SESM3030

Instrumentation

L2. Passive transducers, examples

displacement and rotary position.

Prof. J.W. McBride

Passive Sensors (RLC)

• R,L,C circuit components, all require a power supply.

• Resistance, where L = Length; ρL

R=
Α

• Capacitance, where d is the gap; εrΑ

C = ε0
d

• Inductance (L), where l is the length of flux path;

N2 
L= (H) where S = (Reluctance)
S µoµrA
Position sensors (displacement)

The most common position sensors are:

• (R) Potentiometers (covered in first year course)

• (C) Capacitive (covered in first year course)
• (L) LVDT, Linear Variable Differential Transformer
• (L) Resolvers
• Encoders (see optical section)

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 Displacement Potentiometer (Resistive)
𝑰𝑰 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅

𝑥𝑥
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑥𝑥
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
wiper

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
 Displacement Potentiometer
𝑰𝑰
Connecting to another circuit is
𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 equivalent to adding a load
resistor.
1
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥
+ 1−
𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅
𝑥𝑥
wiper

𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Non-linearity
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 1
For the circuit shown: =
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥
+ 1−
𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝
If ≠ 0, there is a non-linear relation between 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 and 𝑥𝑥.
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿

Rp
= 0, (Rload = ∞)
Rload
1.0

Vout
Vin Rp
increasing
Rload
x
1.0 x max 6
Capacitive Displacement Sensors

Area A

Non-contact devices for

high-resolution
measurement of
displacement of a target Area A

over small distances (µm

to mm)

7
 Translation
C
Area A
(pC)
Gap
(Air) x

x (mm)

1
Variable separation : Cα NON-LINEAR
x
The system may be linearised using operational amplifier techniques.

Microprocessors use look-up tables or mathematical calculation for

linearization.

8
 Linearisation
Cu
Cs
Oscillator
(>50KHz)
Vin Vout
1
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑍𝑍𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑢𝑢 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
=− =− =− =−
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 1 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 1 1
∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = −𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = −𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 ∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 α
𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢
1
But 𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢 𝛼𝛼 , where 𝑥𝑥 is the separation between capacitor plates,
𝑥𝑥
∴ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 α 𝑥𝑥
Output voltage is proportional to the separation between the capacitor plates,

9
Differential Capacitive Sensing
Vary:
Area of overlap
Area A
or

Distance between plates

Area A

or

Amount of dielectric between plates

10
 Differential displacement of Plates
• Linearity is improved using a three-plate, differential arrangement

• If M is moved towards plate Q, then:

ε oε r Α ε oε r Α
c1 = and c2 =
d+x d−x

• If a voltage is applied across PQ, the

voltage difference across plates is given by:
 c c 
∆ν = ν 1 −ν 2 = ν s  2 − 1 
 c1 + c2 c1 + c2 
 A A 
−
d − x d + x  = v  A(d + x) − A(d − x)  = v  Ad + Ax − Ad + Ax  = v s x
∴ ∆v = vs   s  s
 A A   A( d − x ) + A( d + x )   Ad − Ax + Ad + Ax  d
 d + x + d − x 

• ∆V is proportional to x, while the sensitivity is inversely proportional to d

• Differential method used for measurements between 10-8mm to 10mm
Applications
Widely used in industry to measure liquid levels,
humidity, material composition.

Automation requiring precise location

• Semiconductor processing
• Precision equipment such as disk drive assembly
• Precision stage positioning
• Low Force Measurement (below 10mN)

Dynamic measurement of continuously moving target:

• Rotating spindles
• Vibration

Thickness measurement
12
Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
Non-
Ferromagnetic
Rod
+
Threaded
Magnetic
Va
Core

~ Vout = Va - Vb
Differential
Vb
Transformer

• Primary winding excited by A.C. source (several KHz)

• Moveable magnetic core, threaded to attach non-ferromagnetic rod

• No friction.

• Good accuracy, linearity and sensitivity. Infinite resolution.

13
LVDT construction
Primary
NiFe
Core

Wikipedia commons

Secondary

– A primary, wound uniformly over the length of the transducer

– 2 exactly similar secondary coils symmetrically wound either side
– Core is normally NiFe slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy currents
– Core is free to move inside the coils
– Negligible friction and wear
LVDT signal conditioning

AD698 Analog Devices

Improved LVDT signal conditioning sub-system.
Converts mechanical position to a unipolar or bipolar
DC voltage to high accuracy and repeatability.

•Single Chip Solution,

• Internal Oscillator and Voltage Reference
• No Adjustments Required
• Interfaces to Half-Bridge, 4-Wire LVDT
• DC Output Proportional to Position
• 20 Hz to 20 kHz Frequency Range
•Outstanding Performance
Accurate to 1 micron
Linearity: 0.05%
Gain Drift: 20 ppm/°C (typ)
Offset Drift: 5 ppm/°C (typ)

Approx £26
LVDT position sensing (Aero)
RESOLVER

17
Resolver construction
A resolver is a rotary electrical transformer
for measuring rotation angle.

Coils on the rotor and stator form a rotary

transformer. Two secondary windings are
positioned on the stator at 90o to each other

Creative Commons
• Electromagnetic transducer used
for servos, robotics, etc.

• Converts shaft angular position into

the phase shift of a sinusoidal output,
relative to the input

• 2 stationary windings are excited by

sinusoidal currents of the same amplitude
and frequency but shifted by 90°

• Voltage induced in output winding by the

sine coil is:

(kV sin wt) cos θ

where k is a constant depending on the

physical construction of the transducer
• The second stator winding induces a voltage of:
(kV cos wt) cos (π/2 – θ) = (kV cos wt) sin θ

• The output is the sum of the two voltages:

(kV sin wt) cos θ + (kV cos wt) sin θ
= kV sin (wt + θ)

• The electrical angle (θ) is equal to the mechanical displacement

Further Resolver Details

• The phase angle output may be converted into digital form,

and more windings may be used

• A typical Synchro-Resolver uses an AC supply:

– 12V at 400Hz
– k value of ~ 2
• They are of small size with low inertia and friction torque

• The frequency response ranges from 200Hz to 14kHz

• Typical resolution of between ±0.0001° to ±1°

Resolver advantages/disadvantages
RESOLVER DISADVANTAGE: Cost

The introduction of LEDs and pin diodes made optical encoders the
most widely used transducer for industrial rotary position sensing.

RESOLVER ADVANTAGES:

Extremely high resolution

Extremely robust

Unaffected by temperature, moisture, oil and dirt.

Frictionless → infinite life

Resolver windings can be integrated into motor construction.

 Tachometer
• A tachometer is an instrument for measuring the rotational
speed of a shaft or disc, as in a machine.

• (informally called: rev counter, tacho, RPM meter)

• Generally gives rotational speed in revs per minute (RPM).

23
 D.C. Tachogenerator

A tachogenerator is an electric generator that provides a

voltage proportional to the speed. Motor

Vout comparator controller

120V

60V Control Tacho

Voltage Voltage Tachogenerator
0V
0 1000 2000 rpm Motor Speed Control
Motor speed
D.C. Tachogenerator
 Advantages
– Strong, reliable, accurate, sensitive and stable.
– Can be integrated into motor
– Adapted to every industry: machine tools, handling and
lifting systems, lifts, paper manufacturing, textile machines,
glass production, rolling mills, railway industry, etc.

 Disadvantages
– Heavy
– Expensive
– Output waveform not smooth D.C. - needs filtering
– Not linear at low speeds

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Electromagnetic Tachometer

• Variable Reluctance Tachometer

e = − NdΦ / dt
• The variation in reluctance caused by S N
the ferromagnetic material (non
magnetised) produces a variation in
flux which:
– Induces an EMF in the coil
Vout

– Output is fairly sinusoidal

– Peak-to-peak value proportional
to the shaft speed time
Variable Reluctance Tachometer
ADVANTAGES:

• Low cost sensor – used in Anti-skid Braking Systems (ABS)

• Robust

• Still dominant technology for high temperature applications

– Jet engine turbine speed
DISADVANTAGES:

• Signal magnitude is proportional to target speed, so low speed

operation is difficult

• Additional processing required to recover a useful velocity signal.

Interface ICs are available.

• Largely superseded by Hall effect sensors.

 Hall Effect Sensors
VHall - +

B F +
_

I • Current is passed through a crystal of

S semiconductor

• Magnetic field lines at right-angles to the

N
crystal plane apply a Lorentz force to the
natural charge carrier drift

• This creates a positive or negative charge

across the crystal.

• The charge can be measured to give a

voltage dependent on the proximity of a
magnetic field. 28
Hall Effect Tachometer

Hall effect devices are often configured as on-off digital

proximity switches.

Creative Commons

Tachometer arrangement consisting of two magnets and a

Hall effect sensor

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