarakhand
Year Total agricultural workers Percentage of agricultural

(Cultivator + Ag.labourers) workers to the main workers
1971 12,05,618 75.23
1981 12,13,136 69.31
1991 13,90,495 64.53
Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B ( l ) , New Delhi, 1971,

1981 and 1991.
Table 4.13
District-wise distribution of agricultural workers in Uttarakhand
1971 1991
Name of Total Percentage of Total Percentage of
the districts agri. agri.workers agri. agri.workers
workers to the main workers to the main
workers workers
Nainital 1,69,579 64.01 2,97,175 59.63
Almora 2,45,148 84.14 2,60,482 77.42

Pithoragarh 1,01,787 80.82 1,72,533 74.23
Chamoli 1,47,604 86.95 1,42,267 73.93
Uttarkashi 81,621 86.90 90,693 78.87
Tehri-Garhwal 1,87,210 91.50 1,81,314 78.93
Pauri-Garhwal 1,99,143 79.31 1,39,856 64.20
Dehradun 73,526 36.57 1,06,175 31.92
Total 12,05,618 75.23 13,90,495 64.53

Uttarakhand
Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B(l), New Delhi, 1971 and
1991.
191
UTTARAKHAND
D I S T R I B U T I O N OF AGRICULTURAL WORIOERS
1971
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 70
MEDIUM 35-70
LOW B E L O W 35
20 0 20 40 50
I I I
Kms
nG.4.10
192
UTTARAKHAND
D I S T R I B U T I O N OF AGRIC11LTIIR.4L W O R K E R S
1991
INDEX V.\LUE
HIGH 70
MEDIUM 3 5 - 70
LOW B E L O W 35
20 0 20 40 60
t i l I I I
Km;
nG.4.10
193
Figures 4.13 emphasized that, according to census year 1991, the
high concentration of Agricultural workers to the main workers localised
in the district of Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Tehri
Garhwal, where the number of workers to the main workers are above 70
per cent. Afterwards the number of agricultural workers are decline
gradually. Th emedium concentration of agricultural workers are found in
south-eastern and south-central part of the study region. It includes the
district of Nainital and Pauri-Garhwal, the percentage of agricultural
workers ranges between 35 to 70 per cent. Further away on the district of
south-west namely Dehradun, where the percentage of agricultural workers
to the main workers was recorded below 35 per cent.
Literacy
Literacy plays a very important role in the understanding of social
problem. It enhance our ability to develop solutions for these problems.
'The education of the workers, whether they are working in agriculture or
industry, helps them to do their work with skill, efficiency and hence they
produce more" (Phillips, 1971).
The role of education in agricultural development although
fundamental but not a direct one - can't be analysed systematically. But it
is important to note that education plays a vital role in the building up of
knowledge and the diffusion of agricultural innovations. It has been
observed during the green revolution that educated farmers were the first
to adopt research and innovation in agricultural technology, because they
know its use and benefits in agricultural production. Hence literacy has
been selected as one of the indicators to measure agricultural development

194
because new ideas and technique are adopted by educated farmers, which
lead towards the progress of agriculture. The rate of adoption of new ideas
and practices is higher among the literate farmers than their illiterate
counterparts. In order to assess the literacy pattern in Uttarakhand region,
a district-wise distribution of literate person and their percentage to total
population is given in Table 4.15and their high, medium and low
concentration is shown in Figures 4.14 & 4.15. Table 4.14 reveals that
there were 11,85,547 lakhs literate person in the region, accounting for
31.02 per cent of the total population in 1971. The total number of literate
person has increased to 18,99,799 lakhs or 39.28 per cent of the total
population in the census year 1981. Efforts of the government for
expansion of literacy i.e. National literacy mission, and adoption of adult
education programmes further increased the number of educated person to
28,90,672 lakhs or 48.78 per cent of the total population in the census
year 1991.
It is clear from the Fig. 4.14 that in 1971, the high concentration
with literacy above 40 per cent was seen in only one district, Dehradun,
whereas the medium concentration of literates person was recorded in
south-eastern, north-eastern and south-central portion of Uttarakhand. It
includes the district of Nainital, Pithoragarh and Pauri Garhwal. The
percentage of literate person to the total population in the above districts
ranges between 30 and 40 per cent. The remaining four district namely,
Almora, Chamoli, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal falls under low
concentration of literate person where the number of literate person lies
below 30 per cent of the total population.

195
Table 4.12
Number of literate persons in Uttarakhand
Year Total no. of literates Percentage of literate

persons to total population
1971 11,85,547 31.02
1981 18,99,799 39.28
1991 28,90,672 48.78
Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B(l), New Delhi, 1971,

1981 and 1991.
Table 4.15
District-wise distribution of literate persons In Uttarakhand
1971 1991
Name of Total Percentage of Total Percentage of
the districts no. of literates to no. of literates
literates total literates to total
population population
Nainital 2,52,370 31.94 7,04,252 45.72
Almora 2,10,584 28.08 3,99,659 47.80
Pithoragarh 99,987 31.87 2,73,119 48.22
Chamoli 83,884 28.67 2,25,280 49.52
Uttarkashi 32,577 22.04 91,999 38.38
Tehri-Garhwal 76,642 19.29 2,27,431 39.20
Pauri-Garhwal 1,76,971 32.00 3,71,544 54.43
Dehradun 2,52,532 43.74 5,97,388 58.24
Total 11,85,547 31.02 28,90,672 48.78

Uttarakhand
Sources : Census of India, Series-1, part II B(l), New Delhi, 1971and

1991.
196
UTTARAKHAND
D I S T R I B U T I O N OF LITERATE P E R S O N S
1971
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 40
MEDIUM 30-40
LOW B E L O W 30
20 0 20 40 60
III I I I
Kms
nG.4.10
197
UTTARAKHAND
D I S T R I B U T I O N OF LITERATE P E R S O N S
1991
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 50
MEDIUM - 50
LOW B E L O W 4U
20 0 2 •0 40 50
Kms
nG.4.10
198
During 1991, the percentage of literate to total population has
increased in each district Uttarakhand over the base year 1971. Fig. 4.15
demonstrates that high concentration of literate person was found in Pauri-
Garhwal and Dehradun district with more than 50 per cent literate person
to the total population, while the medium concentration of literates person
was recorded in Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh and Chamoli district where
the percentage of literate person ranges between 40 to 50 per cent. The
low concentration of literate perosn are recorded below 40 per cent to the
total population in remaining two districts namely Uttarkashi and Tehri-
Garhwal.
Land holdings
Operational holding is the fundamental unit of decision making in
Agriculture. Therefore, for all development programmes aimed at
improving the lot of individual cultivators, information of operational
holdings such as their number, size and area, assumed special importance.
The efficiency of Agricultural production, the margin of profit and the
scope of its developments are strongly influenced by the size of individual
holdings. The optimum size of holding is decided by factors like fertility
of soil, climate and economic condition of the farmers. Hence we can say
that land holdings also play an important role in the agrarian economy of
our countiy In India, operational holdings are very small, comprising with
size of less than 1 hectare. The number of land holdings is 30.7 million
and constitute more than 50 per cent of the total operational holding in the
country. The agricultural statistics department has recognised five main
classes of holdings as given in Table 4.16. For this purpose we have taken
two periods viz. 1976-77 and 1990-91 for the study.

199
Table 4.12
Number of land holdings under different categories in Uttarakhand
1976-77 1990-91
Size class Number of Percentage Number of Percentage
holdings from the holdings from the
(•000) total ('000) total
Marginal Holdings 527.52 71.50 537.5 71.20

(Below 1.0 ha)
Small holding 115.20 15.61 127.00 16.82

(1.0-2.0 ha)
Semi-medium 66.20 8.97 68.00 9.01

holding
(2.0-4.0 ha)
Medium holding 26.00 3.52 20.50 2.72

(4.0-10.0 ha)
Large holdings 2.90 0.40 1.90 0.25

(10.0 ha & above)
Total 737.82 100.00 754.90 100.00
Source : Statistical Abstract, Directorate of Economics and Statistics,

State Planning Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
Table 4.16 shows that during 1976-77, there were 737.92
thousand operational holdings in the region, of which 71.50 percent were
marginal or less than 1 hectare in size. But owing to increasing population,
a little bit of land holdings increased to 754.5 thousand in 1990-91, but
the percentage from the total, reduced to 71.24 in a one and half decade.
The number of small holdings of the size 1 to 2 hectares increased from
115.20 thousand to 127.00 thousand from 1976-77 to 1990-91, they
shared 15.61 percent of the total holdings, rose up to 16.83 percent in the
200
same decade. Semi-medium size holdings accounted for 66.20 thousand
hectares in 1976-77 and 68.00 thousand in 1990-91 and their share
increased from 8.97 to 9.01 per cent during the period 1976-77 to
1990-91.
The number of medium holdings of the size 4 to 10 hectares were
greatly affected, their percentage from the total holdings decreased from
3.52 to 2.72 percent from the period 1976-77 to 1990-91. However, the
large holdings were small in number. It was 0.40 per cent in 1976-77 and
further declined to 0.25 per cent in 1990-91. It is obvious from the above
analysis that only two categories of holdings viz. those below one hectare
and those with 1 to 2 hectares in size constitutes about more than 88 per
cent of the total holdings in Uttarakhand. The other three categories
contributes only 12 per cent of the total number of holdings. It is clear
from the above study that the majority of the farmers in the study region
have marginal and small agricultural land holdings for their livelihood
(Table 4.17 & 4.18).

201
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References
1. Chourasia and Singh (1972) : Economics of Local and High Yielding

Varieties of Paddy and Wheat in Panagar village of M.P. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Economics.
2. Choudhari, A.K. and A.S. Serohi (1974) : Allocation of Fertilizers

among crops and Regions in U.P., Indian Journal of Agricultural
Economics, vol. 27, No. 3, p. 47.
J. Gauny (1977) ; Agricultural Mechanisation, in C.L.A. Leaky and

J.B. Wilk (ed.) - Food Crops of the low land tropics, Oxford
University Press, p. 273.
4. Hanumantha Rao, C.H. (1979): Farm Mechanisation in CH. Shah (ed.)
- Agricultural Development of India, Policy and Problems, Bombay
p. 292.
5. Jain, H. (1988) : Contribution of New Teaching in Agriculture,
Kurukshetra, October.
6. Kadekodi, Gopal, K. (2000) : Towards sustainable water Resource
Management, in Gopal K. Kadekodi, et al. (eds.), Water in Kumaun,
pp. 81-126.
7. Muthiah, C. (1970): The Agricultural Labour problem in Tanjavar and
the New Agricultural Strategy, Indian Journal of Agricultural
Economics, Vol. 25, No. 3, p. 20.
8. Minhas and Vaidyanath (1976) : Spread of Area under High yielding
varieties in Punjab and Haryana and Factors Behind it, M.Phil.
Dissertation, JNU.
9. Nair, N.K. (1974) ; Education in Production, the Case of Indian
Agriculture, Productivity, Oct.-Dec.

204
10. Singh, S.K. (1981) : Electricity operated sources of Irrigation in

Eastern uttar Pradesh in Noor Mohammad (eds.) Perspective in
Agricultural Geography, vol. II, p. 485.
11. Singh, K.P. (1987) : Groundwater and Environment in R.K. Sapru

(ed.). Environmental Management in India, Ashish Publishing
House, New Delhi.
12. Shah, S.L. (1997) : A sustainable and Replicable Model of Eco-

development in Uttarakhand/Uttaranchal : Methodologies and
Strategies in S.L. Shah (ed), Sustainable and Replicable, pp. 1-86.
13. Siddiqui, S.H. (1989) : The pattern of Irrigation in the North Bihar
plain. Geographical Review of India, Vol. 51, No. 4, Dec. pp. 55-64.
205
The measurement of agricultural productivity is not a simple task,
as it involves a relationship between inputs and outputs in agricultural
production. Productivity is not a synonyms of fertility, it is generally used
to express the power of agriculture in a particular region to produce crops
without regards to whether that power is due to the bounty of nature or the
efforts of man (Jonhson, 1926). The term productivity has been used in
different meanings and has aroused many conflicting interpretation,
sometimes it is considered as the overall efficiency with which a
production system work, while in other words it may be defined as the
ratio of output to input in relation to land and overall resources employed
in Agriculture.
Thompson (1926) while measuring the relative productivity of
"British and Danish farming" emphasized and expressed it in terms of gross
output of crops and livestock. He considered the following seven
parameters : (i) the yield per acre of crops, (ii) the livestock per 100
acres, (iii) the gross production or output per 100 acres, (iv) the
proportion of arable land, (v) the no. of person employed, (vi) the cost of
production expressed in terms of wages and labour costs, rent or interest
and (vii) prices relative profitability and general economic conditions.
Buck (1937) assessed the agricultural progress in China by
adopting the approach of grain equivalent. For this purpose he converted
all the agricultural products into kilograms of grain equivalent in order to
select as a unit of measure a kilogram, with whatever kind of grain was
predominant in the region. A modification in this method was attempted by

206
Clark and Haswell (1967) by expressing the output in terms of Kilograms
of 'wheat equivalent' per head of population.
Ganguli (1938) in his study of Ganges valley presented a
theoretical discussion for computing productivity in agriculture. Firstly,
he took in to account the area under any crop "A" in a particular unit are
belonging to a certain region. This area is expressed as a proportion of the
total cropped area under all the selected crops. Secondly, Ganguly tried to
obtain the index number of yield. Thirdly, the proportion of the area under
A and the corresponding index number of yield were multiplied. There are
two advantages which are apparent by using this method i.e. a) the relative
importance of the crop A in that unit of study is assessed as indicated by
the proportion of the cropped area which is under A and b) the yield of the
crop A in comparison to the regional standard. The product thus obtained
indicates actually an index of the contribution of the crop A to the
productivity of the unit considered.
Kendall (1939) treated it as a mathematical problem and
interrelated a system of four coefficient a) Productivity coefficient, b)
ranking coefficient, c) money value coefficiency and d) starch coefficient
or energy coefficient. According to him the productivity coefficient and
the ranking coefficient are concerned only with the yield per unit area, but
are not in any way weighted according to the volume of the production.
Kendall therefore evolved a measure of crop productivity by using index
number technique. In this technique the yield of different crops should be
expressed in terms of some common units, for this purpose he pointedout

207
two common units i) money value as expressed in price, ii) energy as
expressed in starch equivalent.
Kendall's money value index poses one major difficulty, that data
for certain crops are not available, for exmaple, there are many vegetables
and beans which are grown mostly for the consumption on the farms and
their price data are not recorded in contrast to cereal crops whose data are
adequate. While determining the money value coefficient, another
difficulty arises with regard to the prices - for example, the prices
prevailing in the area should be adopted, or those prevailing in the region
or in the country as a whole, in addition to the local variaitons in the prices
which depend on circumstances like proximity to the market or the
relative nutritive character of the product. Significant differences in prices
per tonne between the crop affect the final result heavily in favour of the
higher priced commodity. In this method, the crop production of each unit
area is valued by multiplying the volume of production of a particular crop
by the price, and then adds the results for the selected number of crops
together. The total is divided by the total acreage in the unit area a figure
of money value per acre per hectare under the crops considered so far as
energy coefficient is concerned, an index based on nutritional factor
ignores local variation because of the absence of data. Kendall therefore
suggests starch equivalent as the most suitable unit. While calculating a
coefficient based on starch equivalent it should be decided : (a) Whether a
gross or net digestable energy figure is to be taken, (b) whether any
allowance is to be made for by-products such as wheat and barley straws
or the green stalks of maize, jowar and bajra and (c) whether any acocunt
208
should be taken of the fact that the energy in certain foods has first to be
fed to livestock and then wheat and milk is used for human consumption.
The basic question that arises in this technique is whether the gross starch
equivalent of the various crops should be considered or the net equivalent.
Net energy refers to the amount of energy for work and body building
whereas a gross figure includes the energy employed in the digestive
process of the consuming animal and similar non-realisable forms. Kendall
suggested, that production of energy be preferred as the gross figures.
Hirsch (1943) has suggested, crop yield index as the basis of
productivity measurement, it expressed the average of the yields of various
crops on another farm in a second locality. Zobel (1950) has attempted to
determine the labour productivity. He considered the productivity of
labour as the ratio of the total output to the total man-hours consumed in
the production of that output resulting in output per man hours. This has
been expressed by the following equations
71= f(P, L)
where % - Productivity of labour
P = Production, and
L = Labour utilized.
Huntengton and Valkenburg (1952) considered land productivity
on the basis of acre yields of eight crops raised very widely in Europe. For
each crop, the average yield per acre for Europe as a whole was taken as an
index of 100, and specify yield in each country was calculated. Stamp
(1958)has choosen calorific value of farm production in measuring

209
agricultural productivity. He calculated the standard Nutrition Unit (SNU)
by converting all the food production per acre in calories. Taking into
consideration, the age structure of the population, the range of occupation,
the weight and height of the people living under climatic condition of
north western Europe, the average is 2.460 calories a day or about
9,00,000 calories per year". "The Nutrition Expert Group of Indian Council
of Medical Research has recommended the daily allowance of Nutrients
for Indians. They published a table show the caloric intake among adults
from 1900 a day for a women in sedentary work to 3900 for a man engaged
in heavy work. For children it was recommended 110 calories per kg
weight of the body per day for infants under one year to 3000 for teenage
boy.
Shafi (1960) has determined the agricultural efficiency in Uttar
Pradesh taking into consideration, eight food crops grown in each of the
48 districts of the state. Mackenzie (1962) has measured the efficiency of
production in Canadian agriculture by rising the coefficient of output
relative to input. He mentions, that the concept of productivity
measurement is difficult to define and even more difficult to quantify.
Commen (1962)while working out the trends of productivity in agriculture
of the state of Kerala (India) has measured productivity on the basis of
yield per acre.
Chatterji and Maitreya (1964) has calculated the levels of
agriculture development and productivity during 1950-51 to 1957-58 in
the states of West Bengal, taking two crops (Rice and Jute) in to
consideration they utilized the acre yield figure for this purpose". Enyedi
210
(1964) while describing geographical types of agriculture in Hungary
applied the following formula for calculating agricultural productivity
Y/Yn : T/Tn
where Y = is the yield of crop in the unit area
Yn = is the yield of respective crop at the National level
T = is the total cropped area of the unit
Tn = is the total cropped area at the National level
Dhondyal (1964) has measured variations in agriculture
development and productivity by selecting three representative district
from the three regions of Uttar Pradesh, while assessing the rate of credit,
intensive crop enterprises and the infuence of irrigation water during
1962-63. Gopalkrishna and Ramakrishna (1964) have taken Andhra
Pradesh (1) to measure the degree of variations with respect to a)
agricultural output per acre (Rs) (b) output per head of agricultural
production (Rs) and (2) to account the causes of variations in each of the
twenty districts of the state during 1959-60. The variables relating to the
level of output per acres are selected as follows : i) normal level of
rainfall ii) percentage of current and old fallows, iii) percentage of area
under irrigation, iv) percentage of literacy, v) percentage of population in
agriculture, vi) intensity of cropping, vii) percentage of gross value other
than foodgrains and fodder, viii) the percentage of area under all crops
excluding fodder and foodgrains, ix) density of agricultural population per
acre and x) percentage of total area under commercial crops including
rice.
211
The Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, organised a
symposium on the topic, 'Measurement of Agricultural Productivity' at the
17th Annual Conference of the society held at Jaipur in 1964. The
research papers contributed by different scholars appeared in the society's
journal, viz.. Journal of the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics in
the succeeding issue of 1965.
Horring (1964) has suggested that the concept of productivity is
based not only on the single relationship i.e. differences in the same
agricultural region or sub-region as between successive period and
between similar agricultural region in different countries or regions during
the same period.
Agarwal (1965) has suggested : Factorial Approach' while
measuring agricultural productivity in Bastar districts of M.P. In this
approach, a number of human controlled factors relating to agricultural
production as : crop superiority, crop commercialisation, crop security,
landuse, intensity and power inputs have been selected, excluding the
environmental factors.
Khusro(1965) has linked assessment of productivity with the
output per unit of a single input and output per unit of cost of all inputs in
the agricultural production. Pandit (1965) has expressed the connotation
of productivity in these words "Productivity is defined in economics as the
output per units of input the art of securing an increase in output from the
same input or of getting the same output from a smaller input.

2] 2
Sharma (1965) while defining the concept of agricultural
productivity has suggested various parameters on which it can be
measured. According to him, productivity can be considered in relation to
labour, land and capital, it can also be considered in terms of overall
resources employed in agriculture. In case of commodities like
foodgrains, fruits and vegetable, sugarcane and edible seeds, he suggests
that the output of these commodities be converted into calories. While
considering the other non-food crops such as cotton and other fibres the
only common measure being the value which involves the pricing of
different products. For evaluating value of production, farm harvest or
wholesale prices have the definite significance. He also emphasized
agricultural work force as the basis of productivity measurement e.g. the
total no.of labour employed (in order to acocunt the interest of labour) or
the number of man hours worked in agriculture per unit of area.
Saran (1965) has applied Cobb-Douglass 'Production Function'
approach for the measurement of productivity. The common purpose of
this function is to express input output relationship between several inputs
and one output in the agricultural systems. The function takes the
following form :
Y = AX^^X^'X^^X^' X/
where n denotne various inputslike land, labour, capital
assets and other working expenses. The values of b,c,d,...y represents
elasticities of the respective units.

213
Shafi (1965) has assessed the productivity on the basis of labour
population engaged in Agriculture. According to him, it can be calculated
by dividing the gross production in any unit area by the number of man-
hours or less precisely by the number employed in agriculture.
Dewett (1966) explains it as productivity expresses the varying
relationship between agricultural output and are of the major inputs like
land, labour or capita, other complementary factors remaining the same, it
may be borne in mind that productivity is physical rather than a value
concepts.
Shafi (1967 & 1969) applied stamps standard nutrition unit
technique for measuring the efficiency of agriculture in India. He has
considered the district as the areal unit and has selected all the food crops
grown in India. Noort (1967) considered net total productivity (being the
relationship between the net products and factor inputs) as a method for
the measurement of field productivity and also to assess comparison in
lime or in space. The purpose of this measure is to changes in labour and
capital inputs in Agriculture.
Sinha (1968) has adopted a standard deviation formula to
determine agricultural efficiency in India. He has selected twenty five
crops grown in the country, were categorised into cereals, pulses, oilseeds
and cash crops and specific yields of that's were taken. In case of cash
crops, their monetary values were calculated in (Rs.) per hectare by
incorporating wholesale market prices. Finally the standard scores were
computed and to give them weightage, these values were multiplied by the
acreage figures i.e. the area of cutivation under the crops.

214
The Indian society of Agricultural Statistics in its 30th Annual
Conference held at Bhubaneshwar (Orissa) India, discussed some aspects
on agricultural productivity in the Indian context. Singh (1972) has applied
to measure the agricultural efficiency of Haryana in terms of nutrition
units per unit area. He has tried to measure the carrying capacity per
square mile in the area unit which can be expressed as
Co
Co = —
where C^^ = Cariying capacity
C^j = Caloric output per square mile
S,^ = Standard nutrition for ingestion in calories person per
aimum
He also give a measure of the agricultural efficiency of the areal unit
relative to the entire region in percentage and expressed as
Cp.
L.e = " '00
Cpr
where L^ = the index number of agricultural efficiency
Cpg = is the carrying capacity in terms of population in the
component enumeration unit
Cpj. = the carrying capacity in the entire region.
Raheja et al. (1977) have measured the impact of high-yielding
varieties based on data collected under the scheme 'Sample Surveys for
21'3
Assessment of High yielding varieties programme' during 1973-74 and
regional variations in productivity on the basis of yield per hectare in
India.
Besides there are various social scientist who have applied
different methods for the assessment of agricultural productivity but W.Y.
Yang (1965) has based his analysis by computing the yield of different
crops in a farm and comparing it with the average corp yield of the entire
region, later on, a value in percentage is obtained by dividing the yield per
hectare of a crop in a particular farm by the average yield of the crop in
the entire region. The obtained value is multiplied by 100 and gives the
index number, by taking the area, devoted to each crop as a weight and
multiplying this by percentage index, the products are obtained. By adding
the products and dividing the sum of the products by the total cropped area
in the district, the average index obtained is the desired crop index for the
particular district, using crop area as weight.
All these researches are aimed to find ways and means for
increasing agricultural efficiency. The main objective of agriculture
planning in India is to achieve self sufficiency in agricultural production.
Therefore, for researchers it is necessary to measure the pattern of
agricultural productivity on a micro-level in various regions of the country
and to study as to how for the objectives of agricultural planning for the
production of different crops has been achieved. In the present study the
productivity indices of crops considered for each districts were computed
according to methodology as given by "Yang's", for the two periods i.e.

216
1979-80 and 1994-95. All the major crops grown in the region are
classified into four major groups.
a) Cereals which includes rice, wheat, maize and barley.
B) Pulses includes gram, peas, arhar, masoor (lentil) and urd.
C) Oilseeds includes sesamum, soyabean and rapeseeds & mustard
D) Cashcrops includes sugarcane, potato and onion.
The data has been collected from the published records of the
Directorate of Agricultural Statistics and crop insurance, Krishi Bhavan
and Institute of State Planning, jawahar Bhavan Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh for
the year 1979-80 and 1994-95, taking district as a unit of study. The
district-wise indices of crop-productivity were computed according to the
methodology given by Yang's crop yield index method (Appendix A & B).
For calculating the crop yield index for a district, the average
yield of each crop grown in the region must be known. The percentage
value of the crop yield in the district is then calculated by dividing the
yield per hectare of the crops in whole Uttarakhand region. This value
gives the index number of the crop yield in the district is multiplied by the
area under the crops in the district. The product which come were added
and divided by the sum of total area under different crops in a district. The
average index is thus obtained which is the desired crop index of a district,
using crop as a weight.

217
Table 4.12
Method for calculating crop productivity index for district
Dehradun
Name of Area of Yield in c uintal/hectare Crop Percentage

crops crops in Average Average yield in multiplied
the distt. yield in yield in the distt. by area in
(in hect.) the distt. the region as % to hectare
the
region
1 2 3 4 5= Col.3/ 6 = Col.5x
Cal.4xl00 Cal.2
Rice 16784 8.57 11.5 74.52 1250743.68
Wheat 25955 12.72 12.01 105.91 2748894.05
Maize 11425 13.08 11.48 113.93 1301650.25
Barley 2300 9.68 11.74 82.45 189635.00

Total 56464 5490922.98
Crop index for the District Dehradun
= 5490922.98 / 56464
= 97.24 per cent
On the basis of productivity index, ail the district of Uttarakhand
region have been grouped in to three categories (high, medium and low)
for cereals, pulses, olseeds and cashcrops as shown in Table 5.2.
The productivity of different section of crops viz. cereals, pulses,
oilseeds and cashcrops for the year 1979-80 has been described below :
P r o d u c t i v i t y region - C e r e a l s ( 1 9 7 9 - 8 0 )
Cereals occupy an important place in the agriculture of
Uttarakhand region. They occupy 7,26,758 hectares area, which account
for about 88,37 per cent of the total cropped area of the region. About
36.63 per cent of the area comes under low productivity of cereals, while
218
X

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•
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o o
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UTTAR.4KHAND
PRODUCTIMTY REGION
CERE.4LS (1979-SO)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH .ÔVE I2U

MEDIUM SO - 12(1
LOW B E L O W St I
20 20 40 60
I— I I I
Km;
nG.5.1
220
medium productivity regions are contributed by 30.02 per cent. The high
productivity region covers an area of 33.34 per cent of the region.
Productivity region of cereals have been depicted in Fig. 5.1
whereas the number of districts in each category is given in Table 5.2. The
region of high productivity of cereals lies in the south eastern part of the
study area. The productivity indices of this region is above 120. The high
productivity in this region is due to the assured availability of irrigation
facilities, sufficient amount of fertilizers consumption, high yielding
varieties of seeds and agricultural implements and machinery. The
concentration of medium productivity spread in north-eastern north-
central, north-western and south-western part of the study region, it
includes the districts of Pithoragarh, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, and Dehradun,
with the crop indices ranges between 80 to 120. Altogether they covers an
area of 2,18,169 hectares. The areas under low productivity of cereals lies
in east-central, west-central and south-central part of the Uttarakhand
region, it is surrounded by a belt of high and medium productivity region,
which includes the districts of Almora, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri Garhwal,
with an area of 2,66,250 hectares. The low productivity may be attributed
to rugged topography, hard compact rocks and landslides and soil leaching
which causes the damage of crops. The productivity indices in this region
is below 80.
Productivity Region - Pulses
In our predominantly starchy vegetarian diet, pulses form a very
important part as they provide us rich amount of protein. In this study
region, only five major crops (gram, peas, arhar, masoor and urd) are
221
UTTARAKHAND
P R O D U C T m X Y REGION
PULSES (19^9 SO)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH .-ÊOVE 120

MEDIUM 100 - 120
LOW B E L O W 100
20 0 20• 40 50
i-
Kms
nG.4.10
222
cultivated and taken into account.The high productivity region contributes
about 28.67 per cent of the total area under pulses. Of the study region,
whereas the medium and low productivity region comprises 5.58 per cent
and 65.75 per cent respectively. Productivity regions of pulses are shown
in Fig. 5.2. It may be seen from the figure that high concentration of
pulses are concentrated in two districts namely, Almora (east-central part
of the region) and Pithoragarh (north-eastern part of the Uttarakhand).
These covers an area of 7,816 hectares with crop indices of above 120.
The medium productivity region of pulses, occupies an area of Chamoli
and Pauri Garhwal (south-central part of the Uttarakhand region), with crop
indices ranging between 100 to 120, they constitutes an area of 1521
hectares, while low productivity region covers an area of 17,929 hectares,
it spread in four remaining districts namely, Nainital, (south-eastern part),
uttarkashi (north-western part), Tehri-Garhwal (west-central) and Dehradun
(south-western) of the study region. Here the crop indices is below 100.
Productivity Region - Oilseeds
Oilseeds occupy 22120 hectare of cropped area of the study
region. The high productivity area is covered by 7.62 per cent to the total
area under oilseeds, while the medium productivity areas constitute about
86.37 per cent and 6.01 per cent area comes under the category of low
productivity region. There are three districts of Uttarakhand namely,
Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal showing high concentration of
oilseeds, with crop indices is above 110. It may be seen from the Fig. 5.3
the medium productivity of oilseeds lies in four districts namely, Nainital,
Almora, Uttarkashi and Pauri-Garhwal. Altogether they covers an area of

223
UTTARAKHAND
OILSEEDS (1979 80)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E llU
MEDIUM 100- 110

LOW B E L O W KW
20 0 20
' 40 60
Kms
nG.4.10
224
19105 hectares with the productivity indices ranging between 100 to 110.
About 1130 hectares area comes under low productivity region, which is
located only in the Nainital district. Here crop indices is below 100.
Productivity region - Cashcrops
Cashcrops are the most improtant group of crops grown in the
Uttarakhand region. Among cashcrops, sugarcane, potatoes and onion have
been taken into account covered an area of 46,259 hectares, which
contribute to 4.06 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region.
The high productivity region of cash crops share 14.40 per cent area,
whereas more than three fourth area comes under low productivity region,
with 82.91 per cent of its share, while a small area of 2.70 per cent comes
under medium category. The high productivity region of cashcrops lies in
the south-western part of the region,covering only one district namely
Dehradun, with the crop indices of above 103. Medium productivity region
extending over only two region, namely Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal, but
the low productivity region covers extensive area in south-eastern, east
central, north-eastern, north-central and south-central part of the study
region, it includes the district of Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli
and Pauri-Garhwal here productivity indices is 100 (Fig. 5.4).
Productivity region based on composite index (1979-80)
A composite index has been formulated after calculating the
agricultural productivity for each group of crops in Uttarakhand region.
The value of each districts are given in Table 5.2 and their spatial patterns
are shown in Fig. 5.5. It will be seen from this figure that there are three
district namely Nainital, Almora and Pithoragarh of high productivity

225
UTTARAKHAND
P R O D U C X m i Y REGION
CASHCROPS (1979-80)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 105
MEDIUM 1 0 0 - 105
LOW B E L O W liMi
20 20 40 SO
1— I I I
Kms
nG.4.10
226
UTTAR.4KHAND
PRODUCTIMTY REGION
COIMPOSITE INDEX (1979 80)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 100
MEDIUM 95 - 10(1
LOW B E L O W 95
20 20 40 60
I I I
Kms
nG.5.5
227
region. It lies in the south-eastern, east-central and north-eastern part of
Uttarakhand region. The productivity indices is above 100, it covers an
area of 5,28,563 hectares or 64.27 per cent of the cropped area of the
region. The medium productivity region scattered over mainly in two
district namely Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal. They spread in north-central
and south-central part of Uttarakhand, with productivity indices ranging
between 95 to 100. Altogether they covers an area of 1,33,470 hectares,
which is 16.23 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region. The
low categoiy of agricultural productivity occupies remaining area
e.xtended over the north-western, west-central and south-western part of
study region. They together occupy an area of 1,60,305 hectare which is
19.50 per cent of the total cropped area of the entire region.
On the basis of productivity indices, all the district of
Uttarakhand region have been grouped in to three categories (high, medium
and low) for cereal, pulses, oilseeds and cash crops as shown in Table 5.3.
The productivity of different sections of crops viz. cereal, pulses,
oilseeds and cashcrops for the year 1994-95 has been described below :
Productivity region - Cereals (1994-95)
Cereals are the most important crops grown in Uttarakhand
reigon. They occupy 7,11,940 hectares of land, accounting for about 84.74
per cent of the total cropped area of the study region. The productivity
region of cereals are illustrated in each category with crop indices are
given in Table 5.3. The districts of high productivity region extended over
only south-eastern part of Uttarakhand region i.e. Nainital, occupying

228
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UTTARAKHAND
PRODUCTR TV RJEGION
CERE.\LS (1994 95)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E 12U
MEDIUM SO - 12(1
LOW B E L O W 50
20 20
' 40 60
u.
Kms
nG.5.5
230
33.13 per cent of the total area under cereals in the study region here
productivity indices is above 120. Medium productivity regions scattered
over two districts of the region. These districts are Pithoragarh and
Dehradun, covering 22.29 per cent of the total area under cereals in the
study region.
The low productivity reigon of cereals occupies vast area of the
region. It includes the district of Almora, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-
Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal, which have crop indices below 80. Altogether
they occupy an area of 3,17,351 hectares or 44.57 per cent of the total
area under cereals of the regions (Fig. 5.6).
Productivity region - Pulses (1994-95)
Pulses in Uttarakhand reigon grown over 30,409 hectares and
account for 2.66 per cent of the total cropped area of the study region.
The productivity status of pulses are illustrated in Fig. 5.7 and the crop
indices of numerous districts are drafted in Table 5.3. High productivity of
pulses are seen on the east central part of Uttarakhand region namely,
Almora, it covers an area of 3585 hectare which is 11.90 per cent of the
total area under pulses in the region. Here the productivity indices is above
110.
A segment of medium productivity is observed on the north-
eastern, south-central and south-western part of the study region. They
includes the district of Pithoragarh, Pauri-Garhwal, and Dehradun, with
productivity indices ranges between 100 and 110. These districts together
occupies an area of 14035 hectares which contributes 46.15 per cent of

231
UTTARAKHAND
PULSES (1994 95)
HIGH
MEDIUM lUU - IIU

LOW B E L O W lUU
20 0 20 40 60
I I I I I I
Kms
nG.5.5
232
the total area under pulses in the study region. The low productivity of
pulses is seen in four remaining districts namely, Nainital, Chamoli,
Uttarakashi and Tehri-Garhwal, where the index value range is below 100.
Altogether they covers 12789 hectares or 42.05 per cent of the total area
under pulses of the study region.
Productivity region - Oilseeds (1994-95)
Oilseeds covers an area of 34,161 hectare or 3.00 per cent of the
total cropped area of the study region. The productivity region of oilseeds
are shown in Fig. 5.8 and the number of district under high, medium and
low productivity with their indices are tabulated and depicted in Table 5.3.
Chamoli and Dehradun district with a crop indices of above 110 fall under
high productivity of oilseeds. These district lies on the north-central and
south-western part of the study region, it contributes 8.32 per cent (2845
hectares) of the total area under oilseeds in the study region. Medium
productivity covers an extensive area of east-central, north-western, west-
central, south-central part of Uttarakhand region. It includes the district of
Almora, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. The productivity
indices ranges between 100 and 110. They cosntitute 16.10 per cent area
of the oilseeds in the study reigon, while the low productivity area is seen
on the south-eastern and north-eastern part of the Uttarakhand region. They
includes the district of Nainital and Pithoragarh, accounts for 25737
hectares area or 75.34 per cent of the total area under oilseeds in the study
region. Here crop indices is below 100.

233
UTTARAKHAND
OILSEEDS (1994-95)
INDEX V.\LUE
A B O V E 110
100- 110
B E L O W 100
20 20 40 60
Kms
nG.5.5
234
Producitivyt region- Cashcrops (1994-95)
Cashcrops occupy an area of 63,567 hectare of 5.57 per cent of
the total cropped area of the Uttarakhand region. The productivity region
of various cashcrops is depicted in Fig. 5.9 and the crop indices under
each category is shown in Table 5.3. It may be seen from the figure that
only two districts namely, Dehradun and Tehri-Garhwal shows high
productivity. Altogether they contributes 14.81 per cent (9415 hectares)
of the total area under cashcrops. The productivity indices range is above
101. The district of Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli and Uttarkashi fall
under the medium productivity region. Altogether they occupy an area of
8722 hectare or 13.72 per cent of the total area under cashcrops of the
study region. The productivity indices ranges between 100 and 101. The
low productivity regions includes two remaining district namely, Nainital
and Pauri-Garhwal, lies on the south-eastern and south-central part of the
study region. These districts together occupies an area of 45430 hectares
or 71.46 per cent of the area under cashcrops, the crop indices is below
100.
Productivity Region : Composite Index (1994-95)
An overall assessment of agricultural productivity by computing
composite index is given in Table 5.3. It can be seen in Fig. 5.10 that
there are only two district namely, Nainital and Dehradun represents high
agricultural productivity. It lies on the south-eastern and south-western
part of the study regions with crop indices is above 100. It covers an area
of 3,78,882 hectares or 45.10 per cent of the total cropped area of the
Uttarakhand region. The medium productivity also occupy two districts

235
UTTARAKHAND
P R O D U C T m X V REGION
CASHCROPS (1994 95)
INDEX VALUE
A B O V E 101
H lou- m
B E L O W 10(J
20 Q .20 40 60
Kins
nG.5.5
236
UTTARAKHAND
PRODUCTIMTY REGION
COIMPOSITE INDEX (1994-95)
INDEX VALUE
HIGH A B O V E UlU
MEDIUM 95 - 100
LOW B E L O W 95
:o 20 40 60
L. I I I
Kmc
HG.S.IO
237
namely, Alinora and Chamoli. The crop indices ranges between 95 to 100,
with an area of 1,62,670 hectares or 19.36 per cent of the total cropped
area of the study region, while the low productivity comparatively
occupying large areas, including all remaining districts namely,
Pithoragarh, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. Altogether, they
constitute an area of 2,98,535 hectares or 35.53 per cent of the total
cropped area of the region. The crop indices is below 95. After analysing
the comparative study of agricultural productivity of the Uttarakhand
region, we find that the rugged topography, coarse laterite soil, severe
erosion problem, scarcity of surface water and less developed irrigation
facilities restrict the agricultural productivity. Hence efforts have to be
made to enhance agricultural production and need special attention of the
Agricultural scientists, planner, central and state government agencies to
execute further development scheme in Agriculture.
Agricultural productivity
P a t t e r n of change between 1979-80 to 1994-95
The pattern of areal change in Agricultural productivity of
Uttarakhand region between 1979-80 to 1994-95 are depicted in Table 5.4.
This table illustrates the change in area and their percentage change of
various crops. It is evident from the table that during the last one and half
decades, high productivity area under cereal has recorded a significant
increase of 89,101 hectares, but the medium productivity area suffered
with a great loss by 1,08,882, whereas the low productivity area under
cereals witnessed an increase by 4968 hectares. The increase in terms of
percentage was 24.80 per cent for high productivity but it declined to
238
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36.24 per cent for medium productivity while the increase in productivity
area was 7.31 per cent under low productivity. Thus the area under high and
low productivity of cereals on the whole shows a positive sign, while there
was a great loss in the medium productivity.
We can say that the reduction in the productivity of cereals
expressed that the impact of various technological and institutional factors
have not been effective in Uttarakhand region. The use of indigenous seeds,
non-use of chemical fertilizers and the expansion of many insects and
pests have reduced the productivity of cereals in the region, but if we
compare the pulses from cereals we find different scenario. There are
continuous increase in area, under high and medium category, while the
area decrease in two districts namely, Nainital and Dehradun. The high
productivity area of pulses have increased with a gain of 2311 hectares,
contributing 19.18 per cent. The medium productivity area increased by
2720 hectares or 29.97 per cent of the total area occupied by the pulses.
On the other hand the low productivity are suffered with a loss of 1888
hectares, acocunting 30.70 per cent of the total area under pulses.
Oilseeds of the region has increased its area under high and medium
productivity. The high productivity area of oilseeds has increased by
1,0059 hectares which account for 54.41 per cent of the total area under
oilseeds. The medium productivity has increased by 3351 hectares
contributing 251.95 per cent of the total oilseeds area, but the low
productivity area has declined to 1449 hectares, covering 48.95 per cent
of the total area under oilseeds.

240
Cashcrops are the last group of crops grown in Uttarakhand
region. It has increased their area under all three category. There has been
continuous expansion of area of cashcrops from the base year 1979-80.
High productivity area of cashcrops from 1979-80 to 1994-95 has
increased by 9954 hectares, which accounts for 28.80 per cent of the total
area. The medium productivity has increased to 1,196 hectares,
constituting to 17.95 per cent of the total area, while the low productivity
area has recorded an increase of 128.21 per cent of the total area under
cashcrops.
The productivity regions based on composite index reveals that
high productivity area in Uttarakhand has increased by 14380 hectares,
commanding 2.72 per cent of the total area. Medium productivity region
has declined by 6847 hectares or 3.07 per cent of the area under the study
region, whereas low productivity area has increased by 1774 hectares or
2.49 perc ent of the total area of the region.
On the whole in Uttarakhand, the productivity area under cereal
has declined by 14813 hectares (2.04 per cent), while the productivity area
of pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops has shown significant increase by 3143
hectares (11.53 per cent), 12041 hectares (54.43 per cent) and 17308
hectares (37.41 per cent) respectively. The overall productivity area of the
region also increased by 17689 hectares (2.15 per cent) . It may be seen
from the analysis that farmers of Uttarakhand region are highly inclined
towards the cultivation of pulses, oilseeds, and cashcrops rather than
cereals, because these crops gives maximum return to the farmers.

241
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242
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244
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245
The role of technological and institutional factors on agricultural
development in Uttarakhand has been assessed in three ways. Firstly, the
inter-relationship among the variables during the periods 1979-80 and
1994-95 has been described. Secondly, an attempt is made to determine
the precise role of various indicators of agricultural development with the
help of factor analysis, and thereby indicating the actual development of
agriculture during the period from 1979-80 to 1994-95. Thirdly, the actual
levels of agricultural development through the application of composite
mean Z-score has been worked out. For this purpose the author has
selected fifteen indicators to assess the levels of agricultural development
(Table 6.1).
Inter-relationship among independent variables (1979-80)
The inter-relationship among independent variables is shown in
Table 6.2. It has observed that the correlation of agricultural productivity
with other important independent variables indicates that it is positively
high correlated with percentage of area sown more than once (0.750). It is
moderately correlated with percentage of netsown area to reported area
(0.337), consumption of fertilizers (0.341), number of agricultural credit
co-operative societies (0.255) and number of Iron plough (0.22). The
correlation of netsown area to reported area with other independent
variable shows that it is highly strong with Iron plough (0.843), followed
by percentage of irrigated area to the netsown area (0.829), consumption
of fertilizers (0.821) and percentage of area under high yielding varieties
of seeds (0.602). The highest negative correlation is depicted by wooden

246
Table 6.1
Variables of Agricultural Development
Variables Definition
Agricultural productivity based on Yang's yield index method
Percentage of netsown area to reported area
Percentage of irrigated area to the netsown area
X. Percentage of area sown more than once to netsown area.
Percentage of area under high yielding varieties of seeds to
gross cropped area
X. Percentage of agricultural workers to the main workers.
X- Percentage of literate persons to total population.
x„ Number of agricultural credit societies per lakh of
population
X. Consumption of fertilizer (Kg per hectare)
X 10 Number of wooden plough per thousand of cultivated land
X 11 Number of iron plough per thousand of cultivated land
X 12 Percentage of rural electrification to total number of
villages.
X 13 Percentage of canal irrigation to gross irrigated area.
X 14 Percentrage of irrigated area by other soruces to gross
irrigated area.
Cropping intensity (in per cent)

247
o
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d d d d d1 d
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^ d d d d1 d d1 d d1 d d d d1 d
o r- I/-) o o o o ON o r--
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x" o fO O r- o o CN rn o <N o
d d d d d d d d d d d1 d1 d1 d
ro vO r- 00 0\ o (N fo tr,
X X X X x" X X X X x" x" x" x" x" x"

248
plough (-0.895), followed by agricultural credit co-operative societies
(-0.592) and agricultural workers (-0.547).
If irrigated area to the netsown area is correlated with other
independent variables then it is vigorous with iron plough (0.937),
consumption of feritlizers (0.911), area under high yield varieties of seeds
(0.901), netsown area (0.829) and rural electrification (0.722). The
highest negative correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.883),
agricultural workers (-0.676) and agricultural credit co-operative
societies (-0.647). If area sown more than once is correlated with other
variables, then it is positively high correlation with productivity (0.750),
it is moderately coirelated with cropping intensity (0.447), irrigation by
other sources (0.426).The highest negative correlation shown with canal
irrigation (-0.585) only. When area under high yielding varieties of seeds
correlated with other important variables, then its highly positive
correlation shown with irrigated area to the netsown area (0.901) followed
by consumption of fertilizers (0.890), rural electrification (0.838), iron
plough (0.834) and netsown area (0.602). The negative correlation
represented with wooden plough (-0.727), irrigation by other soruces (-
0.607).
If agricultural workers correlated with other independent
variables, then it is strong with wooden plough (0.715) and agricultural
credit co-operative societies (0.676). The highly negative correlation
shown with literacy (-0.890) followed by rural electrification (-0.694),
iron plough (-0.643), irrigated area to the net sown area (-0.676), and
netsown area (-0.547), when literacy is correlated with independent

249
variables, then it is moderatley correlated with iron plough (0.496), rural
electrification (0.449), netsown area (0.436). The highest negative
correlation shown with (-0.890) followed by wooden plough (-0.542) and
agricultural credit co-operative societies (-0.505). Taking agricultural
credit societies for correlation, then its correlation is highly positive with
agricultural workers (0.676) and wooden plough (0.504). The highest
negative correlation relates with irrigated area to the net sown area
(-0.647), netsown area (-0.592), rural electrification (-0.512) and literacy
(-0.505).
If consumption of fertilizers are correlated with other
independent variables then it is highly strong with iron plough (0.951)
followed by irrigated area to the netsown area (0.911), area under high
yielding varieties of seeds (0.890), netsown area (0.821), and rural
electrification (0.605). The highest negative correlation is associated with
irrigation by other sources (-0.556). When wooden plough is correlated
with other variables, it indicates that highly positive correlation related
with agricultural workers (0.715) and agricultural credit societies (0.564)
and the highly negative correlation shown with netsown area (-0.895),
irrigated area to the netsown area (-0.883) iron plough (-0.870) followed
by consumption of feritlizer (-0.798), area under high yielding varieties of
seeds (-0.727) and irrigation by other sources (-0.556).
Taking iron plough for correlation with other independent
variables, then it is strong with chemical fertilizers (0.951), irrigated area
to the netsown area (0.937), netsown area (0.843), area under high yielding
varieties of seeds (0.834), and rural electrification (0.655). The highest

250
negative correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.870), followed by
agricultural workers (0.643), agricultural credit societies (-0.602) and
irrigation by other sources (-0.590).
Assuming rural electrification for correlation with other
independent variables, it is strong with area under high yielding varieties
of seeds (0.838), irrigated area to the net sown area (0.722), canal
irrigation (0.690), iron plough (0.655) and consumption of feritlizers
(0.605). The negative correlation shown by agricultural workers (-0.694),
irrigation by other sources (-0.699), wooden plough (-0.551) and
agricultural credit societies (-0.512).
If canal irrigation is correlated with other variables, it indicates
that highly positive correlation shown with rural electrification (0.690).
The highest negative correlation shown with irrigation by other soruces
(-0.950), cropping intensity (-0.686) and area sown more than once
(-0.585). When irrigation by other soruces correlated with other
independent variables then its correlation is strong with cropping intensity
(0.616). The highest negative correlation shown with canal irrigation
(-0.950) followed by rural electrification (-0.699), area under high
yielding varieties of seeds (-0.607), iron plough (-0.590) and consumption
of fertilizers (-0.556). Lastly when cropping intensity correlated with
other independent variables, it shows positive correlation with irrigation
by other sources (0.616).
Inter-relationship among independent variables (1994-95)

The inter-relationship among independent variables for the year
1994-95 can be examined from the Table 6.3. The study reveals that the
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252
correlation of agricultural productivity with other independent variables is
positively storng with high-yielding varieties of seeds (0.933), iron plough
(0.930), irrigated area to the net sown area (0.927), consumption of
fertilizer (0.920), net sown area (0.825) and rural electrification (0.691).
The highest negative correlation shown with agricultural credit
coopertative societies (-0.868), wooden plough (-0.864) and irrigation by
other soruces (-0.702).
When netsown area correlated with other variables, then its
correlation strong with consumption of fertilizer (0.845), irrigated area to
the netsown area (0.835) and agricultural productivity (0.825) followed by
iron plough (0.774), area sown more than once (0.740), cropping intensity
(0.740) and area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.637). the highest
negative correlation exists with wooden plough (-0.818) and agricultural
credit co-operative societies (-0.705).
When irrigated area to the netsown area is correlated with other
variables, then its correlation is positively strong with consumption of
feritlizewr (0.968), iron plough (0.938), agricultural productivity (0.927),
netsown area (0.835), area under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.824)
and rural electrification (0.641). The highest negative correlation shown
with wooden plough (-0.926), agricultural credit societies (-0.764) and
irrigation by other soruces (-0.640).
If area sown more than once is correlated with other variables,
then it is strong with cropping intensity (0.997) and netsown area (0.740).
The negative correlation shown with canal irrigation (-0.670). Assuming

253
high yielding varieties of seeds for correlation, then its correlation with
other variables indicates that it is highly strong with agricultural
productivity (0.933) followed by iron plough (0.898), irrigated area to the
netsown area (0.824), consumption of fertilizer (0.810), rural electri-
fication (0.770) and net sown area (0.637). The highest negative
correlation shown with wooden plough (-0.811), agricultural credit
societies (-0.782) and irrigation by other soruces (-0.750).
The correlation of agricultural workers with other independent
variables are strong with agricultural credit societies (0.635), wooden
plough (0.552) but its highest negative correlation related with literacy
(-0.790), iron plough (-0.563) and rural electrification (-0.504). The
correlation of literacy rate positively low correlated with iron plough
(0.343), net sown area (0.216), area under high yielding varieties of seeds
(0.211), canal irrigation (0.115) cropping intensity (0.107) and area sown
more than once (0.106). The highest negative correlation exists with
agricultural workers (-0.790) followed by agricultural credit societies
(-0.406) and irrigation by other sources.
The correlation of agricultural credit societies with independent
variables ^re strong with wooden plough (0.785), agricultural workers
(0.635), irrigation by other sources (0.614). The highest negative
correlation associated with agricultural productivity (-0.868), iron plough
(-0.837), area under high yielding of seeds (-0.782), irrigated area to the
net sown area (-0.764), rural electrification (-0.748), net sown area
(-0.705) and consumption of fertilizer (-0.672).

254
The correlation of consumption of fertilizer with other variables
then it is positively correlated with irrigated area to the netsown area
(0.968), agricultural productivity (0.920), iron plough (0.901), followed
by net sown area (0.845), area under high yielding varieties of seeds
(0.810) and rural electrification (0.500). The negative correlation exists
with wooden plough (-0.856), agricultural credit societies (-0.672) and
irrigation by other sources (-0.660). The correlation of wooden plough
with other variables is positively high with agricultural credit societies
(0.785), irrigation by other soruces (0.605) and agricultural workers
(0.552). The highest negative correlation associated with irrigated area to
the netsown area (-0.926), iron plough (-0.924), agricultural productivity
(-0.864), consumption of fertilizer (-0.856), netsown area (-0.818), area
under high yielding varieties of seeds (-0.811) and rural electrification
(-0.721).
The correlation of iron plough with other independent variables
is strong with agricultural productivity (0.930), irrigated area to the
netsown area (0.938), consumption of fertilizers (0.901) followed by area
under high yielding varieties of seeds (0.898), netsown area (0.774) and
rural electrification (0.664). The highest negative correlation shown with
wooden plough (-0.924), agricultural credit societies (-0.856), irrigation
by other sources (-0.731) and agricultural workers (-0.563). Taking rural
electrification for correlation with other variables, then it is strong with
area under high yielding varieties ofseeds (0.770), agricultural produc-
tivity (0.691), iron plough (0.663), irrigated area to the net sown area
(0.641) and canal irrigation (0.537) and moderately correlated with

255
consumption of fertilizers (0.499) and netsown area (0.343). The negative
correlation exist, with agricultural credit societies (0.748), wooden
plough (-0.721), irrigation by other sources (-0.634) and agricultural
workers (-0.504).
The correlation of canal irrigation with other independent
variables indicates that it is positively high with rural electrification
(0.537). The negative correlation shown with irrigation by other sources
(-0.729), area sown more than once (-0.670), and cropping intensity
(-0.670). The correlation of irrigaiton by other sources with other
variables illustrates that it has high positive correlation with agricultural
credit societies (0.614) and wooden plough (0.665). The highest negative
correlation includes area under HYV of seeds (-0.750), agricultural
productivity (-0.702), canal irrigation (-0.729), iron plough (-0.731),
consumption of fertilizers (-0.660), irrigated area to the netsown area
(-0.640) and rural electrification (-0.634).
At last, cropping intensity correlated with other variables, then it
is positively strong with area sown more than once (0.997), and netsown
area (0.740). The highest negative correlation shown with canal irrigation
(-0.670) followed by wooden plough (-0.432).
Factor analysis
Factor analysis is considered to be a sound technique in
determining the role of various factors of agricultural development of the
study region, because by this technique, variables can adequately be
described by smaller set of factors. The relationship between each variable

256
with the factor can be calculated by dividing each variable's total
corrleaiton by the square root of the total sum of the correlation. In factor
analysis these values are known as factor loading and they represents the
correlation between the original variable and the new factor. The factor
loading can be further processed by factor rotation which gives a set of
new factor loading (rotated factor) for better explanation.
Earlier a number of social scientist like Kaiser (1958), Ahmad
(1965), Harman (1967), Morrison (1967) and others have used factor
analysis technique in their studies.
In the present analysis, fifteen variables which are given in Table
6.1 and considered to be suitable indices of agricultural development are
collapsed in to each other and are rotated further to assess the agricultural
development in Uttarakhand. The calculation have been done through factor
analysis package programme (SPSS) on computer alpha system. This
analysis is carried out for two separate year i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95.
The values of fifteen variables have been computed for 8 districts and
collapsed into 15x8 data matrix for both the years.
Factor-1 (1979-80)
The factor analysis of the variables for the year 1979-80
indicates that 83.86 percent of the total variance is explained by three
factors (Table 6.4). Factor 1 explains 50.04 per cent of the total variance.
The positive signs of the variables are associated with the higher
development of agriculture. Irrigated area to the netsown area, netsown
area, iron plough, consumption of fertilizer, high yielding varities of

257
Table 6.4
Factor Structure of Agricultural D e v e l o p m e n t in

Uttarakhand, through Rotated Factor M a t r i x , 1979-80
Variables Factor loading

F2 F3
0.140 0.102 -0.830
0.894 0.243 -0.210
0.952 -0.152 -0.045
0.065 0.525 -0.706
>^5 0.811 -0.360 -0.184
>^6 -0.788 -0.090 -0.482
0.598 0.065 0.386
-0.665 0.191 -0.462
X, 0.862 -0.260 -0.387
-0.951 -0.163 -0.034
0.932 -0.253 -0.157
0.701 -0.480 0.186
0.245 -0.920 0.241
-0.380 0.920 0.004
0.382 0.796 -0.132
Variance explained 50.04 22.36 11.46

in per cent
Cumulative variance 50.04 72.40 83.86

explained in per cent
258
seeds, rural electrification and literacy, all load high and positively on this
factor.
The highest positive loading (more than ±0.50) is shown by
irrigated area to the netsown area (0.952), iron plough (0.932) followed
by netsown area (0.894), consumption of fertilizer (0.862) high yielding
varieties of seeds (0.811), rural electrification (0.701) and literacy
(0.598).
The positive relationship among these variables of agricultural
development is obvious as the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, high
percentage of netsown area and chemical fertilizer, needs abundant
irrigation. Iron plough is also the most important factor in this hilly terrain
of Uttarakhand. Electrification has an important role in the agricultural
development of the region, because farm machinary run by electricity is
cheaper than that run on fuel energy. Literacy is a sign of modernization
amonghst mass illiteracy in India. Irrigation and other operative system of
agriculture requires technical know-how which can be easily met by
educating population of the rural India. In one of such studies performed
in India, Munir (1992) has also achieved the similar results.
Louis Malassis emphasizes, the role of agricultural mechani-
zation in the process of development. Agricultural progress has mainly
taken the form of improvement of plant and animal species, the discovery
of high yielding varieties, fertilizer technology, plant protection, water
technology. Mechanization constitute an essential ingredients of modern
agriculture, increasing use of specialized modern agricultural tools and

259
implements, in keeping with the indigenous environment is an inseparable
part of the process of modernizing agriculture. Mechanization facilitates
the substitution of capital for labour which raises efficiency and
productivity, which in turn reduces the cost of agricultural production and
raises the incomes of farmer. Use of agricultural tools and improvement
raises both the yield per hectare and cropping intensity. The highest
negative factor loading is shown by wooden plough (-0.951), agricultural
workers (-0.788) and agricultural credit societies (-0.665).
In order to depict the spatial variation in the region, factor scores
have been calculated (Table 6.5). These scores have been divided in to
three grade of high (>+4.00) medium (+4.00 to -4.00) and low (below -
4.00). The high factor scores are concentrated in the south-eastern and
south-western part of the region. They includes the district of Nainital and
Dehradun. The areas having medium grade factor scores extended over the
east-central, north-western and south-central part of the region, it
comprises the district of Almora, Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal. The areas
of low factor scores are scattered over north-eastern, north-central and
west-central part of the region. It consists the district of Pithoragarh,
Chamoli and Tehri Garhwal (Fig. 6.1).
Factor-2
Factor 2 accounts for 22.36 per cent of the total variance
explained. It is strongly loaded on about 26.6 per cent of the variables.
The factors which shows high positive loadings are irrigation by other
sources (0.920), cropping intensity (0.796) and area sown more than once
260
Table 6.5
S t a n d a r d i z e d Factor Scores of Agricultural D e v e l o p m e n t ,

1979-80
Districts Fi F2 F3
Nainital 15.430 -3.447 -2.270
Almora -2.841 2.947 -1.506
Pithoragarh -4.661 5.505 -3.555
Chamoli -5.344 -4.932 1.114
Uttarkashi -3.393 -2.356 0.985
Tehri-Garhwal -5.401 3.154 -0.178
Pauri-Garhwal -2.593 1.718 1.125
Dehiadun 8.807 -2.593 4.266

261
(0.525). It is obvious fact that in the region where area sown more than
once and irrigation is high, ultimately the cropping intensity will also be
high. The variable which have negative loadings are canal irrigation
(-0.920).
The spatial variation based on factor scores of factor 2 are
depicted in Fig. 6.2. The factor scores have been divided into three grades
of high (>+3.00), medium (+3.00 to -3.00) and low (below -3.00). Figure
shows that high factor scores are spread over in two districts namely,
Pithoragarh and Tehri-Garhwal. The medium factor score, consisting large
areas of the region, includes the district of Almora, Uttarkashi, Pauri-
Garhwal and Dehradun, while the low grade of factor scores lies in the
district of Nainital and Chamoli.
Factor-3
Factor 3 accounts for 11.46 percent of the total variance
explained. It is negatively high loaded on 13.33 per cent of the variables.
The rotated factor shows highest negative loading with agricultural
productivity (-0.830) and area sown more than once (-0.706).
The spatial variation based on factor scores of Factor 3 are
depicted in Fig. 6.3. The factor scores have been divided into three grades
of high (>+2.00), medium (+2.00 to -2.00) and low (below -2.00). Figure
shows that high factor scores converge in only one district namely,
Dehradun, whereas medium factor scores extended over wide areas and
form compact block in the region, these includes the district of Almora,
291
UTTARAKHAND
F A C T O R SCORES OF AGRICULTURAL D E \ ^ L O P I \ I E N T
F A C T O R - 1 (1979-80 )
20 40 60
I I I
Km;
nG.5.5
263
UTTARAKHAND
F A C T O R S C O R E S O F AGRICULTITR.4L D E \ ^ L O P ] \ I E N T
FACTOR 2 ( 1979-80 )
20 40 60
Kms
nG.5.5
264
UTTARAKHAND
F A C T O R SCORES OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPRIENT
FACTOR 3 ( 1979 80 )
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
Kms
nG.5.5
265
Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal and the low factor
scores located in remaining districts viz. Nainital and Chamoli.
F a c t o r analysis (1994-95)
Factor-1
The value of 15 variables have been computed for eight districts
for the year 1994-95, resulting in 15x8 data matrix for the study region.
This data matrix collapsed into each other leads to three factor of
agricultural development. It shows that in all 90.50 percent of the total
variance is explained by these three factors as given in Table 6.6. Factor 1
accounts for 56.97 per cent of the total variance explained. The positive
sign of the variables indicates higher agricultural development. The rotated
factor indicates that the highest positive loading is shown by agricultural
productivity (0.964), irrigated area to the net sown area (0.950),
consumption of fertilizers (0.928), iron plough (0.927), rural
electrification (0.927), high yielding varieties of seeds (0.925), and
netsown area (0.726).
The positive relationship among these variables of agricultural
development indicates that high agricultural productivity is due to high
dose of fertilizer consumption, use of high yielding varieties of seeds, use
of iron plough, high irrigated area, high percentage of netsown area and
extensive use of electricity to run agricultural machinery. The highest
negative loading is shown by wooden plough (-0.888), agricultural credit
societies (-0.805) and irrigation by other sources (-0.800). In order to
depict the spatial variation in the region, factor scores have been
calculated and shown in Table 6.7 & Fig. 6.4.

266
T a b l e 6.6
Factor Structure of Agricultural Development in U t t a r a k h a n d ,

through Rotated Factor Matrix, 1994-95
Variables Factor loading

F2 F3
0.964 -0.163 0.093
0.726 -0.636 0.140
0.950 -0.216 0.016
0.245 -0.930 0.035
0.925 0.003 0.161
-0.310 -0.062 -0.909
0.048 -0.046 0.940
-0.805 0.012 -0.435
0.928 -0.270 -0.097
-0.888 0.216 -0.275
Xn 0.927 -0.110 0.295
0.770 0.324 0.192
0.298 0.890 0.092
-0.800 -0.484 -0.073
0.246 -0.930 0.036
Variance explained 56.97 22.30 11.23

in per cent
Cumulative variance 56.97 79.27 90.50

explained in per cent
267
T a b l e 6,7
S t a n d a r d i z e d F a c t o r S c o r e s of A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t ,
1994-95
Districts F3
Nainital 17.572 -4.838 2.414
Almora -1.584 -0.714 -0.565
Pithoragarh -5.530 -4.508 -1.472
Chamoli -3.550 4.886 -0.700
Uttarkashi -3.284 5.657 -2.615
Tehri-Garhwal -7.013 -1.676 -3.193
Pauri-Garhwal -5.814 0.856 0.158
Dehradun 9.233 0.315 5.974

268
Figure shows that high factor scores lies in two districts
comprising, Nainital and Dehradun, the medium factor scores covering
large areas as compared to high factor scores. It constitute the districts of
Almora, Chamoli and Uttarkashi, while the low factor scores occupying
three remaining districts namely, Pithoragarh, Tehri Garhwal and Pauri-
Garhwal.
Factor-2
Factor 2 accounts for 22.30 percent of the total variance
explained. It is heavily loaded on canal irrigation (0.890). The highest
negative loading associated with area sown more than once (-0.930),
cropping intensity (-0.930) and netsown area (-0.636). The spatial
variation based on factor scores of factor-2 are illustrated in Fig. 6.5 and
it shows that high factor scores concentrated in two districts namely,
Chamoli and Uttarkashi, while the medium factor scores occupied
extensive areas of the region, it constitute the districts of Almora, Pauri-
Garhwal, Tehri-Garhwal and Dehradun and the low factor score lies in the
district of Nainital and Pithoragarh.
Factor-3
Factor 3 which accounts for 11.23 percent of the total variance
explained, has relatively high loadings on literacy (0.904). The negative
loading shown with agricultural workers (-0.909). The spatial variation
based on factor scores of factor-3 are demonstrated in Fig. 6.6.
It can be seen from the Figure that high factor scores are
converge in two districts namely, Nainital and Dehradun, whereas the

269
UTTARAKHAND
F A C T O R S C O R E S O F AGRIC11LTUR.4L D E ^ ^ L O P I M E N T
F A C T O R - 1 ( 1994 95 )
20 0 20 40 50
I I I I I I
Kms
nG.5.5
270
UTTARAKHAND
F A C T O R S C O R E S OF AGRICULTUR.4L D E W L O P I V I E N T
F A C T O R - 2 ( 1994 95 )
20 40 60
I I I I
Km:
nG.5.5
271
UTTAR.4KHAND
F A C T O R SCORES OF AGRICULTURAL DE\TE:L0PMENT
F A C T O R - 3 ( 1994-95 )
Kms
nG.5.5
272
medium factor scores spreading over larger area. It occupies the districts
of Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli and Pauri-Garhwal. The low factor score
commanding in two remaining district of the region. These districts are
Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal.
L e v e l s of a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t
In this section, all the variables which are considered as the
indicators of agricultural development are collectively and spatially
analysed with the help of composite mean Z-score statistical technique, to
delineate relatively developed and less developed regions of Uttarakhand.
As all variables selected to analyse agricultural development, don't have an
equal share, such variable has been assigned as weight. The levels of
agricultural development were measured for two periods spaced fifteen
years i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95. The composite mean Z-score technique
which explain as :
where Z^^ = Stadard score of the ith observation of variable X^

= value of X^ variable on ith observation
X| = mean value of X^ variable
5Xj = standard deviation on the X^ variable.
After standardising the variables, its scores have been added
together for each district and divided with number of variables considered,
which gives the composite index of that district. The composite standard
score may be algebrically expressed as

273
SZ.
Composite standard score (C.S.S.) =
N
where Z^^ indicates 'Z'-score of an indicator j in district i,
N refers to the number of indicators.
The composite score of the districts have been arranged in descending
order and grouped in three categories in order to measure the levels of
agricultural development in the region, it is shown in Table 6.8.
Table 6.8
Levels of Agricultural Development
Categories Score range 1979-80 1994-95

Number of Percentage Number of Percentage
Districts to the total Districts to the total
High > + 0.15 2 25.00 2 25.00

Medium +0.15 to -0.15 4 50.00 2 25.00
Low <-0.15 2 25.00 4 50.00
Total 8 100.00 8 100.00
Levels of agricultural development (1979-80)
Agricultural development in true sense, implies the quality of
agricultural system of a region in terms of productivity, diversification,
and commercialization consistent with a desired state of agrarian relations
and ecological balance. It also brings about social and cultural
development as increased per capita income in rural areas, invariably
results in increased levels of education which are conducive for social
transformation. The primary objective of agricultural development is
usually, to increase the output per hectare.

274
The composite score of the variable have a wide range of
variation among the districts of Uttarakhand, therefore, these variations
may conveniently be grouped into three grades of high, medium and low
levels of agricultural development with the help of their composite mean
Z-score (Table 6.9).
Table reveals that in Uttarakhand as a whole there a two districts
showing a high level of agricultural development, four fall under medium
levels and the remaining two have low levels of agricultural development.
Those which attaining high levels of agricultural development forms a right
angle shape, lies in the south-eastern and north-eastern part of the study
region. They includes the districts of Nainital (+0.72) and Pithoragarh
(+0.24). Medium level of agricultural development occupies the districts
of Almora (+0.003), in the east-central, Dehradun (-0.0006) in the south-
western, Uttarkashi (-0.10) in the north western and Tehri-Garhwal (-0.11)
in the west-central part of the region. In this group, the development of
agricultural technology is moderate. Therefore, agricultural development
is also moderate in this region. The low levels of agricultural development
lies in the north-central, and south-central part of the region. They
includes the district of Pauri-Garhwal (-0.27) and Chamoli (-0.31), which
forms the boundary line between Uttarkashi and rest of all districts of the
region (Fig. 6.7). The low levels of agricultural development in
Uttarakhand is due to poor techno-institutional and harsh environmental
conditions. It is also to be noted that areas having low level of agricultural
development suffered with poverty and low agricultural incomes for a long
time.
275
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276
UTTARAKHAND
LEVXLS OF AGRICULTURAL DEWLOPRIENT
1979 - 80
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
20 40 60
I I I
Km^
nG.6.'
277
Levels of agricultural development (1994-95)
In the year 1994-95, the regional pattern of agricultural
development reveals that there is a two region, lying on the south-eastern
and south-western part of Uttarakhand, where the levels of Agricultural
development is high. It comprises of Nainital (+0.76) and Dehradun
(+0.16) districts. There was a significant development in agriculture in
Dehradun districts, therefore it shift from medium levels of agricultural
development in 1979-80 to high level of agricultural development in
1994-95. Its high level owes to high intensity of cropping, irrigation, high
yielding varieties of seeds, and high per hectare consumption of
fertilizers. This belt is highly mechanised as supported by large number of
tractors and pumpsets and it has excellent irrigation facilities from canal,
tubewells and other sources. They produce a variety of crops like rice,
wheat, maize, barley, pulses, oilseeds, and cash crops.
The medium category of Agricultural development extends over
two districts namely, Almora (+0.006) and Pithoragarh (+0.13). These
districts forms a T-shaped structure in the region. The regions of low level
of agricultural development cover larger area, lies in the north-eastern,
north-western, west-central and south-central part of Uttarakhand. These
includes the districts of Chamoli (-0.21), Uttarkashi (-0.26), Pauri-
Garhwal (-0.31) and Tehri-Garhwal (-0.35) (Table 6.10 & Fig. 6.8). These
forms a continuous belt in the study region. Infrastructural facilities are
not well developed here. A large number of indicators selected to assess
the level of development indicates a low level in these districts, therefore
the agricultural development is very poor in these region.

278
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279
UTTARAKHAND
LEMELS OF AGRICULTURAL DE\nELOPIMENT
1994 - 95
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW-
SO 20
• 40 60
L.
Kms
nG.5.5
280
The combine impact of the fifteen indicators reveals that after a
lapse of fifteen years,there is shifting of districts from high to medium,
medium to low and vice-versa. During 1979-80, the districts of
Pithoragarh was under high levels of agricultural development but in 1994-
95 it is replaced by Dehradun and comes under medium category, because
the farmers living in this district enjoy better irrigation facilities, high
dose of fertilizer consumption, use of high yielding varieties of seeds and
others agricultural technology.
It is obvious that those areas where irrigation facilities are
available in adequate measure, a new technology based on proper
combination of high yielding varieties of seeds, water, fertilizers and
pesticides will make fanning more dynamic. In the districts of low levels
of Agricultural development, the land is mountaineous and landslides are
common, so the irrigation facilities is not well developed and the
fertilzier consumption are also lacking. Therefore farmers don't want to
take risk in developing the agriculture of these districts.

281
References
1. Ashish, M. (1983) : Agricultural Economy of Kumaun Hills : Threat

of Ecological Disaster in O.P. singh (ed.) The Himalaya, Man and
Nature, Rajesh Publication, New Delhi, pp. 184-197.
2. Bagchi, K. (1979) : Agriculture in Drough Prone areas, Geographical
Review of India, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 293-96.
3. Malasis (1975): Agriculture and the Development Process, tentative
guidelines for teaching, Education and Rural Development, 3,
Unesco, Paris, pp. 197-8.
4. Malasis (1976) : The Rural World, Education and Development,
UNESCO, Paris, p. 55.
5. Mellore, J.W. (1967) : Towards a theory of Agricultural
Development and Economic Growth, Ithaca, Cornell University
Press, New York, pp. 67-97.
6. Mitra, A. (1967) : Levels of Regional development in India, Census
of India, Indian Statistical Institute, New Delhi, pp. 8-9.
7. Mohammad, Noor (1992) : Spatial variation in levels of
development in U.P. in Dynamics of Agricultural Development, vol.
7, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 175-195.
8. Munir, A. (1992) : Agricultural Productivity and Regional
Development, Manak Publication, Delhi, pp. 137-170.
9. Datt and Sundaram, Indian Economy, p. 328.
10. Srivastava, S.L. (1983) ; Regional Disparities in Agricultural
development in M.P., Indian Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 15,
No. 2, Kharagpur, pp. 17-19.

282
11. Siddiqui, S.H. (1987) : Regional variation of Agricultural Develop-

ment in the North Bihar plain, Geographical Review of India, Vol.
49, No. 3, pp. 49-53.
12. Shenoi, D.V. (1975) : Agricultural Development in India, Vikas Pub.

House, New Delhi, pp. 67-78.
13. Dua Rachna and Mohammad Noor (1998) : Spatial variations in the
level of Agricultural Development in Haryana, The Geographer, vol.
45, No. 1, January.
14. Shafiqullah : Levels of Agricultural Development in Gonda District,

Geographical Review of India, Vol. 61, No. 4, pp. 361-71.
15. Parimala, G. and Qureshi, M.H. (1983) : Levels of Agricultural
Development in Tamil Nadu, The Indian Geographical Journal, Vol.
58, No. 2, pp. 119-126.
16. Shukla, N,. and S. Dhogat (1999) : Disparities of Economic Develop-

ment in India - A factor Analysis Approach, Indian Journal of
Regional Science, vol. XXXI, No. 1, pp. 13-18.
283
Uttarakhand is a agriculturally backward area. Here agriculture is
the main source of revenue as the bulk of population or 80 per cent of the
total population survives on agriculture. Variations in altitude, soils and
climate have introduced differences in agricultural practices from place to
place in the study region. Agriculture was however practiced here on
conservative lines in the recent past and there was no real and serious
effort on the part of cultivators to adopt new methods of agriculture. A
low agricultural production and rapid growth of population has been major
problems of the region. To fulfil the requirements of foodgrains, special
attention is being paid towards the enhancement of their agricultural
output, with an increased use of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, HYV
seeds and infrastructural facilities. There has now been significant
increase in the available food resources. However, the distributional
pattern of institutional and technological indicators are not uniform in
Uttarakhand which causes regional imbalances in agricultural development.
The net sown area in Uttarakhand during 1979-80 was 13.27 per
cent (7.06 lakh hectares) of the total reported area, which decreased to
12.89 per cent (6.92 lakh hectares) in 1994-95. Similarly the area sown
more than once has also decreased from 9.0 per cent (4.31 lakh hectares)
in 1979-80 to 9.36 per cent (4.49 lakh hectares). The gross cropped area
was 11.37 lakh hectares in 1979-80 which increased to 11.41 lakh hectares
in 1994-95 but their percentage to the total reported area slightly decrease
from 21.37 per cent to 21.26 per cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-
95. The percentage decrease in gross cropped area is due to new
construction of settlement and roads in the region.

284
The production obtained from the food crops recorded a steep
rise from 24.96 lakh tonnes to 44.88 lakh tonnes during the period 1979-
80 to 1994-95. Steep increase in production is the result of general
awakening of the farmers and the diffusion of technological and
institutional inputs. The impact of these efforts was remarkable in the
irrigated valleys and was negligible in other hill zones.
An analysing the growth rate in area and production of individual
crops in Uttarakhand indicates that among cereals, wheat is the first
ranking crop that occupied 367.71 thousand hectares in 1979-80 and
371.39 thousand hectares in 1994-95.
The production of wheat continuously increased from 441.92
thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 678.76 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The
overall linear growth rate of area under wheat increased by 53.50 per cent,
while production increased by 52.25 per cent during the period studied.
After wheat, rice is the second leading crop in the study area. Its areal
extent has slightly decreased from 283 thousand hectares in 1979-80 to
280.41 thousand hectares in 1994-95, but its quantum of production has
recorded a handsome increase from 326.38 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to
551.19 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The linear growth rate of area under
rice decreased by 0.9 per cent, while the production increased by 68.8 per
cent during this period. The area under maize was 38.06 thousand hectares
in 1979-80, which decreased to 31.69 thousand hectares in 1994-95.
However, the production under maize sharply declined from 43.65
thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 37.86 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The area
under barley has also declined from 29.97 thousand hectares in 1979-80
285
to 28.40 thousand hectares in 1994-95, while the production has slightly
increased from 35.20 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 35.72 thousand
tonnes in 1994-95. The linear growth of area and production indicates that
the area under barley decreased by 5.23 per cent, while production
increased by 1.48 per cent from 1979-80 to 1994-95.
The area under pulses have increased in fifteen years except in
case of gram and masoor, while the production recorded an increased in
all the pulses except gram. Besides, masoor is the leading crop among
other pulses in Uttarakhand. It occupies largest area and improved its
position in production. The area under masoor was 15.54 thousand hectares
in 1979-80, and 15.22 thousand hectares in 1994-95. As against this the
production increased from 8.67 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 11.63
thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The linear growth rate of area under masoor
decreased by 2.02 per cent, while the production increased by 34.10 per
cent during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95.
Urd ranked second after masoor, the area under Urd was 5.32
thousand hectares in 1979-80, but it recorded an excellent increase to
8.34 thousand hectares in 1994-95. The production also increased from
2.36 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 3.67 thousand tonnes in 1994-95.
Arhar is another important crop whose area increased to 1.64 thousand
hectares in 1994-95 from 1.19 thousand hacters in 1979-80. The
production of arhar also increased during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95.
The area and production under gram decreased from 4.29 thousand
hectares and 1.92 thousand tonnes respectively in 1979-80 to 1.77
thousand hectares and 1.56 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. Lastly the peas
286
covered small area i.e. 0.85 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which
increased to 2.32 thousand hectares in 1994-95, and production also
increased from 0.56 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 1.78 thousand tonnes
in 1994-95. The trends of growth in area and production indicates that the
area under peas had an excellent increase by 172.53 per cent, while the
production increased by 217.58 per cent during the period studied.
Among oilseeds, soyabean, rapeseed and mustard, and sesamum
have achieved leading position in Uttarakhand. The area under soyabean was
8.45 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 18.68 thousand
hectares in 1994-95, and its production increased from 12.35 thousand
tonnes in 1979-80 to 25.0 thousand tonnes in 1994-95. The growth rate of
area and production under soyabean increased by 121.07 per cent and
103.02 per cent respectively during the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. The
area under rapeseed and mustard has increased from 11.41 thousand
hectares to 12.88 thousand hectares during the period 1979-80 to 1994-
95. Similarly the production has increased from 5.11 thousand tonnes in
1979-80 to 10.41 thousand tonne in 1994-95. The phenomenal increase is
due to the favourable climatic conditions of the study area. The area under
sesamum was 1.87 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which increased to 2.95
thousand hectares in 1994-95, conversely the production declined from
0.46 thousand tonnes to 0.40 thousand tonnes during the period 1979-80
to 1994-95.
Uttarakhand is not an important producer of sugarcane as
compared to the sugarcane belt of western and eastern Uttar Pradesh. The
area under sugarcane has increased from 38.49 thousand hectares in 1979-
287
80 to 49.91 thousand hectares in 1994-95 and the production increased
from 1508 thousand tonnes to 2925 thousand tonnes during the period
1979-80 to 1994-95. Potato and onion are getting popular in Uttarakhand
and its area and production both are gradually increasing. The area under
potatoes, was 6.90 thousand hectares in 1979-80, which rose upto 14.41
thousand hectares in 1994-95. Similarly the production has also recorded
increase from 90.28 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 260.49 thousand
tonnes in 1994-95. The area under potato increased by 108.95 per cent,
while production increased by 188.54 per cent. The area under onion has
increased from 0.87 thousand hectares to 1.23 thousand hectares during
the period 1979-80 to 1994-95. The production also significantly
increased from 13.56 thousand tonnes in 1979-80 to 16.40 thousand
tonnes in 1994-95. The development and expansion of irrigation facilities
have increased the irrigated area under various food crops in Uttarakhand.
The food crops area under irrigation was 3 00 lakh hectares in 1979-80,
which increased to 3.78 lakh hectares in 1994-95. Among all the food
crops, sugarcane was heavily irrigated and more than 90 per cent of its
area received irrigation. The area increase under irrigation is due to
increase in the number of tubewells, pumpsets, canals and irrigation by
other sources (ponds, lake, wells and tanks) in Uttarakhand. In 1979-80,
about 37 per cent of the total area was under irrigation. But after farmers
awakening encouragement of governmental agencies, and expansion of
irrigationn facilities, extensive area of food crops came under irrigation
and about 45 per cent area was irrigated in 1994-95.

288
Gross irrigated area as a percentage to gross cropped area is large
in Dehradun and Nainital, but in other districts, it is relatively low. In
Chamoli, for instance this figure was as low as 7.32 per cent in 1994-95.
The net irrigated area by different sources was 1,94,127 hectares in 1979-
80, which increased to 2,45,041 hectares in 1994-95. The high percentage
of net irrigated area was seen in south eastern and south western part,
namely, Nainital and Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. In this districts, the
concentration of tubewells and pumpsets was quite high, owing to better
supply of electricity in the tarai-bhabar tract, but in remaining districts
these sources are completely absent owing to the stony hilly areas. The
irrigation is mainly done through canal like gools and other sources such
as ponds, lake, wells and tanks. The increase in irrigated area may be seen
as glimpse of farmers awakening and the begining of revolution, which
helps in agricultural development of Uttarakhand. The use of fertilizers
(NPK) in Uttarakhand was 35,580 metric tonnes in 1979-80, which
increased to 76,983 metric tonnes in 1994-95. The total consumption of
fertilizers has increased from 31.26 kg per hectare of cropped land in
1979-80 to 67.43 kg per hecrtare in 1994-95. The highest consumption of
fertilizers was reported in south eastern and south western part of
Uttarakhand. It includes the districts of Nainital (206.09 kg per hectares)
and Dehradun (46.37 kg per hectare). The low level of consumption was
recorded in remaining districts namely, Almora, Pithoragarh, Chamoli,
Uttarkashi, Tehri Garhwal and Pauri-Garhwal. The number of tractors per
thousand hectares of cultivatred land is very low, being of 5.53 tractors in
1979-80. This ratio however, increased to 15 tractor per thousand hectares

289
of cultivated land in 1994-95. The concentration of tractor is greater in
only Nainital and Dehradun district. Use of pumpsets also follows the
same pattern. The total area under HYV of seeds was 3,15,476 hectares,
which rose upto 6,83,543 hectares in 1994-95. The high yielding seeds
programme has been successful in tarai-bhabar tract of the study area,
while in other parts of Uttarakhand, the adoption of this technology has
been very slow. It is observed that the number of agricultural credit
societies per lakh of population decreased during the period 1979-80 to
1994-95. The farmers of Uttarakhand therefore, are facing acute financial
problem and are unable to invest in their farms. The number of agricultural
workers to the main workers has also decreased from 75.23 per cent in
1979-80 to 64.53 per cent in 1994-95. This is due to the shifting of
workers towards the secondary and tertiary sector. The percentage of
agricultural workers to the main workers is decreasing very fast in Naintal
and Dehradun districts. The percentage of literate persons to total
population was 31.02 per cent in 1971, which increased to 48.78 per cent
in 1991. The highest concentration of literate persons has been registered
in south-western (Dehradun district) and south central (Pauri-Garhwal
district) part of Uttarakhand, while the low concentration is reported in
north-western (Uttarkashi district) and west central (Tehri Garhwal
district) part of the area studied.
Land holding is the basic unit of decision making in agriculture.
The increase in population has resulted in the fragmentation of land
holdings, making them uneconomical, more than 70 per cent of the
farmers belong to the marginal class with less than one hectare of
290
cultivable land. It is obvious from the analysis that only two categories viz
those below one hectare and between one to two hectares of land
contribute 88 per cent of the total holdings in Uttarakhand. Subsistence
type of farming is practiced in this area because majority of the farmers
depend on small and marginal holding for their sustenance.
The study of spatio-temporal development of agriculture with
reference to agricultural productivity for the two period of time (1979-80
and 1994-95) indicates that during one and a half decades, there was a
shifting of districts of high, medium and low productivity. During 1979-
80, the area of high productivity region was concentrated in south-eastern
(Nainital district) east-central (Almora district) and north-eastern
(Pithoragarh district) part of Uttarakhand. However, in 1994-95 the high
productivity region scattered over south-eastern (Nainital district) and
south-western (Dehradun district) part of the area studied. It is observed
that Dehradun improved its productivity and was placed under high
productivity region, because the farmers of this region are more
enlightened and are aware of the advantage of technological and
institutional inputs. The areal change in agricultural productivity indicates
that the extent of high productivity region of cereals has increased by
24.80 per cent and that of low productivity region by 7.31 per cent, while
the medium productivity area of cereals decreased by 36.34 per cent. The
decrease of area under medium productivity of cereals is due to the fact
that most of the area has become an area of high and low productivity
region. The areal extent of pulses under high productivity region icnreased
by 19.18 per cent and medium productivity region by 29.97 per cent, while
291
the area under low productivity decreased by 30.70 per cent. The decrease
in low productivity area is due to the shifting of area from low to high and
medium productivity. The areal extent of oilseeds under high and medium
productivity increased by 56.41 per cent and 251.95 per cent respectively
during 1979-80 to 1994-95, while the low productivity area decreased by
48.95 per cent. The area under oilseeds has increased during one and a half
decades. The areal extent of cashcrops has increased in all productivity
regions from 1979-80 to 1994-95. The areal extent of high, medium and
low productivity region of cashcrops has increased by 28.60 per cent,
17.95 per cent and 128.21 per cent respectively in Uttarakhand. The study
indicates that the increase in area under cashcrops is due to the decrease
in area under cereals. It has been observed that there is an overall increase
in the productivity area under pulses, oilseeds and cashcrops excepting
cereals. The increase in productivity area under these crops is due to
better farm management, and use of good quality seeds, which give
maximum returns to the farmers. The farmers of this region are therefore
taking interest in cultivation of these crops for commercial purpose.
The factor analysis of fifteen variables for the year 1979-80
indicates that 83.86 per cent of the total variance is explained by three
factors. Factor 1 explains 50.04 per cent of the total variance. The
variables which have positive loadings of more than 0.50 are irrigated area
to the netsown area, iron plough, followed by net sown area, consumption
of fertilizers, HYV of seeds, rural electrification and literacy. The positive
sign of the variables indicates the higher development of agriculture. The
result of the factor scores shows that high factor scores are concentrated
292
in the south-eastern (Nainital district) and south-western (Dehradun
district) part of Uttarakhand, which leads to higher development of
agriculture, while the low factor scores are scattered over north eastern
(Pithoragarh district), north-central (Chamoli district) and west-central
(Tehri-Garhwal district) part of the area studied. Factor 2 accounts for
22.36 per cent of the total variance explained. It is strongly loaded on
irrigation by other sources, cropping intensity, and area sown more than
once while Factor 3 accounts for 11.46 per cent of the total variance
explained. It is negatively loaded with agricultural productivity and area
sown more than once. The result of the factor analysis for the year
1994-95, shows that 90.50 per cent of the total variance is explained by
these three factors. Factor F, accounts for 56.97 per cent of the total
variance explained. The highest positive loading is shown by agricultural
productivity, irrigated area to the net sown area, consumption of
fertilizers, iron plough, HYV of seeds, rural electrification and net sown
area. The positive relationship among these variables of agricultural
development indicates that high agricultural productivity is due to high
dose of fertiliser consumption, use of HYV of seeds, use of iron plough,
high irrigated area, high percentage of netsown area and extensive use of
electricity to run agricultural machinery. The high factor scores lies in
south-eastern and south-western part of the study region, comprising the
district of Nainital and Dehradun, the medium factor scores covering the
district of Almora, Chamoli and Uttarkashi while low factor scores
occupying remaining districts namely, Pithoragarh, Tehri-Garhwal and
Pauri-Garhwal. Factor 2 accounts for 22.30 per cent of the total variance
293
explained. It is strongly loaded on canal irrigation. Factor 3 which
accounts for 11.23 per cent of the total variance explained has high loading
on literacy.
Based on the composite mean Z-score, Uttarakhand has been
divided into high, medium and low levels of agricultural development for
the two periods, i.e. 1979-80 and 1994-95. It has been observed that even
after a lapse of fifteen years, there is slight change in the spatial pattern of
high, medium and low levels of agricultural development. During 1979-80,
the district of Pithoragarh was under high levels of agricultural
development and Uttarkashi and Tehri-Garhwal was under medium levels.
But in 1994-95 Pithoragarh is replaced by Dehradun and falls under
medium levels of agricultural development and Uttarkashi and Tehri
Garhwal show low levels of agricultural development. The low levels of
agricultural development is observed in north-central (Chamoli district),
west-central (Tehri-Garhwal district), south-central (Pauri-Garhwal
district) and north-western (Uttarkashi district) part of Uttarakhand. The
farmers belonging to the district of high levels of agricultural development
enjoy better irrigation facilities, use of fertilizers, use of HYV of seeds,
and implements and machinery, while in the low levels of agricultural
development, the impact of these variables are comparatively low. In
subsistence farming in Uttarakhand there are no saving and therefore no
capital formation takes place. There is also no will to save and invest. To
earn more returns, the farmers of this region adopted the cultivation of
horticulture rather than crop production.

294
Suggestions
The analysis so far made points to the fact that the use of
technological and institutional facilities must be better managed and
organised to attain proper improvements of agriculture. In order to achieve
this goal, the author has lined in the light of earlier discussions to suggest
some measures that can be adopted for agricultural development of the
study area. These suggestions are :
i) The consolidaiton of Land Holdings Act, which has not yet been
implemented in the region, must be enforced vigorously. The
fragmentation and scattering of land holding mitigates against the
development initiatives and the introduction of innovation by
individual farmers. It is therefore considered that redistribution of
consolidated land in the region will help in increasing agricultural
production, as small farms are in general not productive in
comparison to large farms.
ii) Agricultural development in Uttarakhand has to be promoted
through the enhancement of productivity of the farms.
Technologically, traditional farmers of the region should be trained
to package of technology and plant care, which could facilitate them
to go in for double cropping and better rotation of crops.
iii) Cropping pattern should be changed accoridng to the needs of the
society and to suit the capability of land.
iv) Prohibition of overgrazing must be imposed in the study area.

295
v) Sheet erosion results in heavy losses of soil fertility year by year
and distruction of natural reosurces, which are of common
occurrence in the hill regions, therefore it is necessary that
afforestation work should be taken to arrest the losses of soil
caused through erosion.
vi) Terrace farming has considerable scope in Uttarakhand and an effort
should be made to raise winter corps in the study area.
vii) Irrigation facilities should be provided in mid slope and upland
areas.
viii) The government should give top priority to develop irrigation
facilities in its plan and policies in order to revitalise Indian
agricultural technology.
xi) Agricultural credit should be provided to the farmers so that they
are capable to purchase agricultural inputs like HYV seeds,
fertilizers and agricultural implements and machinery.
x) Attempt should be made to introduce and propogate new agricultural
technology particularly use of HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers,
insecticides, pesticides, ploughing means and reclamation of waste
land for cultivation.
xi) Soils in Uttarakhand suffer from the lack of nitrogen content,
therefore effort should be made to convince the farmers to use
green manures.
xii) All kinds of incentives should be given to the farmers in the form of
296
subsidies in cash or kind through various government and quasi-
government agencies.
xiii) To ensure that only improved seeds of good quality are used by
cultivators, a seed testing laboratory should be established.
xiv) For evolving a more economic and profitable cropping pattern, due
consideration should be given to the soil status, irrigation facilities
and climatic factors.
xv) In order to find a satisfactory answer to this apparent insensitivity
to agricultural inputs, a systematic and continuous research is
needed.
xvi) Electricity generation must be accelerated to pace with increasing
demand of power supply for both irrigation and other agricultural
purposes.
xvii) Farmers should be educated about the proper and profitable use of
modern agricultural inputs.
xviii) The supply of diesel oil for agricultural purpose should be at
reasonable rate, so that it helps the farmers to operate the pumping
sets at the time of irrigation, because canal donot have adequate
supply of water during the dry season owing to which crop suffer.
297
APPENDIX - A
Crop Productivity based on Yang's Yield Index Method

(1979-80)
Districts Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cashcrops Composite

Index
Nainital 143.36 82.62 100.67 98.52 106.29
Almora 74.15 141.87 107.38 98.96 105.60
Pithoragarh 84.23 137.73 115.27 94.87 108.02
Chamoli 86.05 109.76 103.40 99.66 99.71
Uttarkashi 80.18 81.79 110.85 100.15 93.24
Tehii-Garhwal 63.03 81.20 112.91 102.69 89.95
Pauri-Garhwal 68.02 116.58 104.66 97.32 96.64
Dehradun 97.24 83.50 71.48 108.85 90.26

298
APPENDIX - B
Crop Productivity based on Yang's Yield Index Method

(1994-95)
Districts Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Cashcrops Composite

Index
Nainital 156.12 98.16 96.36 99.30 112.48
Almora 60.35 127.61 108.00 100.16 99.03
Pithoragarh 81.67 101.40 94.83 100.46 94.60
Chamoli 74.57 99.55 115.53 101.00 97.66
Uttarkashi 72.06 99.13 107.86 100.75 94.95
Tehri-Garhwal 72.13 99.60 106.58 101.07 94.84
Pauri-Garhwal 62.18 100.22 108.34 99.38 92.53
Dehiadun 89.82 101.27 121.02 103.11 103.80

299
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GLOSSARY
Local Names English Names
Arhar Pigeon pea
Bhabar Band of gravely deposits fringing the outer margin

of the Siwaliks
Chaumas A season of rainy crops
Dun Longitudinal intermontane valley
Gad and Gadhera Numerous rivers and rivulets
Gools Irrigation cahnnels draw from streams
Hyund A seaon corresponding to cold weather crops
HYV High yielding varieties
Kankar Calcium nodules
Katil Land on forest margins
Kharif Season of summer crops i.e. mid-June to October
Kohra Fog
Masoor Lentil
Pancher Less fertile land composed of coarse detritus
Pat Little plateau with steep sides
Purior A season of hot weather crops
Rabi Season of winter crops i.e. November to April
Sera Irrigated lands with perennial supply of water and

often lying on the river beds
Tal Local term given to the lakes which owe their

origin to fluvial erosion
Talaon Land in the valleys bottom

319
Tarai A belt of marshy ground and vegetation on lower
parts of alluvial fan.
Torrents Streams
Upraon Land on hill sides
Urd Black gram
Usar Saline alkaline soils
Zaid An additional rabi crop, sown about April, May and

harvested in June, July

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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN

Under the Supervision of

The study region of the present research work, Uttarakhand

comprising eight districts namely, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh of

Kumaun, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Tehri-Garhwal, Pauri-Garhwal and Dehradun

of Garhwal division. It extends from 28°43'24" and 31°27'30" N latitude

and 77°34'27" and 80°7'22" E longitudes. It encompasses an area of 51,125

square kilometres and account total population of 5.926 million

(according to Census of India 1991). The eocnomy of this region depends

on agriculture, where more than 80 per cent of its population dependent

and the share of per capita cultivated land is very low.

1994-95. It is based on secondary soruces of data. There are the following

i) The physical setting of Uttarakhand has been described in detail.

ii) To examine the trends of agricultural development, trend lines have

been plotted with the help of regression equation Y = a + bX,

regression lines make it possible to show the exact change in area

and production of different crops.

iii) To assess the development of agriculture by the diffusion of

technological and institutional factors per thousand hectares of

cultivated land has been opted for the analysis of agricultural

mechanization i.e. tractors, pumpsets, wooden plough and iron

irrigation, agricultural credit societies, agricultural workers,

literacy and land holdings are taken into account.

v) The role of technological and institutional factors in the

development of agriculture has been examined with the help of

correlation analysis, factor analysis and composite mean Z-score

The major objective of the present study are :

1. To analyse the importance of physical setting of the region which

facilitates basic necessities for agricultural practices.

2. To analyse the landuse pattern, cropping intensity and the trends of

growth in area, produciton and yield of major food crops of Uttara-

3. To assess the spread and diffusion of technological and institutional

factors in the study area.

4. To examine the spatio-temporal development of agriculture with

reference to crop productivity in the study area.

5. To examine the impact of tehcnological and institutional factors on

the development of agriculture in Uttarakhand.

6. To measures the levels of agricultural development in the study area.

7. To suggest appropriate guidelines for future development of

chapters, which are as follows :

Chapter First deals with physical factors like relief, geology,

drainage system, climate, soil and natural vegetation of Uttarakhand.

Chapter Second presents the concept of agricultural development

and highlights theoretical aspects of technological and institutional

factors relating to agriculture.

Chapter Third describes the trends of agricultural development with

special reference to landuse pattern cropping intensity, growth rate

Chapter Four describes the spatial distribution of technological and

institutional factors in Uttarakhand.

Chapter Fifth devoted to spatio-temporal development of agriculture

with reference to agricultural productivity.

Chapter Six focusses the patterns of agriculture development and

technological and institutional factors in the study region. The

technological and institutional factors in the study region have been

assessed in three ways. Firstly, an attempt has been made to

determine the inter-relationship among independent variables

through correlation analysis for the period 1979-80 and 1994-95,

secondly, the precise role of various indicators of agricultural

development through Factor analysis. Thirdly, it exmaines the levels