© 2022 The Authors Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4934 doi: 10.2166/ws.2022.

151

Seasonal variation of drinking water quality in urban water bodies (UWBs) of Chittagong
Metropolitan City, Bangladesh: implications of higher water quality index (WQI) for the
urban environment

Morshed Hossan Molla a,*, Mohammad Abu Taiyeb Chowdhurya, Md. Habibur Rahman Bhuiyanb, Suman Dasb,
A. J. M. Morshedb, Jewel Dasb and Saiful Islamb
a
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh
b
Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR) Laboratory, Chittagong 4220, Bangladesh
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

MHM, 0000-0001-6012-3238

ABSTRACT

This is an empirical study on small urban water bodies in Chittagong Metropolitan City, Bangladesh. The ultimate objective was to explore the
alternative source of fresh water supply for the city dwellers–the urban poor. To determine the level of drinking water, a suitability analysis
was performed in conjunction with the construction and calculation of a Water Quality Index (WQI) for two distinct seasons: Rainy and Winter.
The IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Statistics version: 20 and CAP: version: 5.0.0.465 was used as a means to an end.
The study reveals that water quality in sampled UWBs of CMC was found unsuitable (WQI value 237.11) for drinking in the Rainy season and
very poor (WQI value 99.62) in the Winter. The eight (8) parameters that crossed the maximum permissible limit in the Rainy and Winter
seasons include electrical conductivity (EC), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), turbidity and nitrate. The
two biological parameters, i.e. total coliform (TC) and fecal coliform (FC) that stood alone in crossing the admissible limit, detected measured
values 1100þ MPN- 100 mL1 in Rainy and Winter seasons, against unit recommended value 50. Awareness building on water pollutants in
both public and private sectors is required to improve public health service delivery.

Key words: Chittagong, drinking water quality, urban water bodies, water quality index

HIGHLIGHTS

• Urban water bodies are found polluted.

• Shortage of piped water supply in the city created a demand for alternative fresh water sources.
• The quality of drinking water is affected by natural processes and various human activities.
• Suitability Analysis and Water Quality Index indicates implications for the urban environment.
• Awareness building is advocated for effective service delivery and public health protection.

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 Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4935

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION
Water is an essential natural resource for all forms of life on Earth. Fresh water is the most productive life support system for
mankind and plays a vital role in maintaining human health and welfare with immense socioeconomic and ecological
benefits. However, fresh water is scarce; it contains only 0.01% of the total hydrosphere, and water stored in urban water
bodies (UWBs)1 is only a tiny fraction of it. Around 780 million people in the world do not have access to clean and safe
water. As a consequence, around 6–8 million people die each year due to water related diseases and disasters. Clean drinking
water is now recognized as a fundamental right of human beings (UNESCO 2013). Despite its prime importance and enor-
mous benefits, however, contamination of water by naturally occurring phenomena or chemical wastes is one of the major
environmental concerns of our time. Accompanied by rapid urbanization and industrialization, the concern over the ensuing
freshwater supply has compelled the developing countries to search for alternative water sources. Urban Water Bodies
(UWBs) can play a vital role in this regard as alternative sources of water for household consumption (UN 2010; Rahman
et al. 2011).
The irony is, UWBs are susceptible to various pollutants depending on physical conditions and diverse anthropogenic
activities. It is a long lasting issue of drinking water; public health is at risk due to the presence of chemical contaminants
in UWBs. The effect of chemical contamination in drinking water on a human being is found to be more chronic than
acute. Prolong exposure to contaminated water has been known to increase the risks of cancer and disorders in the
kidney, liver and reproductive organs, etc. (Fawell & Nieuwenhuijsen 2003).
As a whole, public health is at risk due to chemical contaminants in drinking water which may have immediate health con-
sequences. Drinking water sources are susceptible to pollutants depending on geological conditions and agricultural,
industrial, and other man-made activities (Akter et al. 2016). Ensuring the safety of drinking water is a growing public
health concern. It is a major risk factor for a high incidence of diarrheal diseases in many developing counties. Quality con-
trol of drinking water is now a top-priority policy agenda in many parts of the world (UNESCO 2013). Availability and
sustainable management of good-quality water was set as one (Number 6) of the UN Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) (UN 2015). In addition, it is a challenge for policymakers and Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) practitioners,
particularly in the face of changing climatic conditions, increasing populations, poverty, and the negative effects of human
development. Therefore, an understanding of water quality2 and its availability is vital because waterborne diseases are
still a major cause of death in many parts of the developing world (WHO 2011). Quality of drinking water indicates water
acceptability for human consumption and characterized on the basis of water parameters (physical, chemical, and microbio-
logical), and human health is at risk if values exceed acceptable limits (BIS 2012; WHO 2012; CPCB 2013). Besides, Water

1
Urban Water Bodies (UWBs) has been defined as the collective name, given for ‘lotic’ and ‘lentic’ water environment in operational terms. In Bangladesh,
small UWBs are classified into different categories such as doba, pond, dighi, khal and beel (Huda and Alam 2006).
2
Water quality describes the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and biological characteristics, usually with respect to its suitability for a
particular purpose such as drinking or swimming. Poor water quality can also pose a health risk for ecosystems.

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 Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4936

Quality Index (WQI) is considered as the most effective method of measuring water quality. A number of water quality par-
ameters are included in a mathematical equation to rate water quality, determining the suitability of water for drinking
(Ochuko et al. 2014). The index was first developed by Horton in 1965 to measure water quality by using 10 most regularly
used water parameters. The method was subsequently modified by different experts. These indices used water quality par-
ameters, which vary by number and types. The weights in each parameter are based on its respective standards, and the
assigned weight indicates the parameter’s significance and impacts on the index. A usual WQI method follows three steps,
which include (1) selection of parameters, (2) determination of quality function for each parameter, and (3) aggregation
through mathematical equation (Tyagi et al. 2013). The index provides a single number that represents overall water quality
at a certain location and time based on some water parameters. The index enables comparison between different sampling
sites. WQI simplifies a complex dataset into easily understandable and usable information. The water quality classification
system used in the WQI denotes how suitable water is for drinking. The single-value output of this index, derived from several
parameters, provides important information about water quality that is easily interpretable, even by lay people (Chowdhury
et al. 2012). In a resource-poor country like Bangladesh, ensuring availability and sustainable management of water is one of
the challenging areas towards development. The present study embraced Suitability Analysis (SA) and weighted arithmetic
WQI method to deliver water quality information of the Urban Water Bodies (UWBs) to urban flocks.

WATER QUALITY CONCEPTS AND MEASUREMENT

Water pollutants and sources
Generally, water quality refers to attributes of water – good or bad – is related to its acceptability for certain purposes or uses.
Drinking water quality indicates acceptability of water for human consumption (Alley 2007). However, water is rarely found
in a pure state, simply because it is influenced by natural process and human activities (Kannan 1997). The important foreign
ingredients in water pollution3 may include organic matter originating from microscopic plants, detritus of fruits and veg-
etables, parasites and animal debris; it may also contain dissolved nutrients, toxic trace elements, air pollutants and
synthetic organic pollutants resulting from anthropogenic activities (Chatterjee 2001).

Water quality standards

‘Water quality’ is a term that is often used in a comparative sense; is relative in its meaning; and as such, it is strictly an
interpretation. To make an interpretative analysis on water quality, reliable reference points known as ‘standards’ are indis-
pensable tools. These are prescribed levels, quantities or values that are regarded as authoritative measures of an acceptable
amount of pollution, contamination or exposure to risk (Table 1). Such interpretations can be useful in evaluating the impact
of pollution on the state of the environment and public health (WHO 1995, 2002; BIS 2012). Depending on comparisons with
‘standard’ values, the quality of that particular environment is classified as good or bad. Eventually, it also provides an esti-
mate of the degree of fitness; human health is at risk if values exceed acceptable limits. If the quality of water is said to be good
(based on comparisons with standard values), it will also identify which of the parameters determining its quality are better
than the standards and which are not. This would also provide an estimate of how safe it would be to use that medium for the
intended purpose (ICMR 1975; WHO 1995; Kannan 1997; DoE 2004).

Water quality parameters

Water quality is characterized by various parameters including physical, chemical and biological. These can be measured
quantitatively in respect of their suitability for a given purpose. The relative choice of one set or another of these parameters
would depend primarily on the purpose for which its use is intended. Table 1 presents information on drinking water stan-
dards and unit weights by some reputed recommending agencies: World Health Organization (WHO), the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS); Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) and Bangladesh Standard Testing Institute (BSTI) (Table 1).
Human health is at risk if values exceed acceptable limits.

Water quality measurement

In a given situation, the extent of water pollution may be analysed by various parameters. A number of scientific procedures
and tools have been developed to assess the parameters that can affect the drinking water quality (APHA 2017). An important

3
Water pollution is a change caused in the chemical, physical or biological properties of the water that has the capacity of hurting the living organism.

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Table 1 | Drinking water standards recommending agencies and unit weights

Parameters Standarda Recommended Agenciesb Unit Weight

1. Temperature (°C) 25–30 WHO 0.0866

2. PH 7–8.5 ICMR/BIS 0.2190
1
3. Electrical conductivity (EC) (μS cm ) 300 ICMR 0.371
4. Total dissolved solids (TDS) (mg L1) 500 ICMR/BIS 0.0037
5. Total suspended solids (TSS) (mg L1) 500 WHO 0.0037
6. Dissolved oxygen (DO) (mg L1) 5.0 ICMR/BIS 0.3723
1
7. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) (mg L ) 5.0 ICMR 0.3723
8. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) (mg L1) 4.0 WHO 0.08266
9. Turbidity (NTU) 5.0 WHO 0.16533
10. Chloride (mg L1) 250 ICMR 0.0074
11. Nitrite (mg L1) ,1 ICMR/BIS 0.0412
Source: Compiled by the Authors.
a
Standard values have been selected by WHO. 2017. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. In: Health criteria and other supporting information, 4th edn, WHO, Geneva. ISBN 978 92 4
1548151 and Department of Environment, Bangladesh.
b
ICMR –Indian Council for Medical Research / BIS – Bureau of Indian Standard, 2012 and WHO – World Health Organization cited by Yogendra and Puttaiath, 2008.

method for water quality assessment is the Water Quality Index (WQI), first developed by Horton in the early 1970s (Horton
1965; Miller et al. 1986). After Horton, a number of scholars all over the world developed WQI based on a rating of different
water quality parameters (Ladson et al. 1999). The index provides a single number that represents aggregate water quality at a
certain location and time based on some water parameters. The objective of WQI is to turn complex water quality data
into information that is understandable and usable by the public. A number of indices have been developed to summarize
water quality data in an easily expressible and easily understood format. The WQI is basically a mathematical means of
calculating a single value from multiple test results (Adelagun et al. 2021). Also, the method is found helpful to determine
the suitability of drinking water and provides a comprehensive picture of the quality water for drinking purposes
(Chowdhury et al. 2012; Akter et al. 2016). The present study on water quality assessment is unique, particularly in
the context of UWBs in CMC. In an earlier study, Rahman et al. (2011) examined the potential of Stagnant Surface
Water Bodies (SSWBs) as alternative freshwater resources in the Chittagong Metropolitan Area using WQI. However,
samples were collected and analyzed employing only five (5) parameters: WTemp, pH, DO, EC, and turbidity. In a
rural context, the application of WQI is found in the WASH program of the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
(BRAC) (Akter et al. 2016). Literature on water resources management in Bangladesh is abundant; a few academicians
and researchers, especially Huda & Alam 2006; Rahman et al. 2011; Molla et al. 2020; Molla & Chowdhury 2021 have
conducted research on static water bodies in CMC. However, none of them has examined the level of drinking water
quality in UWBs from a spatio-temporal perspective, using comprehensive parameters (23) until recently. Such an exam-
ination is expected to be helpful to raise awareness of the city dwellers, particularly in exploring alternate water sources
for household consumption.

Objective
Based on the above premise, the main objective of this study – water quality assessment – can be stated in two folds as
follows:
(i) To determine the level of drinking water quality in sample stations (UWBs) in CMC, using selected physio-chemical and
biological parameters including some trace elements – metals for two distinct seasons: Rainy and Winter;
(ii) To measure the suitability of drinking water by formulating and calculating the Water Quality Index (WQI) for the study
area using selected parameters for the two survey periods.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study area
Geographic description
The study was conducted in Chittagong Metropolitan City (CMC) – the second largest metropolis of Bangladesh and the
economic gateway of the country; located between 22°15 and 22°25 North latitudes and between 91°45 and 91°55 East longi-
tudes on the right bank of the Karnaphuli river; occupying an area about 168 km2 in size; and inhabited by over 5.13 million
people – a 2.25% increase from 2020 level (UN 2021). The geographic environment of the city consists of hills, coastal plains,
ponds, lakes, and other water bodies. Part of the city area is subject to tidal inundation from the Bay of Bengal, twice a day.
The southwest monsoon wind from the Bay of Bengal dominates the climate system and rainfall distribution, and it is tropical
in nature. The three distinct seasons include, (i) the summer from March through May, (ii) the rainy season from June through
October, and (iii) the cool and dry winter from November through February. The metropolis is greatly influenced by the sea-
sonal monsoon climate; mean annual rainfall is 2,687 mm; mean annual temperature is 26.24 °C (Rahman et al. 2016; Ahmed
& Mohanta 2021, Ahmed 2021).

Water supply scenario

Access to clean water has become a critical concern for city dwellers in CMC. The Chittagong Water Supply and Sewerage
Authority (CWASA) is the sole organization that supplies water to the city dwellers through its limited distribution networks.
However, the organization is capable of supplying only 450 core liters of water per day/MLD; about 80% of water comes
from surface water sources and the rest comes from the underground water source. According to a most recent estimate,
only 3.1 million people have received piped water through their home connection; almost 2.03 million people could not
get access to the drinking water from the CWASA source, last year (CWASA Annual report 2020–2021). A large portion
of the city’s dwellers still face a severe water crisis and collect water from private supplies or alternative sources, i.e. natural
reservoirs such as ponds, canals, and rainwater catchments. Under these circumstances, city dwellers have been suffering
from irregular, inadequate and unsafe water supply mainly because of inefficient management practices (De 2020). The situ-
ation is getting worse day by day, particularly in low-income residential areas in CMC (Molla et al. 2014; Molla & Chowdhury
2021). The location of the sampling stations on the Chittagong City Corporation Map is shown in Figure 1.

Selection of the sampling stations (UWBs)

This paper is part of a comprehensive field investigation, conducted on UWBs in CMC in the recent past (Molla et al. 2020;
Molla & Chowdhury 2021). Identification of existing UWBs on the Chittagong City Corporation (CCC) map were detected
from a time-series of Landsat data (Landsat TM images 30 m spatial resolution), collected from the Space Research and
Remote Sensing Organization (SPARRSO) of Bangladesh. The ‘Ground Truthing Method’4 was also utilized to help detect
the actual number (1,249) of UWBs. Figure 1 shows the distribution of water quality sample stations on the CCC Map. A
total number of 21 Urban Water Bodies (UWBs) were identified in the study area. Appendix A presents information on
sampling stations, ward number, geographical location, area in square feet, and pollution status. The sample stations were
selected using the spot technique. For determining the absolute location of sampling stations, Geographical Positioning
System (GPS) was also utilized (Appendix A). Moreover, an inventory of water bodies, a distribution map of water bodies,
was prepared and detailed checklist surveys on every water body of the entire study area were conducted in the same sche-
dule. In this period, researchers followed a number of logical indicators or standards, which represent the detailed scenarios
of water bodies.
They also referred to the essential and significance of determination of the quality and seasonal variation of water bodies.
However, these standards have been used for the selection of sample size for this study. For instance, the familiarity of sample
sites (UWBs) to the city dwellers, close proximity to the facilities for recreation and other purposes, have permanent water
retention capacity, frequency of uses (such as ablutions, bathing, clothing, washing dishes and fishing) and location of water
bodies in lower-income residential areas (because they directly used these water bodies for household purposes, especially

4
Ground Truthing is a term used to refer the absolute truth of something. Ground Truth¼Estimated Accuracy. Ground truth is an integral part of the use of
remotely sensed data for land use change prediction.

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Figure 1 | Location of the sampling stations on Chittagong City Corporation Map. (The following chronological order represents name of the
water bodies and the third bracket in-text information are the name of the Metropolitan Wards and number of the wards). 1. Master Colony
Pond [Mohara, 05]. 2. Baitul salat jame mosque Pond [Chandgaon, 04]. 3. Bahharhar Bari Pond [East Sholashahar, 06]. 4. Miar Baper Barir
Pukur [Bakolia, 17]. 5. Munshi Pukur [Chawkbazar, 16]. 6. Fateabad Dighi [South Pahartali, 01]. 7. Asker Dighi [Jamalkhan, 21]. 8. Lal Dighi
[Anderkilla, 32]. 9. Kola-Bagisa Pond [Patharghata, 34]. 10. Olima Dighi [Jalalabad, 02]. 11. Baizid Bostami Pond [Jalalabad, 02]. 12. Sheer-Shah
Dighi [Sulakbahar, 08]. 13. Agrabad Deba Dighi [Agrabad, 28]. 14. Korno Mohon Sheal Bari Pond [South Patenga, 41]. 15. Hindu Para Pond
(Durga Bari) [South Patenga, 40]. 16. Raja Pond, South Patenga [South Patenga,41]. 17. Boro Pukur or Pond (Hadu Serang Bari) [South-Middle
Halishar, 34]. 18. Kazir Dighi (Sharaipara) [North Kattali, 10]. 19. Voluar Dighi [Sharaipara, 19]. 20. Jora Dighi [Sharaipara, 19]. 21. Aladi jumadar
Wafkup state mosque Pond [Dampara, 14].

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bathing, cooking, dishwashing, ablution, cleaning and somewhat drinking). These are some of the deciding factors that
received prime consideration in selecting the sample stations from the total UWBs distribution map (Appendix A).

Sample collection and analytic procedures

A total of twenty-three (23) parameters were employed; samples were collected from the sample stations (N¼21 UWBs);
obtained from far below the water surface; a 200 mL polyethylene bottle was used for each sample. Before collecting the
samples, the bottles were rinsed with the water to be sampled, and the collected samples were preserved by acidifying to
pH∼2 with HNO3 and kept at a temperature of 4°C until analysis was completed. The samples were then analyzed in the
Chemistry Laboratory, Industrial Microbiological Research Division, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, (BCSIR Laboratory) Chittagong. Table 2 presents the list of all selected water quality parameters, units of measure-
ment and analytical methods used for the determination of surface water quality in CMC.
The following section presents the analytic procedures of Suitability Analysis (SA) and Water Quality Index (WQI)
respectively.

Table 2 | Parameters, units & analytical methods used for the determination of water quality

Parameters Units Analytical methods

1. Temperature °C Thermometer
H
2. P —- pH meter (HANNA HI 8424 pH meter) (made in Romania)
3. Electrical conductivity μS cm1 Combo meter, Model HI 98129 (HANNA Instruments, Inc., Woonsocket, RI, USA)
(EC)
4. Total dissolved solids mg L1 TDS meter (HANNA DiST 1 HI 98301, made in Mauritius)
(TDS)
5. Total suspended solids mg L1 EC meter (Model no. EC214)
(TSS)
6. Dissolved oxygen (DO) mg L1 DO meter (HANNA HI 9146, made in Romania)
7. Biological oxygen mg L1 Manometric method: (APHA 2017)
demand (BOD)
8. Chemical oxygen mg L1 Titrimetric method (Dichromate reflux method: (APHA 2017)
demand (COD)
9. Turbidity NTU Turbidity meter (HANNA HI 98703 Turbidity Meter)
1
10. Chloride mg L Titrimetric method (Mohr method): (APHA 2017)
11. Salinity (NaCl) mg L1 Titrimetric method (APHA 2017)
1
12. Ammonia (as nitrogen) mg L Direct Nesslerization method, (APHA 2017)
(NH3)

13. Free chlorine mg L1 Titrimetric method, (APHA 2017)

14. Copper (Cu) μg/l Heavy metal analysis was carried out on all samples by using atomic absorption
15. Cadmium (Cd) μg/l spectrophotometer (AAS) after wet digestion.
Instrumentation: Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) (Type: iCE 3300 AA system,
16. Chromium (Cr) μg/l Thermo Scientific, designed in UK) was used to determine Cu, Cd, Cr, Fe, As, Pb, Hg, Mn
17. Iron (Fe) μg/l in water samples. The analysis was carried out using respective hollow cathode lamps
18. Arsenic (As) μg/l under standard instrumental conditions.
Reference Book for digestion technique: (APHA 2017)
19. Lead (Pb) μg/l
20. Mercury (Hg) μg/l
21. Manganese (Mn) μg/l
22. Total coliform (TC) MPN- Most Probable Number (MPN) method using Brilliant Green Bile Broth (BGB) media
100 ml1
23. Fecal coliform (FC) MPN-
100 ml1
Source: Compiled by the authors.

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Suitability analysis (SA) of water quality

The determination of the drinking water quality for UWBs in CMC for two distinct seasons: Rainy and Winter was calculated
using 15 physio-chemical and micro-biological parameters and 8 trace elements. The data set includes units, standards and
descriptive statistics such as range – maximum and minimum, mean and standard deviations, and suitability measures for the
Rainy and Winter seasons.

Formulation of the water quality index (WQI)

The WQI was selected as the most effective method of measuring water quality (Broun et al. 1972; Tiwari & Dwivedi 2016).
The index has been defined as a rating that reflects the composite influence of individual water quality parameters. This
method classifies the drinking water quality according to the degree of purity by calculating the most commonly used
water-quality parameters. For the calculation of WQI, a total of ten (10) parameters were employed for selected UWBs in
CMC including physio-chemical, biological and trace metal. These are the most widely used parameters by recommending
agencies for which unit weights are available (Table 1). Further, relative weight (wi) is assigned with respect to their perceived
effects on primary health and relative importance in the overall water quality.
The weighted arithmetic WQI method was applied (Tyagi et al. 2014) in this study to assess water suitability for drinking
purposes for the sample stations in CMC. In this method, water quality rating scale, relative weight, and overall WQI were
calculated using the following formulae:
Further, the quality rating or sub-index (qn) was calculated using the following expression.

100[Vn  Vio ]
qn ¼ (1)
[Sn  Vio ]

where,
n¼water quality parameters and quality rating or sub index, like nth parameters may be a number reflecting the relative value
of this parameter within the polluted water reference to its standard permissible value
qn¼quality rating for the nth water quality parameter
Vn¼estimated value of the nth parameter at a given sampling station
Sn¼standard permissible value of the nth parameter
Vio¼ideal value of nth parameter in pure water
Ideal value in most cases Vio¼0 except in certain parameters like pH and dissolved oxygen. The calculation of quality
rating for pH and DO (Vio≠0) is 7.0 and 14.6 mg/L respectively. Unit weight was calculated by a value inversely proportional
to the recommended standard values Sn of the corresponding parameters.
pH value calculation through water quality rating evaluation:
Ideal value of pH is 7.0 where 8.5 is that of the permissible value of water (i.e. polluted water), therefore, quality for pH is
calculated from the subsequent relation.

qpH ¼ 100[(VpH  7)=(8:5–7)] (2)

where,
VpH¼observed value of pH
DO calculation through the water quality rating equation:

qDO ¼ 100[(VDO–14:6=(5–14:6)] (3)

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Unit weight was calculated by a value inversely proportional to the recommended standard value Sn of the corresponding
parameter.

K
Wn ¼ (4)
Sn

where,
Wn¼unit weight for the nth parameters
Sn¼standard value for nth parameters
K¼constant for proportionality (Vs¼Sn)

1
K¼
1 1 1 1
þ þ þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :: þ
Vs1 Vs2 Vs3 Vsn

The overall Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated by aggregating the standard rating with the unit weight linearly.

X Wn
WQI ¼ qn (5)
Wn

Rating scale
Table 3 presents water quality status against the corresponding WQ level. The table has been used for reference in this paper.
Rating scale (Table 3) was used to illustrate water quality classification for drinking purposes based on the WQI values as
discussed by Chatterji & Raziuddin (2002) which was later cited by Tiwari & Dwivedi (2016). The rating varies from 0 to 100
and is divided into five intervals. As per calculated, values of the WQI, 0–25 implies the water quality is excellent for drinking
purpose, in the same way, the WQI values 26–50 represents good, 51–75 represents poor and 76–100 represents very poor,
respectively, for drinking water purposes. In addition, this table explains the possible use of water regarding water quality
index and status.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results of suitability analysis (SA) of water quality
Table 4 presents information regarding the seasonal variation of selected physio-chemical parameters (11) in the sample
stations of CMC for two distinct seasons – the Rainy and the Winter. The mean values calculated for the parameters indicate
that almost all variables were found relatively low in the winter season compared to the Rainy season with the exception of
one – nitrate. A remarkable seasonal variation exists between the two distinct seasons with respect to their higher mean
values shown for 10 parameters including temperature, EC, TDS, TSS, BOD, COD and turbidity. The rainy season was
observed as the most contaminated (Table 6).

Table 3 | Water quality classification for drinking purposes based on the WQI values

Water quality index level Water quality status Possible use of water

0–25 Excellent All-purpose like potable, industrial and agricultural

26–50 Good Domestic and agricultural
51–75 Poor Agricultural and industrial
76–100 Very poor Agricultural
100 and above Unfit and Unsuitable for drinking Not much possible agricultural can be used only after proper treatment
Source: Chatterji & Raziuddin 2002 Cited by Tiwari & Dwivedi 2016.

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Table 4 | Seasonal variations of the physio-chemical parameters in selected UWBs

Parameters Rainy season (Mean of results; N¼21) Winter season (Mean of results; N¼21)

1. Temperature (°C) 30.6805 25.3429

2. PH 8.0838 6.3143
1
3. Electrical conductivity (EC)(μS cm ) 481.452 352.382
4. Total dissolved solids (TDS)(mg L1) 283.002 21.1712
5. Total suspended solids (TSS) (mg L1) 62.7143 16.0862
6. Dissolved oxygen (DO) (mg L1) 5.6943 3.6643
1
7. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) (mg L ) 19.6148 9.5500
8. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) (mg L1) 64.1448 37.8048
9. Turbidity (NTU) 55.7500 25.1471
10. Chloride (mg L1) 75.7900 35.9048
11. Nitrite (mg L1) 1.8057 3.8295
Source: Compiled by the Authors.

Table 5 summarizes and presents the results of suitability analysis for fifteen (15) parameters representing physio-chemical
and micro-biological attributes. The descriptive statistics including Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL) and prescribed stan-
dards are also presented in Table 5. Water quality suitability was determined by observing the measured mean value of
parameters in interest against their prescribed standard value. The mean value shows that the majority of sample parameters
have crossed the MPL. The SA for drinking water quality reveals that out of 15 physio-chemical and biological parameters,
the majority (8) were found unsuitable for drinking; seven (7) were found suitable for household usage purposes in both sea-
sons. The suitable parameters are PH, TDS, TSS, DO, chloride, salinity (NaCl) and free chlorine. In other words, the pollution
concentration of these parameters is found below in the MPL values. In terms of suitability, the seasonal distribution pattern
of water quality has remained relatively unchanged in the Winter season, however, showing lower mean values with certain
exceptions, e.g. nitrate. It means that the water quality condition in the Winter season was relatively better than the Rainy
season. However, there is a gross disparity in the distribution of water quality in CMC as it is evident from the range, maxi-
mum, minimum, mean and standard deviations. The disparity is striking in the spatio-temporal characteristics of the
parameters used. A close examination of some water quality parameters may reveal this reality. The parameters that have
crossed the maximum admissible concentration in the Rainy and Winter seasons include EC, BOD, COD, turbidity and
nitrate along with two micro-biological parameters – total coliform and fecal coliform. The only exception is temperature,
which was found suitable in the winter season. All the water quality parameters are expressed in mgL1, except pH, EC
(mS cm1), temperature (1 °C), and total coliform (MPN/100 mL).
The analytical data quality was ensured through careful standardization. The EC varied from 841 to 328 mS cm1 in the
rainy season with a mean value 481 and SD 272 against the standard Value 300 mS cm1. The concentration of BOD (64–
0.61 mgL1) in all the samples in the Rainy season was higher than the maximum permissible limit (MPL) with a mean value
19.7 and S.D. 5.0; compared to the standard value 5.0 mgL1. The observed values of COD in the Rainy season ranges
between 176 to 15.9 mgL1 with mean values 64.1 and S.D. 437 against the standard value 4.0. The measured value of nitrate
in the Rainy season was found quite high compared to the Winter season compared. The range falls between 5.2 to
0.10 mgL1 with mean representing 1.81 and S.D ,1 fall between 1.81; Winter 3.83 mgL1, against the standard value
,1, against the MPL 1.3. Turbidity was found quite high in the Rainy season. The measured value of turbidity ranges 92–
29 mgL1; mean 55 and S.D. 186 mgL1; against MPL 5. The measured values of TC and FC were 1100 50 MPN-
100 mL1 compared to MPL 5050 MPN- 100 mL1.
The results of the suitability analysis (SA) of trace metals in sample stations (UWBs) of CMC are summarized and presented
in Table 6. A total of eight (8) parameters were utilized for two distinct seasons. With the exception of one parameter i.e. lead
(Pb) that has crossed the maximum admissible concentration, the presence of other trace metals in UWBs is not that alarming
for drinking purposes. Although copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) were found nil in the selected water bodies, the presence of

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 Table 5 | Determination of drinking water quality using physio-chemical and biological parameters in UWBs of CMC

Rainy Season Winter Season

m m n b
Parameters Units Standards a
Max Min Mean Std.dev c
Suitability Maxm Minm Mean Std.devn b
Suitabilityc

Physio-chemical Parameters
Temperature °C 25–30 34.00 26.50 30.6805 2.45711 NS 25.70 25.20 25.3429 0.12071 S
PH —- 6.5–8.5 8.80 7.10 8.0838 0.41722 S 6.60 5.70 6.3143 0.22646 S
1
Electrical conductivity (EC) μS cm 300 841.00 3.28 481.452 272.1082 NS 640.00 160.00 352.382 12.25932 NS
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg L1 500 529.00 2.00 283.002 168.8832 S 390.00 96.00 21.1712 74.26791 S
1
Total suspended solids (TSS) mg L 500 139.00 13.00 62.7143 402.2951 S 359.00 15.00 16.0862 95.79991 S
Dissolved oxygen (DO) mg L1 4–6 7.90 2.98 5.6943 1.25351 S 6.02 1.15 3.6643 1.44667 S
1
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) mg L 5.0 64.00 0.61 19.6148 209.1991 NS 31.00 0.55 9.5500 8.70847 NS
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) mg L1 4.0 176.00 15.89 64.1448 436.8481 NS 105.00 5.00 37.8048 28.43981 NS
Turbidity NTU 5 92.30 29.00 55.7500 186.3081 NS 75.80 4.75 25.1471 16.62801 NS
Chloride mg L1 250 145.00 10.00 75.7900 305.1841 S 70.00 25.00 35.9048 9.13184 S
Salinity (NaCl) mg L1 250 270.00 19.00 143.192 560.1611 S 126.40 45.25 64.9733 16.47281 S
Nitrite mg L1 ,1 5.22 0.10 1.8057 1.31222 NS 16.80 0.00 3.8295 5.54616 NS
1
Free chlorine mg L 0.3 0.20 0.00 0.0543 0.05853 S 0.80 0.00 0.3000 0.21909 S
Biological Parameters
Total coliforms (TC) MPN- 100 ml1 50 1100þ NS 1100þ NS
1 þ
Fecal coliforms (FC) MPN- 100 ml 50 1100 NS 1100þ NS

Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4944

Source: Compiled by the Authors.
a
WHO suggested water quality standards (WHO 2004).
b
Values are averaged from at least three consecutive measurements. SD: standard deviation.
c
Suitability for drinking as compared with WHO suggested water quality standards, ‘S’, suitable; ‘NS’, not-suitable.

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 Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4945

Table 6 | Determination of trace metals in UWBs of Chittagong Metropolitan City

Rainy Season Winter Season

Parameters Units Standards Maxm Minm Mean Std.devn Suitability Maxm Minm Mean Std.devn Suitability

Copper (Cu) μg/L 2 Nil Nil

Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 Nil Nil
Chromium (Cr) 0.05 0.04 00.00 0.0062 0.01244 S 0.04 0.00 0.0095 0.01499 S
Iron (Fe) 0.3 1.20 00.00 0.2176 0.35417 S 1.18 0.00 0.2133 0.34907 S
Arsenic (As) 0.01 BLD (Below Detected Level) BLD (Below Detected Level)
Lead (Pb) 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.0481 0.01861 NS 0.09 0.01 0.0533 0.02058 NS
Mercury (Hg) 0.006 BLD (Below Detected Level) BLD (Below Detected Level)
Manganese (Mn) 0.4 0.27 0.00 0.0348 0.07229 S 0.60 0.00 0.0633 0.14242 S
Source: Compiled by the Authors.

arsenic (As) was found in Below Detected Level (BDL). Similarly, chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), mercury (Hg) and manganese
(Mn) were detected in the samples in the Rainy and Winter seasons but those are found safe for drinking purposes.

Results of the water quality index (WQI)

The WQI indicates the quality of water in terms of an index number which represents the overall quality of water for any
intended use. It is calculated from the point of view that a lower value of it signifies less deviation from the recommended
values of parameters included and more good quality water for human consumption or vice versa. The results of WQI for
the Rainy and Winter seasons are presented under two tables separately. Information relevant to the WQI for the Rainy
season is shown in Table 7 and for the Winter is shown in Table 8. The WQI calculated for the selected sampling stations
(N¼21) in CMC has delivered a clear message on the composite effect of physio-chemical parameters on drinking water
in UWBs. The WQI represents index value of 237.11 for the Rainy season and 99.62 for the Winter season. According to

Table 7 | Calculation of Water Quality Index (WQI) in rainy season

Observed Standard values Vio¼Ideal value of Unit weight Quality rating

Parameters values (Sn) nth parameter (Wn) (qn) Wn qn

1. Temperature 30.6805 25–30 0 0.0866 102.27 8.86

H
2. P 8.0838 7–8.5 7 0.2190 72.00 15.77
3. Electrical conductivity 481.452 300 0 0.371 160.48 59.53
(EC)
4. Total dissolved solids 283.002 500 0 0.0037 56.60 0.21
(TDS)
5. Total suspended solids 62.7143 500 0 0.0037 12.54 0.046
(TSS)
6. Dissolved oxygen (DO) 5.6943 5.0 14.6 0.3723 92.81 34.55
7. Biological oxygen 19.6148 5.0 0 0.3723 392.29 146.04
demand (BOD)
8. Chemical oxygen 64.1448 4.0 10 0.08266 1002.4 82.86
demand (COD)
9. Chloride 30.6805 250 0 0.0074 12.27 0.09
10. Nitrite 1.8057 ,1 0 0.0412 180.00 7.41
∑ Wn¼1.5598 ∑ qn¼2083.66 ∑ Wn qn¼355.366
Water Quality Index¼∑ qn Wn/∑ Wn¼237.11 (Unsuitable for drinking)

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 Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4946

Table 8 | Calculation of Water Quality Index (WQI) in winter season

Observed Standard values Vio¼Ideal value of nth Unit weight Quality rating
Parameters values (Sn) parameter (Wn) (qn) Wn q n

1. Temperature 25.3429 25–30 0 0.0866 101.37 8.78

2. PH 6.3143 7–8.5 7 0.2190 45.71 10.01
3. Electrical conductivity 352.382 300 0 0.371 117.46 43.58
(EC)
4. Total dissolved solids 21.1712 500 0 0.0037 4.23 0.01
(TDS)
5. Total suspended solids 16.0862 500 0 0.0037 3.22 0.01
(TSS)
6. Dissolved oxygen (DO) 3.6643 5.0 14.6 0.3723 13.91 5.18
7. Biological oxygen 9.5500 5.0 0 0.3723 191.00 71.11
demand (BOD)
8. Chemical oxygen demand 37.8048 4.0 10 0.08266 378.04 31.25
(COD)
9. Chloride 25.1471 250 0 0.0074 10.06 0.07
10. Nitrite 3.8295 ,1 0 0.0412 382.95 15.77
∑ Wn¼1.5598 ∑ qn¼1128.71 ∑ Wn qn¼155.39
Water Quality Index¼∑ qn Wn/∑ Wn¼99.62 (Very Poor water quality for drinking)

Table 3, it is evident that drinking water quality was unsuitable in the Rainy season and was of poor quality in the Winter
season, respectively (Chatterji & Raziuddin 2002, cited by Tiwari & Dwivedi 2016). The quality ratings of some individual
parameters indicate that COD (1002), BOD (392), nitrate (180), EC (160) and temperature (102) were the most problematic
variables that heavily influenced the WQI value, demonstrating that the maximum deteriorated water quality was observed in
the Rainy season. On the other hand, the parameters that contributed significantly in the Winter season include nitrate (383),
COD (378), BOD (191), and EC (117).

DISCUSSION
Implications of the research findings are discussed here with a focus on the urban environment. Factors responsible for the
unacceptable results of certain parameters are many and varied. Causes of pollution concentration in the UWBs of CMC
include natural processes and anthropogenic activities, the geographical location of the city in the humid tropical region
of the world rapid population growth, stress on natural resources, unplanned urbanization, untreated industrial effluent,
huge generation of urban solid waste, mismanagement of municipal garbage, urban flooding, and lack of awareness of the
city dwellers about health, sanitation, and hygiene (Rana 2011). The following section has explored the water quality par-
ameters exceeding the maximum permissible limit and environmental factors.

Water quality parameters exceeding maximum permissible limit (MPL)

EC is a measure of the dissolved salt in a water sample. Since water is affected by the presence of dissolved salts such as
nitrate, sulfate and other inorganic chemicals, EC increases as salinity increases. The higher conductivity may be attrib-
uted to a higher rate of decomposition in the Rainy season (481.452 μS cm1). However, drinking waters usually record
conductivity from 50 to 500 μS cm1, but with mineralized or dissolved salts of water registering values over 500 (Zuane
1996).
BOD represents the amount of DO consumed by biological organisms when they decompose organic matter in water.
Many researchers have recorded higher BOD values in polluted water (Prajapati & Dwivedi 2016). Besides, higher BOD
in the Rainy season (19.6148 mgL1) indicates that more oxygen is required, which is less for oxygen-demanding species
to feed on, and signifies lower water quality.

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 Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4947

COD is also a very practical parameter in the determination of polluted water (Zuane 1996). Higher COD levels mean a
greater amount of oxidized organic material in the sample; higher COD reduces dissolved oxygen (DO) levels; such a
reduction can lead to anaerobic conditions. WHO didn’t set any guideline value for COD, but Bangladesh Standard for
COD is a maximum 4 mg/L.
The presence of decaying organic matter could be attributed as the cause of the turbidity level (Rim-Rukeh et al. 2007)
while the conductivity of water corresponds to the highest concentrations of dominant ions, which is the result of ion
exchange and solubilization in the aquifer (Virkutyte & Sillanpää 2006). The less turbidity water has, the more healthful it
is. Anything that makes the water cloudy will increase turbidity.
Nitrate is a body of water that may be naturally high in nitrates or have elevated nitrate levels because of careless human
activities. High levels of nitrate in UWBs (16.80 mgL1) can result in improper construction of water bodies, well location,
low water level, overuse of chemical fertilizers, or improper disposal of human and animal waste. The relatively low value in
the Rainy season (5.22 mgL1) may be due to higher rates of assimilation by excessive water supply.
Trace metal: Lead (Pb) is a ubiquitous trace metal and a significant public health concern, particularly in developing
countries (Flora et al. 2012). The highest admissible concentration set by WHO and Bangladesh standard for Pb in drinking
water is 0.01 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L respectively. In some regions of Bangladesh, water sources contain a much higher amount
of Pb than the WHO permissible limit. However, high lead levels in the body can cause problems with the brain, kidneys, and
bone marrow (soft tissue inside bones).
Microbiological parameters: TC and FC bacteria in the water system are generally a result of a failure to maintain a ‘closed’
system. Their presence in drinking water indicates that disease-causing organisms (pathogens) could be in the water system.
Most pathogens that can contaminate stagnant surface water come from the feces of humans or animals. A positive coliform
test means possible contamination and a risk of waterborne diseases. However, scientists use it as an indicator of water pol-
lution as the presence of waterborne human disease-causing bacteria is indicated by this coliform (Shiekh 2006). WHO
standard for fecal and total coliforms for drinking water is 0 mL coliform per 100 mL of water samples (WHO 2004).

Environmental factors
Bangladesh is a country of humid tropics. Heavy rainfall occurs during the Rainy season, causing the waterlogged situation in
the city. As a consequence, surface runoff suffers and accumulates salts in UWBs. This happens often as a result of careless
human activities. Nitrate concentration has already crossed the maximum permissible limit in the city. Further, UWBs
become more turbid in the Rainy season as algae and micro-organisms grow quickly and increase their activity. High turbidity
during the monsoon season can also be caused by heavy rainfall leading to various sources such as sand, silt, clay/mud, plant
debris, sawdust, wood ashes or chemicals in the water. The sample stations were also found crossing the maximum acceptable
limits in BOD and COD. In the context of CMC, urban sources of BOD may include leaves and woody debris; dead plants
and animals; animal manure; effluents from pulp and paper mills, wastewater treatment plants, feedlots, and food-processing
plants; failing septic systems; and urban storm water runoff. Water with high COD typically contains a high level of decaying
plant matter, human waste, or industrial effluent, which is deleterious to aquatic life forms (Hasan et al. 2019). Chittagong is a
growing metropolis; a major port city and the industrial hub of Bangladesh. The city has a huge number of industries polluting
the environment (DoE 2004). In recent times, the city has witnessed the consequences of rapid urbanization. The total
number of UWBs in CMC has declined gradually at a rate of 10% per year over the last three decades. Nearly 56% of the
land cover had undergone change, mainly because of the expansion of built-up areas and other human activities in the
last 30 years (Molla et al. 2020). As such, the concern over drinking water quality and scarcity relates not only to the
water itself but also to the level of danger involved in the diffusion of toxic substances into the fresh water ecosystems.
The coastal city gets flooded at regular intervals due to excessive river flow, i.e. synchronization of heavy rainfall with tidal
fluctuations, the influx of water due to flash and monsoon floods; these are accountable to a great extent for regular inunda-
tion, particularly during the Rainy season. The flooding accelerates the rate of urban discharge through surface runoff, and in
turn, allows the mixing of polluted water (municipal wastes and industrial liquid) with the stagnant water bodies. Conse-
quently, water quality in UWBs becomes easily degraded. Moreover, improper handling of municipal wastes, unknown
blockage of the municipal drain by urban solid wastes, illegal linkage of the drain with water bodies, the encroachment of
tidal creeks, channels and streams, low-lying topography of certain parts of the city and saline intrusion from the Bay of
Bengal, are the main reasons of urban floods in Chittagong City.

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 Water Supply Vol 22 No 5, 4948

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The present investigation illustrates that almost all water bodies in the study area are contaminated with several contaminants
and not suitable for household consumption without proper treatment. However, the application of the SA and WQI are suit-
able techniques in determining the water quality of the surface water. The SA for drinking water in UWBs of CMC reveals that
out of fifteen (15) physio-chemical and biological parameters, the majority were found unsuitable for drinking in the Rainy
and Winter seasons. The WQI translates the composite effect of ten (10) physio-chemical parameters on the same. The WQI
represents value 237.11 for the Rainy season; and value 99.62 for the Winter season. Thus, it is a clear indication of unfit and
unsuitable water for drinking in the Rainy season, and of poor quality in the Winter seasons. The parameters that have
exceeded the maximum permissible limit (MPL) include EC, BOD, COD, turbidity and nitrate along with two biological par-
ameters: TC and FC. Among the eight (8) parameters examined for trace metals, only lead (Pb) crossed the MPL. However, a
gross disparity exists in the suitability analysis, particularly in the mean values and standard deviations shown by the water
quality parameters. Further analysis is therefore needed as a means of data mining. This is possible through trend seeking
ordination (factoring parameters) and recognition of group structure (clustering objects – sample stations/UWBSs) in the
data set, i.e. application of multivariate techniques. There is also a dimension of fresh water scarcity in the urban water
supply. Environmental, socio-economic factors, and poor management practices are responsible for this unacceptable con-
dition. The city dwellers, especially the poor segments of the population, are at high health risk. Awareness building on
drinking water quality at all levels (public and private sectors) is required to improve public health service delivery. For effec-
tive maintenance of water quality through appropriate control measures, continuous monitoring and assessment of an
outsized number of water quality parameters are significant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was carried out under a financial grant received from the Social Science Research Council, Planning Division,
Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. The authors would like to acknowledge the
kind support from the government.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have conflict of interest.

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTIONS
Morshed Hossan Molla – conceptualization, methodology, software, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation,
writing – original draft, visualization. Mohammad Abu Taiyeb Chowdhury – methodology, critically review, editing, formal
analysis and supervision. Md. Habibur Rahman Bhuiyan – methodology, data curation, formal analysis and supervision.
Suman Das, AJM Morshed and Jewel Das – methodology, data curation and formal analysis. Saiful Islam – methodology,
formal analysis, resources and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

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First received 18 January 2022; accepted in revised form 16 March 2022. Available online 30 March 2022

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