CIC Handbook

THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA
COFFEE HANDBOOK
(2nd Edition)
June 2016
COFFEE INDUSTRY CORPORATION

P O BOX 137
GOROKA
EASTERN HIGHLANDS PROVINCE
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
ISBN 9980-943-11-4
The WORLD BANK
This Handbook production by the

Productive Partnerships in Agriculture Project (PPAP)
was funded by the
World Bank, International Development Association (IDA), the
International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) and the
Government of Papua New Guinea through the
Department of Agriculture and Livestock
for the
PNG Coffee Industry Corporation Limited (CIC)
CONTENTS
___________________________________________________ ______________
Page
FOREWORD
Section1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2
1.2 NOTES FOR USERS 3
Section 2
2.0 THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
1
2.1 COFFEE INSTITUTIONS IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1
2.2 MAJOR COFFEE GROWING AREAS 3
2.3 INDUSTRY STRUCTURE 4
2.3.1 Growers 4
2.3.2 Coffee buyers and processors 5
2.3.3 Coffee exporters 5
2.3.4 Coffee roasters / manufacturers 6
2.4 PRODUCTION 6
Section 3
3.0 THE COFFEE TREE 1
3.1 MORPHOLOGY 1
3.1.1 The root system 1
3.1.1.1 The tap root 1
3.1.1.2 Axial roots 1
3.1.1.3 Lateral roots 1
3.1.1.4 Feeder-bearers 1
3.1.1.5 Feeder roots 2
3.1.1.6 Root hairs 2
3.1.2 The shoot system 3
3.1.2.1 Stem and branches 3
3.1.2.2 Leaves 3
3.1.2.3 Flowers 4
3.1.1.4 Fruit 4
3.2 ARABICA COFFEE VARIETIES 5
3.2.1 Blue Mountain C arabica var. typical 6
i
3.2.2 Bourbon 6
3.2.3 Arusha (from Tanganyika drought resistant) 6
3.2.4 Caturra Red 7
3.2.5 Mundo Novo 7
3.2.6 Catimor 7
3.3 ROBUSTA COFFEE VARIETIES 8
3.3.1 Besouki 8
3.2.2 Omuru 1 8
Section 4
4.0 COFFEE NURSERY MANAGEMENT 1
4.1 INTRODUCTION 1
4.2 SELECTION OF THE NURSERY SITE 1
4.3 COFFEE SEEDS 2
4.4 GERMINATION BEDS 2
4.4.1 Ordinary soilbed 3
4.4.2 Sandbed 3
4.5 SOWING SEED 4
4.6 NURSERY TYPES 4
4.6.1 Bare root nursery 4
4.6.1.1 Bare root nursery preparation 5
4.6.2 Polythene pots 5
4.6.2.1 Potting mixtures 6
4.6.2.2 Polythene pots 7
4.7 TRANSPLANTING FROM GERMINATION SEEDBED TO
BARE ROOT NURSERY BEDS ORPOLYTHENE POTS 7
4.7.1 Transplanting into bare root nursery beds 7
4.7.2 Transplanting into polythene pots 8
4.7.3 Precautions during transplanting 8
4.7.4 Direct planting of seeds into bare root or polypot
nurseries 8
4.7.4.1 Direct planting into bare root nurseries 9
4.7.4.2 Direct planting into polypots 9
4.8 NURSERY MAINTENANCE 9
4.8.1 Watering 9
4.8.2 Weeding 9
4.8.3 Shade regulation 9
4.8.3.1 Timing of shade removal 10
ii
4.8.4.2 Shade materials 10
4.8.4 Fertiliser application 10
4.8.5 Disease and pest control 11
4.8.6 Spacing 11
Section 5
5.0 FIELD ESTABLISHMENT 1
5.1 SITE SELECTION 1
5.1.1 Land attributes affecting site suitability 1
5.1.1.1 Drainage/effective soil depth 1
5.1.1.2 Air temperature (altitude) 2
5.1.1.3 Mean annual rainfall 3
5.1.1.4 Erosion hazard 3
5.1.1.5 Soil chemical fertility 4
5.1.1.6 Accessibility 4
5.1.1.7 Present land use 4
5.1.2 The relevance of the management level at which
coffee is produced 4
5.1.3 Critical values and suitability ratings for land
attributes affecting site suitability 5
5.1.3.1 Drainage/effect soil depth 5
5.1.3.2 Altitude (air temperature) 7
5.1.3.3 Mean annual rainfall 7
5.1.3.4 Erosion hazard 8
5.1.3.5 Soil chemical fertility 10
5.1.3.6 Accessibility and present land use 11
5.1.3.7 Summary of land attributes affecting site
suitability, critical values and suitability ratings 11
5.1.4 The overall site suitability 12
5.1.5 Final site selection 14
5.2 LAND CLEARANCE AND PREPARATION 15
5.2.1 Drainage 15
5.2.1.1 Reconnaissance survey/mapping 15
5.2.1.2 Drainage requirement and layout 16
5.2.1.3 Channel gradient (slope) 17
5.2.1.4 Drain depth, and width 18
5.2.1.5 Drain maintenance 19
5.2.1.6 Special structure 19
iii
5.2.2 Commencing land clearance 20
5.2.2.1 Method of clearing 20
5.2.2.2 Land preparation for high input production
systems 21
5.2.2.3 Land preparation for low input production
systems 22
5.2.3 Spacing 22
5.2.3.1 Spacing and land utilisation 23
5.2.3.2 Practical trees densities 25
5.2.4 Planting holes 27
5.2.4.1 Digging 27
5.2.4.2 Filling 28
5.2.5 Field planting 28
5.2.6 Intercropping 29
5.3 MULCHING 30
5.4 INFILLING 31
5.5 REPLANTING 31
5.5.1 Introduction 31
5.5.2 Land clearance and drainage 31
5.5.3 Shade trees 32
5.5.4 Preparing the new coffee seedlings 32
5.5.5 Marking out and planting the new seedlings 32
Section 6
6.0 MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG COFFEE 1
6.1 INTRODUCTION 1
6.2 DEFINITION 1
6.3 NUTRITION OF YOUNG COFFEE IN THE FIELD 2
6.3.1 Planting holes 2
6.3.2 Year one fertiliser schedule 2
6.3.3 Year two fertiliser schedule 3
6.3.4 Corrective fertiliser applications 3
6.4 WEED CONTROL 4
6.4.1 Weed control in young coffee 4
6.4.2 Weeds 5
6.4.3 Herbicides 7
6.4.3.1 Herbicide types 7
iv
6.4.3.2 Characteristics of available herbicides 8
6.4.4 Application of herbicides 15
6.4.4.1 Knapsack sprayers 15
6.4.4.2 Types of knapsack sprayers 16
6.4.4.3 Essential features of knapsack sprayers 16
6.4.4.4 Pressure regulators 17
6.4.4.5 Types of nozzles 17
6.4.4.6 Droplet size 18
6.4.4.7 How to calculate total volume application
rate 19
6.4.4.8 Care and handling of agrochemical 19
6.5 COVERCROPS/INTERCROPPING 20
6.5.1 Cover crops 20
6.6 SHADE AND SHELTER BELTS 21
6.6.2 Shade 22
6.6.2.1 Advantages of shade trees 22
6.6.2.2 Disadvantages of shade trees 23
6.6.2.3 Management of shade trees 23
6.6.3 Shelter belts 24
6.7 PRUNING 24
Section 7
7.0 MANAGEMENT OF MATURE COFFEE 1
7.1 INTRODUCTION 1
7.2 DEFINITION 1
7.3 POTENTIAL YIELDS 1
7.4 NUTRITION 3
7.4.2 Nutrients and nutrient ratios 5
7.4.3 Rates of application 6
7.4.4 Types of fertilisers 6
7.4.4.1 Compound fertilisers 7
7.4.4.2 Nitrogen 8
7.4.4.3 Phosphorus 8
7.4.4.4 Potassium 9
7.4.4.5 Magnesium 9
v
7.4.4.6 Foliar sprays 9
7.4.4.7 Corrective fertiliser applications 10
7.4.4.8 Organic fertiliser – recycled coffee skins 11
7.4.5 Timing of application 14
7.4.6 How to apply fertilisers 14
7.4.7 Fertiliser programmes 15
7.4.7.1 A commercial plantation 16
7.4.7.2 An improved smallholder 18
7.4.7.3 Typical smallholder 19
7.5 PRUNING 20
7.5.1 Pruning operations 20
7.5.2 Pruning objectives 21
7.5.3 Pruning systems 22
7.5.4 Factors that influence the choice of the pruning
System 22
7.5.5 Pruning practices 23
7.5.5.1 Main pruning 23
7.5.5.2 Number and length of bearing beads 23
7.5.5.3 Handling 24
7.5.5.4 Desuckering 24
7.5.5.5 Handling and desuckering 24
7.5.6 Change of production cycle 24
7.5.7 Multiple stem coffee without change of
production cycle 28
Section 8
8.0 DISEASES OF COFFEE 1
8.1 COFFEE LEAF RUST 1
8.1.2 Symptoms 1
8.1.3 Control 1
8.1.3.1 Protective spray programmes 2
8.1.3.2 Systemic spray programmes 4
8.2 LEAF AND BERRY SPOT 5
8.2.2 Symptoms 5
8.2.3 Control 6
8.3 PINK DISEASE 6
vi
8.3.2 Symptoms 6
8.3.3 Control 7
8.4 BLACK ROT 7
8.4.2 Symptoms 7
8.4.3 Control 8
8.5 WHITE THREAD BLIGHT 8
8.5.2 Symptoms 8
8.5.3 Control 8
8.6 SECONDARY INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH DIE-BACK 8
8.6.2 Symptoms 9
8.6.3 Control 9
8.7 STEM CANKER 9
8.7.2 Symptoms 9
8.7.3 Control 9
8.8 ROOT DISEASES 10
8.8.2 Symptoms 10
8.8.3 Control 10
8.9 LIGHTNING STRIKE 10
8.9.2 Symptoms 11
8.9.3 Control 11
Section 9
9.0 PESTS OF COFFEE 1
9.1 SCALE INSECTS 1
9.1.2 Description and damage 1
9.1.3 Control 2
9.2 Coffee Berry Borer 5
9.2.1 The Pest 5
9.2.2 Damage and crop loss 5
9.2.3 Host range 6
vii
9.2.4 Ecological and cultural factors affecting development
and spread 6
9.2.4.1 Altitude 6
9.2.4.2 Climate 6
9.2.4.3 Cultural conditions 7
9.2.5 Dispersal 7
9.2.6 Control Measures 8
9.2.6.1 Sanitation 8
9.2.6.2 Host plant resistance 8
9.2.6.3 Chemical control 8
9.2.6.4 Biological control 8
9.3 COFFEE RING BORER 9
9.3.3 Control 9
9.4 LEAFHOPPERS 10
9.4.3 Control 10
9.5 COFFEE CENTRE BORER 11
9.5.3 Control 11
9.6 COFFEE LEAF ROLLER 12
9.6.3 Control 12
9.7 CICADAS 12
9.6.3 Control 13
9.8 ARMY WORMS 13
9.8.3 Control 14
9.9 SHOT HOLE WEEVIL 15
viii
9.9.3 Control 15
Section 10
10.0 HARVESTING AND PROCESSING 1
10.1 HARVESTING 1
10.2 PROCESSING 2
10.2.1 Processing methods 2
10.2.2 Plantations 3
10.2.3 Smallholders 3
10.3 PULPING 4
10.3.1 Siphon feed 4
10.3.2 Dry feed 5
10.3.3 Disc pulper 6
10.3.3.1 Disc pulper adjustment 6
10.3.4 Penagos vertical drum pulper 8
10.3.5 Hand operated drum pulpers 9
10.3.5.1 Drum pulper adjustment 10
10.3.6 Ecopulpers 11
10.3.7 Pregrading 12
10.3.8 Repass pulper 13
10.4 FERMENTATION 13
10.4.1 The fermentation test 14
10.4.2 Use of enzymes 14
10.4.3 Making your own enzymes 14
10.4.4 Uneven fermentation 15
10.4.5 Over fermentation 15
10.4.6 Fermenting coffee in bags 16
10.5 WASHING 16
10.5.1 Washing coffee in bags 17
10.5.2 Washing in a tank 17
10.5.3 Washing channels 18
10.6 UNDER WATER SOAKING or TWO STAGE FERMENTATION 18
10.7 DRYING 19
10.7.1 Drying parchment coffee 19
10.7.2 Cracking of parchment and case hardening 20
10.7.3 The benefits of sun drying coffee 20
10.7.4 Good sun drying practices 21
ix
10.7.5 Combination drying 21
10.7.6 Machine drying of coffee 22
10.7.7 Types of mechanical dryers 22
10.7.8 Future directions 23
10.8 DRY FACTORY OPERATIONS 23
10.8.1 Registration 23
10.8.2 Conditioning parchment for hulling 24
10.8.3 Hulling and polishing 24
10.8.4 Impact hullers 25
10.8.5 Wear on hulling machinery 25
10.9 GRADING, CLEANING AND SORTING 25
10.9.1 Green bean grades 25
10.9.2 Cleaning and densimetric sorting 26
10.9.3 Hand sorting 27
10.10 BAGGING AND STORAGE 27
10.11 PURCHASING SMALLHOLDER COFFEE 27
10.11.1 Out-turn ratios 27
10.11.2 Recovery ratio 28
10.11.3 Moisture content 29
10.12 SETTING UP A NEW FACTORY 29
10.12.1 Choosing a good factory site 29
10.12.2 Water use and recirculation 30
10.12.3 Factory organization 30
10.12.4 Labour requirements 31
10.12.5 Safety 32
10.13 PULP AND WASTER WATER DISPOSAL 32
10.13.1 Separation of pulp and waste water 32
10.13.2 Use of coffee pulp 33
10.13.3 Stabilizing coffee pulp for use as fertiliser 34
10.13.4 The growing of organic coffee 35
10.14 USEFUL FACTS AND FIGURES 35
Section 11
11.00 CERTIFICATION AND MARKETING 1
11.1 INTRODUCTION 1
11.2 WHAT IS COFFEE CERTIFICATION 1
11.3 WHAT ARE THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF COFFEE
x
CERTIFICATION 1
11.4 COMMON STANDARDS REQUIRED FOR CERTIFICATION 2
11.5 COFFEE CERTIFYING BODIES OPERATING IN PNG 5
11.5.1 UTZ 6
11.5.2 Fairtrade 6
11.5.3 Rainforest Alliance 6
11.5.4 4C (Common Code for Coffee Community) 6
11.5.5 Organic 7
11.5.6 CAFE Practices 7
11.5.7 Nespresso AAA Sustainable Coffee Programme 7
11.6 THE PROCESS OF COFFEE CERTIFICATION 7
11.6.1 Selecting a certification programme 7
11.6.2 Gap analysis 8
11.6.3 Application and registration 8
11.6.4 Evaluation 8
11.6.5 Preparation for the initial audit 8
11.6.6 Auditing 9
11.6.7 Certification 9
xi
GLOSSARY and CONVERSION FACTORS
APPENDIX 1 - SOIL SAMPLES

A1.1 HOW TO COLLECT SOIL SAMPLES
A1.2 INTERPRETING SOIL ANALYTICAL DATA
APPENDIX 2 – LEAF SAMPLES

A2.1 HOW TO COLLECT LEAF SAMPLES
A2.2 INTERPRETING LEAF ANALYTICAL DATA
APPENDIX 3 – ANALYTICAL METHODS

A3.1 SOIL ANALYSES
A3.2 LEAF ANALYSES1
APPENDIX 4 – COFFEE PARCHMENT STANDARDS, FACTORY

STANDARDS AND EXPORT GRADES
A4.1 Parchment standards
A4.1.1 Introduction
A4.1.2 Standards
A4.1.3 Definitions relating to parchment standards
A4.1.4 Moisture
A4.2 Standards – Export grades
A4.2.1 Green bean grades and standards
A4.2.2 Export standards and packing for export
A4.2.2.1 Packing in bags
A4.2.2.2 Export bag labelling
A4.2.2.3 Packing in bulk containers
A4.2.3 Drawing samples for analysis
A4.2.4 Moisture content
A4.2.5 Olifactory and visual examinations
A4.2.6 Sensory analysis
A4.2.7 Size analysis
xii
LIST OF TABLES
______________________________________________________________
Page
Section 2
Table 2.1 Exports of Roast and Ground Coffee, 2003 – 2015 7
Table 2.2 Annual Coffee Production – 60 kg bags of green bean,
based on the coffee year- October to September 7
Table 2.3 Annual Coffee production – 60 kg bags of green bean, for
2010 – 2015 calendar years 7
Table 2.4 Ten Year Trend in Coffee production – 60 kg bags of green
bean, based on coffee year – October to September 8
Section 5
Table 5.1: Drainage/effective soil depth suitability ratings and critical
Values 6
Table 5.2: Altitude suitability ratings and critical values 7
Table 5.3: Mean annual rainfall suitability ratings and critical values 7
Table 5.4: Critical values and index points of components of the erosion
hazard 8
Table 5.5: Erosion hazard index suitability ratings 9
Table 5.6: Soil chemical fertility index, critical values and index points 10
Table 5.7: Soil chemical fertility index suitability ratings 11
Table 5.8: Land attributes, critical values and suitability ratings for site
suitability evaluation for Arabica coffee production in Papua
New Guinea 12
Table 5.9: Suitability points allocated for each suitability rating 13
Table 5.10 Converting suitability points into a site suitability classification 14
Table 5.11: Drain spacings for different soils types 16
Table 5.12: Maximum permissible velocities (cm/sec.) 18
Table 5.13: Trees per hectare for various single row spacing 26
Table 5.14: Trees per hectare for various spacings in square and triangular
planting systems with access avenue between blocks 27
Section 6
Table 6.1: Fertiliser schedules for tall and compact varieties of Arabica
coffee during first year in the field 2
Table 6.2: Fertiliser schedule for tall varieties of Arabica coffee during
second year in the field 3
xiii
Table 6.3: Some common weed species in coffee growing areas of
Papua New Guinea 5
Table 6.4 Chemicals and their toxicity 20
Section 7
Table 7.1: Potential yields in tall Arabica coffee (kg green beans per
hectare per year) 2
Table 7.2: Potential yields in compact Arabica coffee (kg green beans
per year) 3
Table 7.3 Nutrients and their main functions in the coffee plant 5
Table 7.4: Recommended rates of nutrients for Arabica coffee in PNG 6
Table 7.5: Recommended foliar feeds 10
Table 7.6: Ground applied fertilisers 12
Table 7.7: Foliar applied fertilisers 13
Table 7.8: Generalised fertiliser programmes for Arabica coffee in Papua
New Guinea 17
Table 7.9: Summary of general fertiliser programme for a commercial
estate producing 2000 kg green bean per ha with a tree density
of 2667 trees/ha 18
Table 7.10: Tree density and bearing heads 24
Section 8
Table 8.1: Spray programmes for coffee leaf rust 4
Table 8.2: Recommended rates for copper fungicides 4
Table 8.3: Recommended rates for systemic fungicides 5
Section 9
Table 9.1(a): Pesticides for the control of ants 2
Table 9.1(b): Pesticides for the control of green scale 3
Table 9.1(c): Biological control of green scale 4
Table 9.2: Pesticides for the control of leafhoppers 11
Table 9.3: Pesticides for the control of army worms 14
Table 9.4: Biological control of shot hole weevil
15
Table 9.5: Pesticides for the control of shot hole weevil 16
Section 10
Table 10.1: Bean colour as an indicator of moisture content 19
Table 10.2: Grades and Screen sizes for green bean 28
xiv
Appendix 1
Table A1.1: Critical levels for interpretation of soil analytical data 2
Appendix 2
Table A2.1: Critical levels of nutrients in Arabica coffee leaves 2
Appendix 4
Table A4.1: Standards for Arabica parchment 1
Table A4.2: Moisture content of parchment 2
Table A4.3: PNG coffee specifications for Arabica coffee
5
Table A4.4: Defect schedule 6
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
_________________________________________________________________
Page
Section 3
Figure 3.1: A young bearing coffee tree 2
Figure 3.2: Root hairs 3
Figure 3.3: Composite horizontal and vertical section of a coffee
cherry 5
Section 5
Figure 5.1: Square planting arrangement 23
Figure 5.2: Rectangular planting arrangement 24
Figure 5.3: Triangular planting arrangement 24
Figure 5.4: Avenue planting arrangement 25
Section 7
Figure 7.1: Stumped coffee with a lung branch 27
Section 8
Figure 8.1: The seasonal pattern of development of epidemics of
CLR between March 1989 and October 1991 3
Section 10
Figure 10.1: A siphon feed hopper 5
Figure 10.2: A dry feed hopper 5
Figure 10.3: Disc pulper parts 7
Figure 10.4: The penagos vertical drum pulper 8
Figure 10.5: The drum pulper 9
xvi
LIST OF PLATES
_________________________________________________________________
Page
Section 6
Plate 6.1: Diaphragm sprayer 16
Plate 6.2: Compression sprayer 16
Plate 6.3 Piston sprayer 16
Plate 6.4: Motorised sprayer 16
Plate 6.5: Motorised fogging sprayer or Mist blower 16
Plate 6.6: Spray management valve 17
Plate 6.7: Polijet nozzles 18
Section 10
Plate 10.1 Four disc pulpers with pregrader 6
Plate 10.2 Hand operated drum pulper 10
Plate 10.3 Double drum pulper with petrol engine drive 10
Plate 10.4 Penagos ecopulper – combined drum pulper linked to
demucilager 12
Plate 10.5 A combination huller/polisher 24
Plate 10.6 A grading machine 26
xvii
FOREWORD
_____________________________________________________________________
Coffee continues to provide the major source of cash income for a large proportion
of the rural population living at altitudes of 1,000 masl and above and is increasing in
importance at mid altitudes down to 700 masl. Coffee production had been stagnant
and/or on a downward spiral with insignificant new plantings. Coffee farmers living
close and or near to better road infrastructure are diversifying their income base to
food production and marketing and in many instances uprooting coffee trees to
facilitate production of vegetables. Also regrettably, in recent years the knowledge
base of coffee farmers has fallen to a critical level due in part to the demise of the
plantation and managed sector and ageing of the traditional smallholder growers,
but more importantly, to the lack of a skilled and dedicated extension service. The
lack of adequate financial support for the Research and Extension Division of the
Coffee Industry Corporation combined with its inability to work in tandem with the
Provincial Extension Divisions results in disjointed or no service to smallholder
farmers. In the face of climate and rural social structure changes research and
development agencies must be pro-active and responsive.
The Foreword to the PNG Coffee Handbook published in 1994 commented on the
foresight of the Coffee Industry Board in establishing the Coffee Research Institute in
1986 and noted that “As a result of the hard work and dedication of the first intake of
staff of that institution we now have a “formula” for successful coffee growing in
PNG”. The 1994 Handbook was designed so that, as CRI generated new information,
sections of the Handbook would be updated and revisions would be distributed to all
purchasers of the Handbook and easily inserted. Unfortunately CRI lost sight of this
commitment, therefore no revisions were prepared.
The team of experts convened to prepare this update corrected some minor
inaccuracies identified in the 1994 edition, included new research information and
drew on the experience of smallholder and commercial growers. It is being presented
in the same binding format as the 1994 publication so as to enable updates to be
inserted if any should be generated.
This PNG Coffee Handbook (2nd Edition) should be used as a reference document for
Arabica coffee growers, coffee development planners and extension officers.
Technical information has been extracted for compilation of a Coffee Extension
Manual for extension officers servicing Arabica coffee growers and for Extension
Leaflets.
Potaisa H. Hombunaka
Project Manager
Productive Partnerships in Agriculture Project
1.0 INTRODUCTION
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
In response to the decline in the coffee industry in the late 1980’s and 1990’s
the Coffee Research Institute (CRI) developed a number of ‘strategies’ to
address the fall-off and compiled The PNG Coffee Handbook with a view to
providing coffee growers and processors with the latest technical information
generated by its research activities. The Handbook was produced as a loose
leaf booklet to facilitate ease of updating sections as and when new
information became available. Regrettably, no updates were produced during
the period from publication in 1994 to the present.
The Handbook (1994) noted that “replanting of non-productive coffee trees
during the late 80’s and 90’s was slow at best, and in most cases non-existent;
this in conjunction with lack of inputs resulted in severely run-down gardens,
managed blocks and plantations.” The situation has not improved since then,
with gradual deterioration of smallholder gardens and the majority of managed
blocks and plantations being abandoned. A 2014 study estimated that some
30% of all coffee has been abandoned and is now beyond the possibility of
being rehabilitated. The need for a major replanting programme has never
been greater.
With the aims of ‘injecting new life’ into agriculture and promoting the sector,
the national government initiated and funded the National Agriculture
Development Plan (NADP) in late 2006 with an amount of PGK38 million and
increased to PGk100 million per year from 2007 onwards. Sadly, due to
mismanagement the programme did not have the expected impact and was
abandoned after some 5½ years. Government then directed its major
investment in agriculture through the World Bank, International Fund for
Agricultural Development and Government funded Productive Partnerships in
Agriculture Project (PPAP), as a pilot project focussed on coffee and cocoa and
confined initially to six provinces. As a result of initial successful
implementation, PPAP has now been extended to all coffee and cocoa growing
provinces.
PPAP plans to work with some 40,000 smallholder coffee farmers over the next
5 years, providing technical support and subsidised inputs to rehabilitate their
coffee gardens, increase yield and improve quality. It is anticipated that the
PPAP example will lead to a comprehensive replanting and rejuvenation
programme for other smallholder coffee growers.
It is most important that the coffee garden rehabilitation programme be based
on the best technical information available to the industry. To this end this
publication draws together the latest research information and practical
1 Section 1
experience to improve production efficiency, the key to economic viability of
one of the country’s most important rural industries. The replanting
programme provides an opportunity to evaluate land suitability of existing and
new garden sites prior to deciding on any new sites or replanting, followed by
varietal selection, nursery establishment, land preparation, planting and post
planting agronomic practices. All of these topics are detailed in the separate
sections of this Handbook, together with post-harvest handling, processing and
marketing.
It is to be hoped this Handbook becomes an essential reference source for all
extension officers, planners and managers engaged in directing the
rehabilitation of the coffee industry.
1.1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A revision of a handbook of this scope could not have been accomplished

without considerable effort by a number of technically competent individuals.
Each section was reviewed by a panel of professionals and experienced
industry stakeholders, involving many hours of discussions, during which they
contributed much valued expertise in all aspects of coffee husbandry.
The contributions made by the following are hereby acknowledged:
Dr. Paul Harding PPAP Consultant and Facilitator
Mr. Tom Kukhang Chief Scientist, CIC
Dr. Nelson Simbikin Senior Entomologist, CIC RGSD
Mr. Rauke Buimeng Agronomist, CIC
Mr. Sam Menanga Manager, Ind. Regulations and Compliance, CIC
Mr. Tobias Kumie Mechanical Engineer, CIC RGSD
Mr. Jon Edwards General Manager, PNG Coffee Exports Limited
Mr. John Munnull General Manager, Kosem Ltd
Mr. Mark Munnull Factory Manager, Kosem Ltd
Mr. James Koimo Waka Coffee Growers
Mr. Paul Pora Component 2 Coordinator, PPAP
Mr. Steven Tevo Field Technical Officer, PPAP
Mrs. Maureen Kahento Field Technical Officer, PPAP
Mr. Potaisa Hombunaka Project Manager, Coffee Component, PPAP
Mr. David Freyne Former Project Manager, Coffee Component, PPAP
Final editing was done by Dr. Paul Harding, Mr. Potaisa Hombunaka and Mr
David Freyne.
2 Section 1
1.2 NOTES FOR USERS
This Handbook is the Arabica Coffee Handbook, but knowledge of Robusta in
included where appropriate.
This Handbook has been prepared in loose-leaf form so that regular
amendments can be made, without having to carry out a complete reprint of all
sections.
Each Handbook also carries a registration number so that we can keep a
register of all Handbook owners. This is necessary in order that the CIC RGSD
knows where to send up-dated sections. It is also essential that the Handbook
owner informs the CRI of any change of address. Failure to do so will result in
the owner not receiving up-dates and being unaware of new recommendations
from the CRI.
Each page has a chapter number, followed by the page number within that
particular chapter. In addition, every page has the year of publication printed
in the bottom left hand corner. When the up-dated sections are received, the
Handbook owner is advised to remove the earlier sections and replace them
with the new ones. Do not keep replaced sections in the same folder as new
ones, as unwary readers may use out-dated recommendations or banned
chemicals.
No Handbook in any country has ever been written without at least some
minor mistakes and it is unlikely that this one is unique in this respect. Should
the reader find anything that needs correcting, or have any item that needs
clarifying, please do not hesitate to contact the:
General Manager
Coffee Industry Corporation Ltd, Research & Growers Services Division
P.O. Box 470, UKURUMPA
Eastern Highlands Province Tel. (675) – 5373511/5373518/5373552
PAPUA NEW GUINEA Fax. (675) – 537 3524
or
Project Manager
Coffee Industry Corporation Ltd, PPAP Coffee Component
P.O. Box 137, GOROKA
Eastern Highlands Province Tel. (675) 532 1925 / 531 1284
PAPUA NEW GUINEA Fax. (675) 532 2080
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.cic.org.pg
3 Section 1
2.0 THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
__________________________________________________________________________
2.1 COFFEE INSTITUTIONS IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
The early history of coffee growing in Papua New Guinea and its’ regulation
and management are detailed in the first edition of the Coffee Handbook and
are not repeated here. The following description summarises the
establishment of the first regulatory body in 1964 and subsequent changes,
particularly those since 1986.
In July 1964 the Legislative Council established the Coffee Marketing Board
(CMB), with the passing of the Papua New Guinea Coffee Marketing Board
Ordinance, 1964. A six man Board was appointed to take over all regulatory
powers and functions of the coffee industry, thereby passing responsibility for
policy determination to the Industry in consultation with the Department of
Agriculture. The CMB licensed processors and exporters, established and
managed a Stabilisation Fund and monitored exports.
After Independence, the Coffee Industry Board (CIB) was formed with the
passing of the Papua New Guinea Coffee Industry Board Act, 1976. Members
of the board were nominated by the various sectors of the industry: growers,
processors and exporters with the chair appointed by government.
In 1983 CIB established a sub-committee, the Coffee Research Committee
(CRC), to coordinate investigations into die-back and the appointment of a
senior international Plant Pathologist. It was quickly realised that the die-back
was in fact ‘overbearing die-back’ resulting from removal of shade and failure
to apply the necessary fertilisers. This marked the commencement producer
funded research, through a levy collected at the point of export / sale.
The CRC recognised that government was incapable of managing the research
necessary to support the industry as it moved forward and in March 1986
established the Coffee Research Institute (CRI) to undertake research into all
aspects of coffee from land selection to export. The CRI engaged a Director
and international scientists in the major disciplines, plant breeding, soils and
plant nutrition, agronomy, pathology, entomology, spray technology,
processing and information dissemination. The CRI programme was directed
by a Coffee Research Advisory Committee (CRAC) with representatives for the
industry, other research institutions, the university and government.
Between 1985 and 1999 the CRC and CRI published some 87 Coffee Journals
papers and 69 Coffee Research Reports. The current state of the CRI is
described later.
1 Section 2
The presence of Coffee Leaf Rust, discovered in Western Highlands in April
1986, caused major concern in the industry and focussed attention on the
inability of provincial extension services to assist smallholders in dealing with
the problem. Government responded with the establishment of the Coffee
Development Agency (CDA) in 1987, intended as an industry funded coffee
extension service. The CDA had its’ own Board of Directors and a
comprehensive complement of staff, numbering some 380 at its peak. Initially
the CDA programme was supported by AusAID, both financially and
technically.
The CIB was a shareholder in both the CRI and CDA and collected the
producers levy on their behalf, since neither CRI nor CDA had statutory
powers. Levies for CIB, CRI and CDA were clearly identified. As a result of the
pro-active and cooperative approach taken by the CRI and CDA coffee
production increased steadily from 860,000 bags in 1988 to 1.35 million bags
in 1994,
It was perceived by some observers that having separate boards mitigated
against integration of activities and collaboration between the three bodies.
Accordingly, in 1989, at the request of government, UNDP engaged
consultants to undertake a study of the organisation and management of the
coffee industry in PNG. The report recommended that the three institutions,
CIB, CRI and CDA, be amalgamated into a single body, with one board of
directors to be known as the Coffee Industry Corporation. After widespread
consultation the Coffee Industry Corporation Limited (CIC) was registered in
1991 under the Companies Act and the Coffee Industry Corporation Statutory
Powers & Functions Act, 1991 passed by parliament provided the legal basis to
enable CIC to issue licenses, collect levies and regulate the industry.
Shares in CIC are held by Smallholder Associations (6), the Blockholders
Association (1), the Plantation and Processor sector (1), the Exporters Council
(1). and Government (3). Appointments are for 3 years, with each of the
smallholders associations, blockholders, plantation/processors group and
exporters council conducting elections to nominate their representatives.
Government departments nominate their own appointees. The last Board’s
term expired on 1st December 2013. The Minister for Agriculture had the
powers and obligation under the Regulatory Statutory Authorities Act 2004 to
facilitate the appointment of new directors. This was not facilitated and for
three (3) years to January 2016 there had been no fully constituted Board.
Confidence within all sectors of the industry suffered as a result of the lack of
representation and consultation. However in December 2015 the National
Court ruled that a Board must be appointed by the end of February 2016
2 Section 2
All administrative powers of the CIC are centred at its headquarters in Goroka.
It was originally thought that having the CIC as a single unit to administer the
coffee industry budget (levies plus government grant) would provide an
opportunity for each section, Administration/Regulation, Research and
Extension, to justify their claim for a share of the available funding. While this
may have been the case the eventual allocation of the funds has been
haphazard and strongly favoured administration/regulation. The result is that
research and extension activities have been starved of funding for many years
to the point of being almost dysfunctional.
2.2 MAJOR COFFEE GROWING AREAS
Coffee is the major cash crop in the highland provinces of Papua New Guinea,
with scattered areas in the high altitude zones of the nine mainland coastal
provinces. To date no formal mapping of coffee growing areas in the country
has been undertaken. Therefore, it is impossible to quantify the area under
production either at a national or provincial scale. Consequently, the
following estimates are derived from production statistics over the past
several years.
The main Arabica coffee growing provinces, in descending order of
importance are, Eastern Highlands, Jiwaka, Western Highlands, Morobe,
Simbu, East Sepik, Southern Highlands, Enga, Madang, Oro, West Sepik, Milne
Bay, Central and Gulf. Robusta coffee is grown in East Sepik, West Sepik,
Madang, Morobe, Oro, Milne Bay, West New Britain and East New Britain.
Commercial scale production of Arabica coffee on plantations is confined to
Western Highlands, Eastern Highlands, Jiwaka and Morobe. In general land
selection for coffee production was not based on scientific principles but
rather coffee gardens and estates were developed on whatever land became
available. Baron Goto in 1956 commented that only one fourth of the area
then under coffee could be considered as first class and one fourth was not
suitable for coffee. Dr Brian Robinson remarked that in 1985 the majority of
PNG’s coffee was grown on sites deemed of low suitability. The result is low
yields in both smallholder gardens and high inputs in large scale properties.
Harding, Bleeker and Freyne (1986) combined their knowledge of the

complexity of the geology, soils, climate, landform and vegetation of PNG to
develop a system of land evaluation for Arabica coffee production suited to
this country. Applying this system to Western Highlands / Jiwaka suggests
that considerable potential exists for expanded production on highly suitable
3 Section 2
soils. Similar conditions are known to exist in other provinces but accessibility
is a major constraint.
The potential for Robusta coffee in coastal provinces is extensive but

competition from other tree crops, such as, cocoa, oil palm and coconuts,
combined with lack of selection within the available planting material has
restricted expansion. However, the CIC Research and Growers Services
Division (RGSD) has undertaken varietal evaluation and selection of Robusta
coffee at Omuru Research Station, near Madang. Omuru 1 is now the
recommended variety.
2.3 INDUSTRY STRUCTURE
The Industry is made up of growers, processors and exporters supported by
the Coffee Industry Corporation Ltd., the structure and functions of which are
described in the next section.
2.3.1 Growers
Growers are divided into three categories depending on size of holding,

namely, smallholders (less than 5ha), block-holders (≈ 20ha) and plantations.
Of these, smallholders constitute the greatest number and account for some
ninety five per cent of total production. It is estimated that there are around
524,400 smallholder growers, of which 496,892 grow coffee for cash (2011
Census). The remaining 27,508 reported that they grow coffee for their own
use. Typically smallholders have less than 1,500 trees per household. They
are distributed across all the coffee growing provinces listed above, producing
parchment coffee for sale to processors or their agents. With very few
exceptions smallholder coffee is grown under shade, thereby reducing the
dependence on fertilisers or other purchased inputs, but imposing a ceiling on
production potential. Generally, the smallholder allows his/her coffee to go
into a sedentary stage during times of low prices and harvests only to meet
requirements for cash.
The development of “20 hectare” blocks began in the 1980’s and gained
momentum in the mid 1980’s. The block development consisted of customary
land of approximately 20 ha with freehold title secured under the Land Tenure
Conversion scheme and issued to a communal Business Group. The size and
membership of the group depended on land equity or cash contributions, and
it was typically supervised by management agencies. It was envisaged that the
beneficiaries would provide the labour necessary to operate the property.
4 Section 2
Then there are large plantations with an average area of 60 ha up to the
largest one being 465 ha producing 1.5 to 2 tonnes per ha. Some of these
plantations were formerly owned by foreign settlers. Many national groups
who would otherwise be smallholders have taken them over. These changes
commenced in the late 1970’s and gained momentum through the 1980’s
resulting in almost complete handover to traditional owners and local
entrepreneurs by 2000. The plantations were responsible for giving
confidence to PNG nationals to venture into commercial production of coffee
under block developments. At its peak there were over 150 plantations and
some 600 ‘20ha’ coffee projects. Today there are less than 15 plantations and
few, if any, ’20 ha’ block projects functioning as commercial entities.
2.3.2 Coffee buyers and processors
Smallholders are scattered over many areas where access is made difficult by
the geographical conditions, poor or no road access, law and order problems,
etc. Largely due to law and order problems and the problems associated with
carrying cash into remote areas coffee buyers trading in parchment coffee are
confined to the major towns and district centres, the exception being Western
Highlands and Jiwaka, where coffee cherry is purchased on the roadside by
factory representatives and/or traders. Coffee cherry is delivered to large wet
factories, owned by plantations or stand alone factory units, and processed to
parchment. This independent network of coffee buyers provides an essential
link between the smallholder producers and the market outlets.
In 2015, 290 wet factories were licensed, 5 factories were denied a license, 17
factories operating in 2014 did not apply for renewal, and 9 factories were
considered dormant having been unlicensed for more than 2 years. The up to
date regulations relating to wet factory licensing conditions are available on
the CIC website.
Dry mills are licensed by the Coffee Industry Corporation to monitor quality
standards of green beans produced for export. There were 55 licensed mills
processing green bean coffee in 2015, a further 4 mills were denied licenses
and 12 mills were unlicensed since 2013. Up to date regulations are posted
on the CIC website.
2.3.3 Coffee Exporters
Trading in green bean was carried out by 21 licensed private exporters during
2015. The “Standing Conditions for Registration of Coffee Exporters: 1/2013”
can be found on the CIC website. These conditions provide for five categories
5 Section 2
of exporters, setting out the facilities which must be available, such as
warehousing, machinery, etc., the lowest volume of coffee an exporter can
export in a year (3,000 bags), and the scale of fees for each category.
Exporters negotiate prices with overseas buyers and arrange shipment in
accordance with international trading practices. The Coffee Industry
Corporation, although having powers to export, has delegated this function to
the exporters. The CIC regulates and monitors the activities of exporters, in
particular individual export contracts to ensure prices obtained reflect the
international market and to ensure they maximise income on sale of PNG
Coffee. All exporters are required to register contract details, including
quantity, grade, price, price differentials, purchaser, destination etc. The CIC
reserves the right to refuse a contract registration that is significantly lower
than prevailing market prices
In 2015, without canvassing the view of the industry, the CIC introduced a
new category of export licenses, known as “Reserved Export Licenses”. They
were issued free of charge and without conditions to District Governments
and other non-commercial agencies. None of the recipients have the
necessary facilities; consequently there were no exports by this group during
2015.
Exports for 2015 totalled 42,800 tonnes valued at K393.5 million. (BPNG, pers.
Com. May 2016)
2.3.4 Coffee roasters / manufacturers

Ten roasters / manufacturers were licensed in 2015, processing a total of 419
60kg bags GBE of which 193 60kg bags GBE was exported. This represents
some .03% of total production. Table 2.1 shows the trend in exports since
2003
There is a growing trend towards roasting ‘speciality coffee’, with at least one
exporter testing the European market with coffee capsules. In 2005 PNG
made a considerable investment in export of roast but due to ‘shelf life’ issues
this outlet was not sustainable. However, with improved packaging and
transport exporting roasted coffee to adjacent markets, such as Australia,
New Zealand, Korea and Japan, on a limited scale will improve returns to
growers and traders.
2.4 PRODUCTION
PNG produces both Arabica coffee (97%) and Robusta coffee (3%). Total
production reached a record 1.488 million bags of 60 kg green bean in 2011
6 Section 2
but has since dropped back to ≈735,000 bags in 2015. Production trends are
shown in Table 2.2 to 2. 4
Table 2.1 Exports of Roast and Ground Coffee, 2003 – 2015
Year of Export Volume FOB Value Price –

(60kg Bags GBE) (PGK) (PGK/Kg)
2003 610 765,117 20.91
2004 804 927,563 19.24
2005 1,002 1,043,241 17.36
2006 820 867,635 17.64
2007 1,299 1,518,543 19.48
2008 839 997,736 19.83
2009 504 594,898 19.69
2010 378 534,765 23.61
2011 248 310,718 20.90
2012 301 333,813 18.50
2013 238 368,292 25.74
2014 132 181,904 22.89
Table 2.2 Annual Coffee production - 60 kg bags of green bean, based on

the coffee year October to September
Coffee Year Smallholder Plantation Blocks Total
2010-2011 1,010,269 127,330 50m382 1,187,981
2011-2012 911.299 52,175 144,744 1,108,219
2012-2013 680,564 28,338 102,954 811,856
2013-2014 713,190 27,709 63,808 804,707
2014-2015* 714,736 6,831 34,874 756,440
Table 2.3 Annual Coffee production - 60 kg bags of green bean, for 2010 -
2013 calendar years
Smallholder Plantation Blocks Total
2010 751,393 94,702 37,472 883,567
2011 1,224,215 70,091 194,446 1,488,752
2012 677,714 28,219 102,523 808,456
2013 807,924 31,390 72,284 911,598
2014 741,623 7,088 36,186 784,896
2015* 653,503 19,570 61,908 734,980
*Provisional data
7 Section 2
Table 2.4 Ten Year Trend in Coffee production - 60 kg bags green bean,
based on the coffee year October to September
Coffee Year Smallholder Plantation Blocks Total
1949/50 - 560
1959/60 13,000 30,000 - 43,000
1969/70 340,000 107,000 - 447,000
1979/80 612,000 289,000 - 901,000
1989/90 783,000 210,000 37,000 1,030,000
1999/00 1,092,000 200,000 40,000 1,332,000
2009/10 880,000 111,000 44,000 1,035,000
Repeatedly, CIC CEOs and Ministers for Agriculture have undertaken to

increase production to 2 million bags per year; however, the production trend
has been downwards instead of upwards. The decline in production is due in
large part to the industry’s lack of confidence in the CIC its’ failure to consult
with the various sectors and its inability to deliver competent technical advice
to growers both small and large, processors and exporters. The CIC and its’
agents have failed to communicate confidence in the future of a coffee
industry based on the application of sound technical field practices, with
careful harvesting and processing to produce a product to meet the demands
of a changing world market.
As a result growers have failed to uproot and replant non-productive blocks of
coffee, despite having access to newly introduced high yielding varieties and
sound technical information supported by research results in The Coffee
Handbook, 1994. The issue of producing top quality coffee of a consistent
standard has not been explained properly to large sectors of the industry.
Consequently, smallholders continue to produce a Y grade coffee which is
highly sought after on the world market because it is of lower quality and
lower price, but continue to ‘complain’ that either processors or exporters are
‘ripping them off’.
All of the coffee industry institutions are justified and legally established but
they are failing to deliver the expected outcomes. The inclination to
restructure should be resisted; rather the current institutions should be
managed better and focussed on results.
8 Section 2
3.0 THE COFFEE TREE
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3.1 MORPHOLOGY
The coffee tree consists of one to several stems, whose extremity is a zone of
permanent growth where nodes and internodes are forming. The stems
develop only vertical internodes, the branches or primaries (Figure 3.1).
3.1.1 The root system
Until the root system of various cultivars of Arabica coffee, both tall and
compact, are studied and documented under the growing conditions of PNG,
the information provided below is tentative.
Roots of coffee can grow deeply, depending on the soil type and drainage. In
most cases, 80% of roots occur in the top 30 cm. The root system can be
modified by both cultural and soil conditions.
There are basically five types of roots which can be differentiated as follows:
3.1.1.1 The tap root
This is a stoutly built root which grows about 60 cm deep, and can develop into
multiple units, which continue to grow as several separate tap roots. From this
tap root originate two types of roots, axial and lateral.
3.1.1.2 Axial roots
There are between 4 and 8 of these roots, they grow vertically downward and
can penetrate to 3m.
3.1.1.3 Lateral roots
These are generally horizontal and occur in the top soil and occasionally at
greater depths, when conditions can cause them to grow at an angle other
than horizontal. They are sometimes known as “surface plate” lateral roots as
they run more or less parallel to the soil surface at a distance of up to 1.8m
from the trunk, depending on spacing. Some of the lateral roots growing at
depth, form verticals and are hard to differentiate from axial roots.
3.1.1.4 Feeder-bearers
These are roots of varying length with even distribution which occur at about
25mm intervals on the tap, axial and lateral roots. Generally, they have a
tendency to become shorter and more numerous near the soil surface.
1 Section 3
3.1.1.5 Feeder roots
These are the roots arising from the feeder-bearers. Although they are more
numerous near the soil surface, they can also be found at all depths.
Figure 3.1: A young bearing coffee tree
3.1.1.6 Root hairs

These provide the main absorbing region of the root. They are tiny, finger like
outgrowths from the cells of the epidermis before it dies. They appear just
above the zone of elongation, and there are none at the root tip or in the older
regions of the root (Figure 3.2).
2 Section 3
Figure 3.2: Root hairs
3.1.2 The shoot system

3.1.2.1 Stem and branches
There is a vertical (orthotropic) main stem from which pairs of opposite leaves
are subtended at each node. Each pair of leaves is oriented differently to the
pair below. Located in the leaf axil of the main stem is a series of buds, a
primary branch being formed from the top-most “head of series” bud. The
lower buds can either remain dormant or produce orthotropic shoots
(suckers), and occasionally, inflorescences. The buds at each node on the
plagiotropic (primary or horizontal) branches provide the basis for
inflorescences to develop. These buds can also develop into more plagiotropic
branches (secondaries). They cannot, however, develop into orthotropic
shoots.
3.1.2.2 Leaves
The leaves are normally arranged in a horizontal plane caused by the twisting
of the branch and the leaf stalks.
The life span of leaves is variable (8-10 months) as it depends on the
physiological state of the individual coffee trees. New leaf production usually
compensates for the old leaf fall, and those which fall prematurely due to
physiological dieback.
The mature leaves are elliptic to lanceolate, ribbed and waxy with varying size
and colour according to variety. The size of leaves also varies according to age,
location, season and shade.
3 Section 3
3.1.2.3 Flowers
The development of a serial bud into an inflorescence comes about as a result
of stimulation by plant hormones. When the buds are flat and triangular in
shape, their future development may or may not be determined. When the
buds appear thick and are enveloped in somewhat swollen rudimentary leaves
(bracts) and covered with gum, they are florally determined. These buds grow
until they are about 6mm long, when they enter a dormant phase; the future
flowers are individually visible but still green. This dormant phase is usually
broken by rainfall following a period of moisture stress. Blossoming usually
occurs 10 days later, lasts for about 2 days, after which, the flowers wither.
Flowers are borne in the leaf axils on all forms of lateral branches. The number
of inflorescences varies from 2-6 in each leaf axil, of 4-12 at each node. Usually
an inflorescence consists of four flowers borne on short stalks attached to the
main stem.
There are usually one or two main flowerings early in the rainy season, but a
number of small subsidiary flowerings may occur. Under PNG conditions,
these subsidiary flowerings after the main flowering between September and
October are frequent. This is attributed largely to intermittent dry and rainy
periods.
Arabica coffee is largely self-pollinated and the percentage of seeds resulting
from natural cross-pollination is usually less than 10%.
An acute form of floral atrophy, termed “star” flowering, sometimes occurs,
particularly at low elevation when the tree is under water stress or during
periods of extended heavy rainfall. Star flowers are infertile and do not form
fruit.
3.1.2.4 Fruit
Fruit growth is not apparent for about 6 weeks after flowering (pin-head
stage), and then the fruit swells rapidly over about the next 10 weeks. During
the period of fruit growth, adequate moisture is required so that large seeds
can be developed. Not all flowers will develop into fruit.
The crop development cycle can be summarised as follows, although in
warmer climates the times will be shorter and in cooler climates they will be
longer.
• Flowers open 1-5 weeks after the major stimulus – the beginning of
wetter weather;
• Pinhead dormancy phase lasting 7 weeks;
4 Section 3
• Period of rapid cherry expansion lasting 10 weeks;
• A 6 week period of endosperm formation, which begins in the middle of
the period of rapid cherry expansion;
• Period of endosperm (bean) weight gain of 12 weeks;
• Final ripening stage of 6 weeks.
The time from flowering to maturing is about 8-11 months, depending on
climate.
Figure 3.3: Composite horizontal and vertical section of a coffee cherry

The coffee fruit (Figure 3.3), which is commonly called cherry, is oval- elliptical,
red in colour, with a short pedicel or stalk and a scar at the apex. The fruit
normally contains two seeds which are flat on one side. When a single seed
develops, it is oval in shape and is called a “peaberry”. The seed, which is the
green coffee bean of commerce, is covered by a thin membrane (“silverskin”),
which in turn is covered by an endocarp (“parchment”). The whole seed is
covered by pulp (mesocarp), and skin (exocarp), which is removed by
pulping/fermentation and washing.
3.2 ARABICA COFFEE VARIETIES
Arabica coffee is scientifically designated as Coffea arabica L. and originated in
the highlands of Ethiopia. Several coffee varieties exist and they are known to
have developed in one of the following ways:
• they arose spontaneously in nature (Typica, Bourbon) and their
seeds were used for commercial growing;
• they are the fruit of selection work (Arusha, from Bourbon);
• they originate from mutants found by growers and propagated
(Caturra, from Bourbon);
• they can be a result of mutation but are kept by scientists for genetic
studies (Arusha with red leaves);
5 Section 3
• they derive from a natural cross between two varieties (Mundo Novo
= Bourbon x Typica) or even two species (Hibrido de Timor from a
robusta x arabica cross);
• they derive by selection from a manmade cross (Catimor: selection
from Caturra x Hibrido de Timor).
The main features of the commercial coffee varieties grown in PNG are given
below. Seeds of these varieties are produced by the CIC RGSD. Some other
varieties have been or are currently being tested but are not recommended for
commercial growing until their performance has been tested under PNG
conditions.
3.2.1 Blue Mountain C arabica var. typica
This is the first identified coffee variety grown in PNG. Its name “Blue
Mountain” comes from Jamaica (West Indies) from where it was introduced
and developed at Wau in the late 1920s. It was originally found in Yemen and
is the earliest grown variety in the world. Its features are:
• bronze tips (young leaves);
• small and narrow leaves;
• horizontal branching;
• relatively small habit.
3.2.2 Bourbon
It originates from East Africa but was developed from the island La Reunion
(formerly Bourbon). It was introduced into PNG in the 1930s by the Lutheran
Mission and developed in the Highlands together with Blue Mountain without
formal selection. It has:
• green tips;
• erect branching;
• large leaves;
• relatively large size (tall and wide).
3.2.3 Arusha
This is Bourbon type East African selection (from Tanganyika, drought
resistant) introduced from Kenya in 1950. In trials at Aiyura it gave higher
yields than Blue Mountain and Bourbon, with a fair bean quality. It is widely
grown since its release corresponded to the main increase of coffee growing,
in the 1960s. It differs from Bourbon by several features:
6 Section 3
• bronze tips;
• broader leaves;
• larger beans;
• greater vigour and yields in PNG conditions.
3.2.4 Caturra Red
This is a natural dwarf mutant of Bourbon, found in Brazil, and first introduced
from Trinidad (West Indies) to Aiyura in 1957. Its dwarf habit permits an
outstanding productivity at high densities. It is best suited to high input
conditions (plantations). It is characterized by:
• green tips (same as Bourbon);
• very short internodes resulting in compact shape;
• abundant ramification.
3.2.5 Mundo Novo
Selected in Brazil from a natural cross between Typica and Bourbon. An early
selection was introduced from the USA to Aiyura in 1962, and found to be high
yielding in trials. This strain can be described as follows:
• green tips;
• erect branching;
• not quite homogeneous in size but intermediate between Blue
Mountain and Bourbon;
• relatively small beans.
All the above varieties are genetically fully susceptible to coffee leaf rust.
3.2.6 Catimor
Catimor is a derivative of Hibrido de Timor (HDT), a natural hybrid between
Coffea canephora and Coffea arabica. HDT was used to introduce rust
resistance into commercial coffee varieties. Catimor was introduced into
Papua New Guinea in 1985, either directly from Portugal, or through
Queensland, Australia. The seeds forwarded to Papua New Guinea were F6
generation. They were considered to be quite stable for rust resistance and
other desirable traits. Catimor trees are characterized by:
• compact growth habit;
• resistance to coffee leaf rust;
• precocious nature, often coming to flowering in the first year of field
planting;
• large dark green mature leaves;
7 Section 3
• the tips are both bronze and green;
• good productivity and cup quality.
Catimor was evaluated under PNG conditions between 1987 and 1992 and
three lines were recommended for commercial planting namely: PNI 082, PNI
083, PNI 085. The seeds from these lines are mixed in a 1:1:1 proportion and
distributed to farmers as a composite variety.
3.3 ROBUSTA COFFEE VARIETIES
The scientific name of Robusta coffee is Coffea canephora. Several populations
of Robusta coffee are cultivated in the world.
3.3.1 Besouki
The Besouki strain grown in PNG was introduced in 1959. It is vigorous and
produces large beans but is low yielding compared to other populations
cultivated elsewhere.
3.3.2 Omuru 1
Omuru 1 is a composite clonal variety made up of three clones namely: PNI
191, PNI 194 and PNI 195. It has very small beans but is able to yield more
than 2 tonnes per ha. It was introduced to PNG in 1994 and is now available
from CIC RGSD.
8 Section 3
4.0 COFFEE NURSERY MANAGEMENT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Coffee planting begins with good seeds and subsequently good coffee
seedlings. It is therefore essential to obtain seeds from approved varieties and
follow the recommended nursery practices to give the coffee trees a good
start.
The production period of the coffee seedlings from germination to planting out
in the field is approximately 6-9 months, during which time the seedlings
acquire the desired morphological and physiological attributes to begin a new
life in the field. The seedlings’ growth rate depends on the prevailing climatic
conditions and the standard of nursery management, therefore nursery
operations should be started in time to ensure that the seedlings are ready for
field planting at the beginning of the wet season.
Coffee seedlings are ready for field transplanting when they have 2-3 pairs of
primary branches. This stage is reached after approximately 6 months but will
depend on variety, prevailing climatic conditions and the standard of nursery
management.
All nursery operations from seed germination should therefore be timed to
ensure that the seedlings are ready for field planting at the appropriate time.
Seedlings should not be allowed to become long and spindly while in the
nursery.
4.2 SELECTION OF THE NURSERY SITE
A good nursery site should be as close to the planting out area as possible,
particularly if a bare root nursery is used, providing that the following
requirements are met:
x On flat or gently sloping land;
x Near an adequate and permanent water supply;
x Away from hollows where cold air settles at night;
x The topsoil should be deep, friable with a high humus content and pH
range of 5.0-6.0;
x Any site liable to waterlogging should be avoided;
x Avoid sites with large trees in the immediate vicinity;
x The site should be sheltered from the wind and protected from livestock
by adequate fencing;
1 Section 4
x The site should have good access by road to facilitate bringing-in the
necessary nursery materials and distributing the seedlings to field sites
for planting.
4.3 COFFEE SEEDS
Seeds of the recommended varieties can be obtained from the Coffee Industry
Corporation RGSD at Aiyura, Eastern Highlands Province. The quantity of seed
required can be estimated from the following information:
x There are approximately 4,500 seeds per kilogram, depending on
variety;
x Under good nursery management, allowing for non-viable seeds and
normal nursery culling, approximately 75% of the seeds will grow into
plantable seedlings;
x The area (ha) to be planted at the preferred tree density.
Example: If you wish to plant 5 hectares at a density of 3,200 trees/ha, you
will require the following seeds:
1 kg seed will provide 4,500 x 75/100 = 3,375 viable seeds
5 ha at 3,200 trees/ha will require 5 x 3,200/3,375 = 4.75 kg seed
Under uncontrolled conditions of temperature and moisture content, coffee
seed should not be stored for more than three months. However, at 15qC and
20% moisture content seeds can be stored for a longer period. If seed is stored
in airtight polythene bags at 15qC, and 20% moisture content, viability can be
extended to over two years. However, to avoid any significant loss in viability
and subsequent poor germination, it is advisable to germinate the seeds
promptly.
4.4 GERMINATION BEDS
There are two types of seedbed for coffee seed germination, namely ordinary
soilbed and sandbed. Whichever of these options is used, it is imperative to
provide shade above all seedbeds or the young seedlings will die due to
dehydration.
The shade frame can be made from any suitable wooden material, such as
Casuarina (Yar) splits, approximately 1.5m high and 2m between posts, shade
being provided by:
x pitpit (Saccharum sp.), kunai, banana leaves etc;
x bamboo splits;
x closely woven plastic netting (shade cloth).
2 Section 4
The seedbed does not require nutrient application since nutrient reserves in
the seed itself satisfy seedling requirements.
4.4.1 Ordinary soilbed
The soilbed should be constructed in an east-west direction for convenience of
shading and should be about 1m wide and 10-12m long, with a pathway
between each bed of 50-80cm.
The sides of the bed should be made of bamboo or split Casuarina about 15 cm
high.
Soil from the pathways between the beds should be sieved to remove large
stones and placed onto the beds. To improve the texture of the beds, sand or
organic matter may be incorporated at this time.
Advantages
x It is cheaper;
x There is adequate retention of soil moisture.
Disadvantages
x There is a greater risk of exposing seedlings to soil-borne disease and
pest attack;
x In areas where there are no suitable rivers, transport of river sand can
be difficult and expensive;
x Rain splash can expose the young roots.
4.4.2 Sandbed
Germination of coffee seeds in sandbeds has given the best results in terms of
speed of germination, percentage germination, elimination of deformed tap
roots and ease of removal at the transplanting stage. The sandbed should be
constructed with the same orientation and dimensions as the soilbed (see
section 4.4.1).
The sides should be made of material suitable to support an 8-10cm depth of
sand. Washed, sieved sand (a 4-6mm sieve is recommended) is then spread to
a depth of 8-10cm.
Advantages
x Germination is faster;
x A high percentage of seeds germinate;
x Germination is uniform;
3 Section 4
x Attack by soil-borne pests and diseases is minimised.
Disadvantages
x It is more expensive than the soilbed or bare root nursery;
x Regular watering is required due to the poor water holding capacity of
sand;
x Rain splash can easily expose the roots.
4.5 SOWING SEED
Whichever germination bed is used, seed should be treated and sown in the
same manner:
x Before sowing the seeds, it is advisable to remove the parchment
carefully by hand to improve germination;
x The seeds are soaked in water for about 12 hours to break dormancy
and even out germination;
x The germination bed should be given a good watering;
x A groove 2cm deep is made across the bed and the seeds are sown with
the flat side down, at a spacing of 2cm between seeds and 5cm between
rows;
x The seeds are then covered with sieved sand or soil and a 2-3cm layer of
grass is spread over the seedbed;
x The beds and grass should be lightly watered immediately after sowing.
Seed germination normally takes between 4-6 weeks, after which the grass
covering should be carefully removed. However, a longer germination period
may occur with different varieties, age of seed or non-husked seeds.
4.6 NURSERY TYPES
Coffee nurseries can be categorised into those producing bare root seedlings
or potted seedlings in polythene bags.
4.6.1 Bare root nursery
The advantages of this method are:
x It provides the cheapest method of producing coffee seedlings;
x The only inputs are the provision of shade and labour for maintenance;
x The seedlings are easy to transport since they are lifted from the ground
by digging, and excess soil shaken free from the roots.
4 Section 4
The disadvantages are:
x The roots are exposed on lifting and the seedlings must be transplanted
in the field immediately to avoid drying;
x Normally, field establishment from bare root nurseries is less successful
than from potted seedlings due to slower growth and more deaths due
to greater transplanting shock;
x Soil from the bed should be used only once if possible to prevent a build-
up of pests and diseases.
Bare root seedlings should be planted in the field at around 6 months.
4.6.1.1 Bare root nursery bed preparation
All roots, stones and weeds should be removed, taking particular care to
eradicate perennial weeds such as Kunai grass (Imperata cylindrica), couch
(Cynodon sp.) and nut grass (Cyperus sp.). The beds should be marked and
constructed in an east-west direction for the most effective shading and should
be 1m wide and 10-12m long, with a pathway between each bed of 50-80cm.
Soil from the pathways should be placed on the nursery bed, which should
then be cultivated by digging to a depth of at least 30cm. Soil alone can be
used, particularly the first time, but it is better if sand, organic matter such as
composted coffee skins, coffee hulls or manure is incorporated into the top
15cm at this time. Triple superphosphate at 25 g/m² or a suitable high P
content compound fertilizer at 50 g/m² should be worked into the topsoil and
a fine tilth produced.
The shade frame can be made from any suitable wooden material, such as
Casuarina (Yar) splits, approximately 1.5m high and 2m between posts, shade
being provided by pitpit (Saccharum sp.), kunai, banana leaves etc, or shade
cloth.
4.6.2 Polythene pots
The practice of raising seedlings in polythene pots is a common practice. It is
essential to use perforated pots with an extra 2-3 holes at the bottom to avoid
waterlogging and compaction of the soil.
The advantages of this method are:
x Ease of nursery management as seedlings can be sorted according to
vigour;
x Seedlings can be transported over long distances without exposure or
damage to roots, resulting in quicker and better coffee establishment;
5 Section 4
x Planting can be delayed during unfavourable weather conditions without
danger of losing the seedlings;
x Using the same soil year after year is avoided since new potting mixtures
are prepared each season.
The disadvantages of this method are:
x The cost of polythene pots;
x Labour costs for filling and stacking polythene pots;
x The cost of transporting seedlings to the planting site;
x If sufficient top soil is not available locally, it will have to be brought in
each year.
4.6.2.1 Potting mixtures
A good potting mixture provides the best environment for root growth,
resulting in overall better coffee seedlings. The proportions of the components
of potting mixtures depends on the type of organic matter and fertiliser that
are available.
Components
a. Sieved topsoil
To provide anchorage, a medium for root growth and supply of nutrients
for the developing seedling.
b. Sieved coarse river sand
The addition of coarse sand increases the size of the air spaces and so
improves drainage.
c. Organic matter
This provides a slow release of nutrients, improves water holding
capacity and improves the physical texture of the potting mixture.
However, care should be taken over the source of organic matter used since
animal wastes contain a higher concentration of nutrients. Chicken manure
contains high levels of phosphate, hence, if chicken manure is used a smaller
volume should be incorporated into the mixture, and triple superphosphate
should be omitted from this particular potting mixture.
6 Section 4
The following potting mixture has been found to be the most suitable:
COMPONENT AMOUNT RATIO
Sieved topsoil 300 litres 3
Sieved coarse river sand 200 litres 2
Coffee pulp* 100 litres 1
Triple superphosphate 250 grams
Orthene** 140 grams
* 50 litres chicken manure can be used instead of 100 litres coffee pulp.
** Or any other suitable pesticide, such as Karate.
The components should be thoroughly mixed before they are used.
4.6.2.2 Polythene pots
The number of polythene pots that can be filled from each mix depends on
their size:
Size of polypot Volume of one bag Number filled
30 x 20cm flat pack 3.0 litres 180-200
25 x 15cm flat pack 1.5 litres 360-400
It is preferable to plant out after 6 months, in which case the smaller pots
should be used. These will be cheaper to buy, fill, and transport to the field,
and will reduce the time of maintenance in the nursery. If the seedlings are to
remain in the polythene pots for more than 6 months, the larger pots should
be used to allow for adequate root development. Seedlings should not be kept
in the nursery longer than 9 months.
4.7 TRANSPLANTING FROM GERMINATION SEED BED TO BARE ROOT
NURSERY BEDS OR POLYTHENE POTS
Coffee seedlings should be transplanted from the seedbed to the bare root
nursery bed or polythene pots at the “butterfly” stage. They should never be
left until the first true leaves appear. A planting stick 1cm diameter, 25cm long
and tapering over the last 10cm, should be used to make holes for the
seedlings.
4.7.1 Transplanting into bare root nursery beds
Before the seedlings are transplanted, the bed should be clean weeded and
thoroughly watered. A hole, approximately 10cm deep, should be made with
the planting stick, pushed in just far enough to accommodate the roots,
avoiding air pockets and root bending. The tap root should be placed down
7 Section 4
this hole, taking care that the tap root is kept as straight as possible and does
not become kinked. Soil should then be firmed around the seedling.
Seedlings should not be pulled from the seedbed but should be lifted with the
aid of a small stick. All self-sown seedlings, seedlings with deformed roots, or
those with damaged growing points, should be rejected.
Seedlings should be planted 20-25cm apart, to accommodate the growing
seedlings since they cannot be moved after transplanting.
4.7.2 Transplanting into polythene pots
The polythene pots, filled with the potting mixture, should be stacked in rows
of 10 to facilitate maintenance operations and counting. The pots should be
watered and a hole made with the planting stick in the centre of the pot. The
young seedling is then inserted to the right depth and the potting mixture
gently firmed around the roots.
4.7.3 Precautions during transplanting
x Seedlings from the germination beds should be placed in trays or small
boxes and covered with a moist cloth or banana leaf to prevent wilting;
x Seedlings should be planted immediately and handled so that the tap
roots are not damaged;
x Seedlings should be planted to the same level as in the seedbed.
4.7.4 Direct planting of seeds into bare root or polypot nurseries
Another option is to plant the seeds directly into the bare root nursery or the
polypots.
The advantages of direct planting are:
x The time and effort of transplanting the seedlings at the butterfly stage
are avoided;
x The need for seed germination beds is (largely) avoided.
The disadvantages of direct planting are:
x Not all seeds will germinate, and the failures will need infilling;
x Uneven germination and growth is likely.
8 Section 4
4.7.4.1 Direct planting into bare root nurseries
Seeds should be sown in accordance with Section 4.5, except that the seeds
should be placed 20cm apart and 20cm between rows (to accommodate the
growing seedlings).
At the same time, a small germination bed should be established and sown to
provide the necessary infills. For every 4,000 seeds sown directly into the bare
root nursery, 1m2 of germination bed should be sown.
4.7.4.2 Direct planting into polypots
The polythene pots are filled in the normal way with the potting mixture, and a
single seed is sown in the centre of each pot.
At the same time, a small germination bed should be established and sown to
provide the necessary infills. For every 4,000 seeds sown directly into the
polypots, 1m2 of germination bed should be sown.
4.8 NURSERY MAINTENANCE
Nursery maintenance operations include watering, weeding, shade regulation,
fertiliser application, disease and pest control, and in the case of polypot
nurseries, spacing of polypots when seedlings are larger.
4.8.1 Watering
It is important to carry out regular and adequate watering of the seedlings to
ensure that they survive in the germination beds and in the nursery. Initially,
water should be applied 2-3 times a week, depending on the weather
conditions. If foliar feeds are used, the frequency of watering can be reduced
and care should be taken to avoid waterlogging.
4.8.2 Weeding
All weeds should be removed regularly, as necessary, by hand to avoid
competition for moisture and nutrients.
4.8.3 Shade regulation
If seedlings are not hardened off gradually by careful and progressive shade
removal, the transplanting shock and leaf damage from full exposure in the
field will cause leaf loss and serious development delays, or even long term
crop reduction.
9 Section 4
Too much shade results in weak, thin stemmed seedlings with long internodes,
whereas too little shade will require more nutrient application, more watering
and could result in scorching.
During the last 2 weeks, preferably 4 weeks, before transplanting into the field,
the seedlings should be completely unshaded. Also, during this final
hardening-off period, watering should be reduced to a minimum.
4.8.3.1 Timing of shade removal
If the seedlings are to be planted in the field at the end of 6 months in the
nursery, the shade should be reduced by 30% for month 4 (when the coffee
should have 4-5 pairs of leaves), reduced by a further 30% for month 5, and
fully unshaded for month 6. A polypot nursery should use the small polypots
for this planting schedule.
If the seedlings are to be planted in the field at the end of 9 months in the
nursery, the shade should be reduced by 30% for months 4 and 5, reduced by a
further 30% for months 6 and 7, and fully unshaded for months 8 and 9. A
polypot nursery should use the larger polypots for this planting schedule.
4.8.3.2 Shade material
Using bush materials to create the nursery shade is cheap and convenient, and
they are easy to thin evenly. A degree of thinning will also occur naturally as
the material dries and blows off. It is therefore the most practical material for
small nurseries.
Shade cloth (plastic mesh) is more expensive, but it can be reused. It is
however, difficult to thin evenly, since it has to be rolled back. Different
density cloths could be used, but this would be even more expensive.
4.8.4 Fertiliser application
Where the correct nursery bed and potting mixtures have been used, there
may be no need for additional fertiliser application. However, it is usually
advisable to apply a complete foliar feed at monthly intervals, particularly
where organic matter has not been used in the nursery bed or polypot
mixture. The standard mix described in Table 7.6, containing a proprietary NPK
product such as Folifert, Liquifert, Spreigrow, Bayfolan or Nitrophoska and a
proprietary micronutrient product such as Fetrilon Combi 1 or 2, is most
appropriate.
In cases where major nutrient deficiencies become apparent, an application of
NPK at the appropriate rate per seedling may be applied.
10 Section 4
Home-made foliar feeds are not recommended because they are rarely as
effective as proprietary mixes, and any small savings achieved may prove to be
false economies. If home-made foliar feeds are used, care should be taken to
avoid biuret damage (from urea) since nursery seedlings are particularly
susceptible.
Although this schedule should provide more than enough nutrients for the
growth of healthy coffee seedlings, seedlings should be inspected regularly. If
any signs of nutrient deficiency, particularly nitrogen, are observed,
applications of the standard foliar feed should be increased to fortnightly for a
two month period. As with all foliar applications, it is not recommended that
fungicides or insecticides be mixed with foliar fertiliser.
4.8.5 Disease and pest control
A common disease in germination beds is “damping off”, caused by fungi such
as Rhizoctonia solani, or other soil borne pathogens. The seedlings become
discoloured and the hypocotyls (at ground level) are constricted. The affected
seedlings die within a few days. The disease may be controlled by watering
with a 0.5% copper solution.
Coffee leaf rust can also be controlled by application of 0.5% copper solution.
A disease encouraged by little or no shade is brown eye spot, Cercospora
coffeicola. This disease may be controlled by 0.5% copper sprays at 4-6 weeks
intervals.
Green and brown scales are common pests of coffee seedlings and may be
controlled by spraying with 0.05% Malathion plus 0.25% wetting agent. A
suitable mixture would be 10 ml Malathion 5.0% EC, plus 25ml wetting agent,
in 1 litre of water. The treatment can be repeated every two weeks if
necessary.
If cutworms continue to be a pest after the addition of insecticide (such as
Othene dust) to the potting mixture (see Section 4.6.2) they may be controlled
by further pesticide application.
4.8.6 Spacing
As the polypot seedlings grow and primaries begin to develop, self-shading will
occur, normally at the 6-8 week stage. When this happens, polypots should be
re-stacked at a wider spacing and the operation repeated as necessary, so that
any contact between neighbouring seedlings is avoided.
11 Section 4
5.0 FIELD ESTABLISHMENT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5.1 SITE SELECTION

The wide range of physical environments found in Papua New Guinea vary
greatly in their ability to support rain-fed Arabica coffee. The less suitable the
physical environment, the more difficult and expensive it will be to grow
Arabica coffee and the lower the yields that will be produced with a given set
of inputs.
The need for correct site selection is brought into focus by increasing land
shortages, the repayment commitment associated with development of loan-
financed managed coffee, low coffee prices and the inputs necessary for
adequate disease and pest control. Unnecessarily low yields or wastefully high
inputs must be avoided wherever possible.
5.1.1 Land attributes affecting site suitability
The seven land attributes which are most relevant in assessing site suitability
for Arabica coffee production under PNG conditions are:
x Drainage/effective soil depth;
x Air temperature (altitude);
x Mean annual rainfall;
x Erosion hazard;
x Soil chemical fertility;
x Accessibility;
x Present land use.
5.1.1.1 Drainage/effective soil depth
Drainage/effective soil depth is probably the most important of the attributes
affecting site suitability for Arabica coffee production in PNG. Since coffee
roots will not grow into waterlogged soil, the drainage/effective soil depth of a
site determines the extent of root development.
The shallower a root system, the less effective it is in absorbing moisture or
nutrients, and in providing a secure anchorage. In most situations, the
drainage and effective soil depth can be quantified as the depth of free
draining soil, as revealed in a soil pit or auger core. The upper limit of
moderate or strong gleying (usually indicated by pale grey matrix colours or
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Note: All terms used in this section conform with the Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO) terminology
1 Section 5
large numbers of grey and/or red mottles) defines the depth of free-draining
soil. However, it should be noted that very poorly drained soils with large
amounts of organic material on the surface, such as peat, often have very dark
grey or brown stained subsoils.
In some situations, the effective soil depth may be limited not by moderate or
strong gleying, but by rock, ironpan, packed gravel layers, duripans or other
indurated horizons. In such situations, the depth of free-draining soil cannot
be increased by field drains. If however, the depth of free-draining soil can be
increased by field drains, as with most imperfectly to poorly drained soils, the
ease and practically of draining the site should also be considered in assessing
its suitability. The most important consideration in this regard is existence of
suitable outlets for discharging the excess water, such as a stream, natural
drainage channel, or simply lower land.
5.1.1.2 Air temperature (altitude)
This is an important consideration because Arabica coffee is unable to tolerate
frosts. Furthermore, low, but not freezing, temperatures lead to the
production of more secondary and tertiary branches, and less apical
dominance. Severely affected leaves are small, often distorted and may
eventually fall.
High temperatures produce an excessively upright habit and above 25qC the
photosynthetic rate is reduced. Above 30qC leaves begin to suffer damage. A
constantly warm, humid climate induces excessive vegetative growth and the
incidence of coffee leaf rust.
The optimum daily mean temperature is in the range 15-24qC.
Flowering, and hence cherry yields, are promoted by fluctuating day and night
temperatures. A small diurnal temperature range results in the production of
fewer flower buds and a greater proportion of abnormal, or “star”, flowers.
However, too wide a range can lead to the condition known as “hot-and-cold”.
A strong relationship exists between air temperature and altitude. Air
temperature declines with increasing altitude at a regular rate, this is known as
the “lapse rate”. Generally, in PNG above 500 masI, mean annual minimum
temperature decreases by 5.4qC per 1000m. However, broad valleys in the
highlands are often warm for their altitude (eg. the Wau valley) and places
with high rainfall tend to be cold for their altitude (eg. the Oksapmin Basin and
the Mendi Valley).
2 Section 5
Nevertheless, the temperature/altitude relationship is reliable enough for the
more conveniently measured altitude to be used as a surrogate for air
temperature, when assessing site suitability.
Particularly at high and low extremes of altitude, the presence of heavy shade
moderates high diurnal temperature ranges by increasing very low night
temperatures and reducing high day temperatures. This has the effect of
reducing the yields of the coffee, but increases the chances of long term
survival. This modifying effect of shade on the microclimate can be used to
widen the range of physical environments suitable for Arabica coffee
production, but at the expense of lower yields.
5.1.1.3 Mean annual rainfall
In PNG, rainfall is the major determinant of water supply to the coffee,
although many other factors such as temperature, cloud cover, shade, mulch
and the soil’s water holding capacity can also influence the supply.
Adequate supplies of water are required for photosynthesis, for the supply of
plant nutrients, most of which are transported in solution, and for maintaining
plant structure and turgidity. Too much rainfall, however, can be detrimental
to coffee, due to an increase in fungal diseases, and flowering abnormalities .
The annual distribution of rainfall is as important as the total rainfall received.
Flowering is induced by rain only if preceded by a period of water stress.
5.1.1.4 Erosion hazard
The erosion hazard of a site should always be considered since erosion of the,
often quite shallow, topsoil means the loss of most of the soil profile’s
available nutrients, organic matter, and often that part of the soil which is
most able to hold readily available moisture. In several cases, the plants’
anchorage may also be lost. If soil is lost, so will much of the applied fertiliser
be lost.
In PNG, mass movements (landslides, slumps and mud-flows) are
volumetrically probably the most important process of erosion. However, the
less obvious, but usually continuous, processes of rainsplash and surface wash
affect much greater areas. The risk of erosion by either of these processes
increases with increasing slope, increasing rainfall erosivity, and increasing soil
erodibility. By considering these three factors, an erosion hazard index for any
particular site may be derived.
3 Section 5
5.1.1.5 Soil chemical fertility
The soil chemical fertility is obviously relevant in assessing a site’s suitability,
particularly with low-input management systems, which are largely dependent
on the soil for the supply of plant nutrients. Many factors contribute to the
soil’s chemical fertility, including soil properties which affect the supply of
various nutrients, their retention in available form, and toxicities.
In the PNG context, some of the most relevant soil properties contributing to
the soil’s chemical fertility are the soil’s total nitrogen content, exchangeable
potassium and magnesium levels, effective cation exchange capacity, P-
retention and pH. These may be combined to produce a soil chemical fertility
index.
5.1.1.6 Accessibility
The accessibility of a site may be defined as the degree of difficulty in travelling
to and from the site, to and from outlets for marketing the coffee and
obtaining supplies such as tools and equipment, fertilisers and fungicides. It is
a very difficult attribute to measure because many geographical and socio-
economic factors are involved, and accessibility may not be constant over
time. Nevertheless, it should always be considered when evaluating a
potential site.
5.1.1.7 Present land use
The present land use of a site affects the ease with which it can be cleared and
prepared for planting coffee, and hence the cost of development. In the PNG
context, the present land use is often dictated by socio-economic factors,
particularly those relating to land ownership. A further socio-economic
consideration is the value of the present land use that will be lost if the site is
developed for coffee. Such problems are difficult to quantify, but clearly, the
effects of the present land use on site development should always be
considered when evaluating site suitability for Arabica coffee production.
5.1.2 The relevance of the management level at which coffee is produced
The seven land attributes discussed in Section 5.1.1, when considered
together, can provide an overall assessment of site suitability for Arabica
coffee production. However, before site suitability for Arabica coffee
production can be assessed, it is necessary to identify the coffee management
level for which the site is being considered.
4 Section 5
Section 2.3 describes three production sectors in the PNG Coffee Industry,
namely smallholder (or village), block-holders and plantation (or estate) coffee
production. For the purposes of site selection, these sectors may be
summarised by two management levels namely “low input coffee production”
(comprising smallholders), and “high input coffee production” (comprising
blocks and plantations).
From section 2.3, it is clear that the low input coffee production system differs
considerably from the high input system in almost all aspects of coffee
management, and that the resources available in the two management
systems are not comparable. Therefore, the two management systems usually
respond in different ways to any environmental limitations to coffee
production. Hence, different critical values for several of the attributes
affecting site suitability are appropriate for the two management systems.
5.1.3 Critical values and suitability ratings for land attributes affecting site
suitability
The basis of assessing site suitability is a comparison of the requirements of
the proposed land use with the attributes of the land. This is achieved by the
use of conversion tables; one for each of the land attributes affecting site
suitability, which relates the attribute to assumed levels of suitability (based on
likely levels and costs of production).
Critical values are used to subdivide the total range of possible values for any
particular land attribute into a finite number of divisions. Each division is
allocated a suitability rating, designated R1, R2, R3 and R4, which decrease in
suitability from R1 to R4.
This section therefore, considers in turn each of the seven land attributes
affecting site suitability. Critical values are derived which enable any value to
be allocated one of four suitability ratings, from R1 (most suitable) to R4 (least
suitable). Where appropriate, separate critical values are derived for each of
the coffee management systems.
5.1.3.1 Drainage/effective soil depth
Table 5.1 relates the three components of drainage/effective soil depth,
namely depth of free draining soil, site drainability and effective soil depth, to
the four suitability ratings and the two management levels. Critical values have
been derived which are appropriate to the conditions found in PNG. A
minimum effective soil depth of 0.50m is considered necessary for a site to be
considered suitable.
5 Section 5
Table 5.1: Drainage/effective soil depth suitability ratings and critical
values
SUITABILITY DEPTH OF SITE DRAINABILITY EFFECTIVE SOIL MANAGEMENT
RATING FREE DEPTH (m) LEVEL
DRAINING
SOIL1 (m)
R1 ! 1.20 Not relevant because ! 1.20 High and low input
no drainage is
necessary
R2 0.50-1.20 Not relevant because ≥ 0.50 High and low input
only shallow surface
drains2 are necessary
R3 0.20-0.49 Frequent drains3 are 0.50 but after High and low input
necessary to a depth of draining ! 0.50
1m. Suitable outlets
exist. Mole drains or
deep ploughing are not
necessary
Frequent drains are 0.50 but after High input only
necessary to a depth of draining ! 0.50
deep ploughing are
necessary
R4 0.20-0.49 Frequent drains are 0.50 High and low input
necessary to a depth of
1m but no suitable
outlets exist.
Frequent drains are 0.50 High input only
necessary to a depth of
deep ploughing are
necessary
0.50 Not relevant because 0.50 High and low input
over rock effective soil depth is
inadequate
0.20 Not relevant because 0.20 High and low input
too wet to drain
Notes: 1. Values refer to the soil condition at the end of the wettest time of year.
2. Shallow surface drains are typically 0.30-0.50m deep.
3. Frequent drains are typically 5-10m apart.
Suitability ratings R1 and R2 can be derived simply from depth of free draining
soil, since site drainability and the effective soil depth must automatically
present no constraints if such depths of free draining soil exist. Sites with
6 Section 5
suitability rating R3 contain inadequate depths of free draining soil, but with
appropriate drainage inputs, can be rendered suitable. Those sites requiring
high drainage inputs, (such as mole drains or deep ploughing to break-up
indurated layers) are only suitable for use by the high input management
system. Sites with suitability rating R4 are not considered suitable for Arabica
coffee production since the depth of free draining soil is inadequate and for
various reasons, cannot be increased to 0.50m.
5.1.3.2 Altitude (air temperature)

Table 5.2 relates altitude to suitability ratings, for the two management
systems.
Table 5.2: Altitude suitability ratings and critical values
SUITABILITY ALTITUDE RANGE (m.a.s.l.)
RATING LOW INPUT SYSTEM HIGH INPUT SYSTEM
R1 1300 – 1699 1300 – 1699
R2 1100 – 1299 1100 – 1299
1700 – 1899 1700 – 1899
R3 600 – 1099 1000 – 1099
1900 – 2500 1900 – 2000
R4 600 1000
! 2500 >2000
In terms of altitude, sites with suitability ratings R1 or R2 are the same for both
the low input and high input management systems. Sites with a suitability
rating of R3 however, are only marginally suitable, but for the low input
system, wider altitude ranges are possible due to the possible modifying
effects of heavy shade. It is assumed that for the high input system, the
resulting lower yields would be unacceptable. Sites with suitability ratings of
R4 are not suitable for Arabica coffee production.
5.1.3.3 Mean annual rainfall
Table 5.3 relates mean annual rainfall to suitability rating.
Table 5.3: Mean annual rainfall suitability ratings and critical values.
SUITABILITY RATING MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL (mm)
R1 (and R2) 2000 – 2999
R3 1500 – 1999
3000 – 4000
R4 1500
! 4000
7 Section 5
In terms of mean annual rainfall, there are no differences between the two
management systems in site suitability ratings. Furthermore, only three
suitability ratings are considered necessary. Sites with suitability rating R1
(and R2) are highly suitable for Arabica coffee production, it being assumed
that the annual distribution of rainfall is also suitable.
Sites with suitability rating R3 are marginally suitable, and sites with rating R4
are not suitable, due to insufficient soil moisture or an increased risk of fungal
infections or unfavourable annual rainfall distribution patterns.
5.1.3.4 Erosion hazard
The erosion hazard of a site is assessed by deriving an erosion hazard index,
based on the rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility and slope steepness. Index
points for each of these three components may be obtained from Table 5.4,
and added together to give the site’s erosion hazard index.
Thus, for example, a site with moderate erosivity ( = 2 index points), moderate
soil erodibility ( = 3 index points), and a slope of 18% ( = 2 index points), would
have an erosion hazard index of 2 + 3 + 2 = 7.
Table 5.4: Critical values and index points of components of the erosion
hazard
COMPONENT AND CRITICAL VALUES AND INDEX POINTS
UNITS 1 2 3 4
Rainfall erosivity Low Moderate High Very High
(erosivity class)
Soil erodibility Very Low Low Moderate High
(erodibility class)
Slope steepness (%) 0 – 15 16 – 30 31 – 60 ! 60
(q) (0 – 8) (9 – 16) (17 - 32) (! 32)
A site with a low anticipated soil erosion loss will have a low erosion hazard
index (lowest possible = 3), and a site with a high anticipated soil erosion loss
will have a high erosion hazard index (highest possible = 12).
Most of the Arabica coffee growing areas of PNG have moderate rainfall
erosivities. The Star Mountains, most of Gulf Province, and much of the Sepik
catchment area have high or very high erosivities. There is anecdotal evidence
that PNG is experiencing an increase in high rainfall events, generally of short
duration. It is reasonable, therefore, to assume moderate rainfall erosivity
with high erosivity for short periods in all Arabica coffee growing areas.
8 Section 5
The soil erodibility is the susceptibility or resistance of the soil to erosion.
Many of the soils used for Arabica coffee production in PNG have low
erodibilities. As a rough guide, soils with high organic matter contents,
moderate to rapid permeabilities, moderate to strong structures and loamy
textures, are likely to have very low to low erodibilities. Soils with low organic
matter contents, slow permeability, weak structure, and sandy or heavy clay
textures, are likely to have moderate to high erodibilities. Other clues may be
obtained from field observations.
Evidence of gulleying, rill formation, and soil pedestals may indicate moderate
to high erodibilities, whereas a deep, dark, well structured, friable topsoil may
suggest very low to low erodibilities.
Table 5.5 relates the erosion hazard index points to suitability ratings for each
of the two management systems.
Table 5.5: Erosion hazard index suitability ratings
SUITABILITY EROSION HAZARD INDEX POINTS
RATING LOW INPUT SYSTEM HIGH INPUT SYSTEM
R1 3–5 3–4
R2 6–8 5–7
R3 9 – 11 8 – 10
R4 12 11 – 12 or any land with
slope ! 60%
The lower the erosion hazard index, the higher is the suitability rating; that is,
the more suitable is the site. In terms of the erosion hazard, a site is judged
more severely for the high input system than for the low input system. This is
because many of the management practices of the low input system (less
frequent weeding, intercropping, clearing only small areas at a time) tend to
reduce soil erosion losses, whereas many of the management practices of the
high input system (regular clean weeding, no intercropping, clearing large
blocks of land) tend to increase soil erosion losses.
Furthermore, there is a general reluctance by high input production systems to
develop very steep land, due to the problems involved in bringing in and
applying fertilisers, herbicides and fungicides, and harvesting and removing
ripe cherries. Smallholders, with smaller inputs and outputs, are more able to
grow coffee on steep slopes. It will be noted that any land steeper than 60%
(32q) is considered unsuitable for the high input system.
9 Section 5
5.1.3.5 Soil chemical fertility
The soil chemical fertility of a site is assessed by deriving a soil chemical
fertility index, based on the soil chemical properties listed in Table 5.6. With
reference to the critical values for each of the six soil chemical properties,
index points are obtained for each property, and added together to give the
site’s soil chemical fertility index and hence its suitability rating (Table 5.7).
Thus, for example, a site with 0.30 g/kg total nitrogen ( = 3 index points), 70
g/kg P retention ( = 3 index points), 0.17 cmol/kg exchangeable K ( = 2 index
points), 0.80 cmol/kg exchangeable Mg ( = 3 index points), ECEC of 9 cmol/kg (
= 3 index points), and a pH in a 1:5 soil:water suspension of 5.6 ( = 4 index
points), would have a soil chemical fertility index of 3+3+2+3+3+4 = 18; and a
suitability rating of R2 for both production systems (Table 5.7). A site with
good chemical fertility attributes will therefore have a high soil chemical
fertility index (highest possible = 24), and a high suitability rating; and a site
with poor chemical fertility attributes will have a low soil chemical fertility
index (lowest possible = 6), and a low suitability rating.
Table 5.6: Soil chemical fertility index, critical values and index points
CHEMICAL ANALYTICAL CRITICAL VALUES AND INDEX POINTS
PROPERTY AND METHOD(1)
UNITS 1 2 3 4
TOTAL N Kjeldahl 0.10 0.10 – 0.19 0.20 – 0.50 ! 0.50
(%)
P RETENTION Blakemore,
(%) Searle & Daly ! 95 85 - 95 60 - 84 60
Exchangeable K 1N ammonium 0.10 0.10 – 0.19 0.20 – 0.60 ! 0.60
(cmol/kg) acetate at pH7
Exchangeable Mg 1N ammonium 0.30 0.30 – 0.59 0.60 – 1.00 ! 1.00
(cmol/kg) acetate at pH7
ECEC(2) Exchangeable 2 2-5 6 - 10 ! 10
(cmol/kg) bases + KC1
extractable Al
or
Exchangeable 5 5 - 10 11 - 25 ! 25
CEC bases +
(cmol/kg) exchangeable
acidity
pH(3) 1:5 soil:water 4.5 4.5 – 4.9 5.0 – 5.4 5.5 –
! 7.5 7.1 – 7.5 6.6 – 7.0 6.5
Notes: 1. Details of analytical methods are included in Appendix 3.
2. ECEC to be used if possible, but if KCI extractable Al data are not available, CEC may
be used.
3. For conversion of pH data obtained using a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5, add 0.3 pH
units.
10 Section 5
Table 5.7: Soil chemical fertility index suitability ratings
SUITABILITY CHEMICAL FERTILITY INDEX POINTS
RATING Low Input System High Input System1
R1 ! 20 ! 18
R2 15 – 20 13 – 18
R3 10 – 14 8 – 12
R4 10 8
Note: 1. Lower fertility indices are rated slightly higher for the high input system since it is
assumed that fertilisers will be utilised to improve soil fertility.
5.1.3.6 Accessibility and present land use

The constraints imposed by the accessibility and present land use of a site are
very difficult to quantify, incorporating as they do a considerable socio-
economic dimension. Thus, although critical values, and hence suitability
ratings, for these two site attributes cannot be defined, a general assessment
of the effects of accessibility and present land use should always be included
when evaluating site suitability for Arabica coffee production.
The significance of constraints to development arising from site accessibility
and present land use will differ depending on the management level being
considered. For example, any site being developed for the high input system
requires all year access by motor vehicles, whereas for the low input system
such access is desirable but not essential.
5.1.3.7 Summary of land attributes affecting site suitability, critical values
and suitability ratings
For ease of reference, the critical values and suitability ratings for each of
the five quantifiable land attributes affecting site suitability are summarised in
Table 5.8.
11 Section 5
Table 5.8: Land attributes, critical values and suitability ratings for site
suitability evaluation for Arabica coffee production in Papua
New Guinea.
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND
LAND ATTRIBUTE SUITABILITY CRITICAL VALUES
AND UNITS RATING LOW INPUT HIGH INPUT
SYSTEM SYSTEM
DRAINAGE/EFFECTIVE R1 ! 1.20 ! 1.20
SOIL DEPTH(1) R2 0.50 – 1.20 0.50 – 1.20
(m free-draining soil) R3 0.20 – 0.40(1) 0.20 – 0.49(1)
(1)
R4 0.20 0.20(1)
ALTITUDE(2) R1 1300 – 1699 1300 – 1699
(m.a.s.1.) R2 1100 – 1299 1100 – 1299
1700 – 1899 1700 – 1899
R3 600 – 1099 1000 - 1099
1900 – 2500 1900 – 2000
R4 600 !2500 1000
! 2000
MEAN ANNUAL R1 (and R2) 2000 – 2999 2000 – 2999
RAINFALL(3) R3 1500 – 1999 1500 – 1999
(mm) 3000 – 4000 3000 – 4000
R4 1500 !4000 1500 !4000
EROSION HAZARD R1 3–5 3–4
(Index Points) R2 6–8 5–7
R3 9 – 11 8 – 10
R4 12 11 – 12(4)
R1 ! 20 ! 18
CHEMICAL FERTILITY R2 15 – 20 13 – 18
(Index Points) R3 10 – 14 8 – 12
R4 10 8
Notes: 1. Refer also to Table 5.1 since depth of free draining soil is only
one of three factors comprising “Drainage/effective soil depth”.
2. Altitude is used as surrogate for air temperature.
3. Only 3 suitability ratings are defined for mean annual rainfall.
4. Or any land with slope ! 60%.
5.1.4 The overall site suitability

The previous Section 5.1.3 enables a suitability rating to be derived for each of
the five quantifiable land attributes affecting the suitability of a site for Arabica
coffee production, with due regard to the proposed management level of the
development. This section explains how these five suitability ratings are
considered together, to provide an overall site suitability, which is expressed as
a single site suitability classification.
12 Section 5
In order to combine the five individual suitability ratings, suitability points are
substituted for each rating as listed in Table 5.9. It will be noted that because
drainage/effective soil depth and altitude are considered to be the two most
important land attributes affecting site suitability, the suitability points for
these two attributes are weighted by factors of 3 and 2 respectively. Also,
because the R4 suitability ratings for drainage/effective soil depth, altitude,
rainfall and erosion hazard are each considered as “limiting” (i.e. they render
the site unsuitable, regardless of the other suitability ratings), they are
allocated zero suitability points.
Table 5.9: Suitability points allocated for each suitability rating
SUITABILITY RATING AND
ATTRIBUTE SUITABILITY POINTS
R1 R2 R3 R4
DRAINAGE/EFFECTIVE SOIL DEPTH 12 9 6 0
ALTITUDE 8 6 4 0
MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL 4 N/A(1) 2 0
EROSION HAZARD 4 3 2 0
CHEMICAL FERTILITY 4 3 2 1
Note: 1. There are only three suitability ratings for mean annual rainfall.
The overall site suitability is determined by adding the five suitability points
substituted for the five suitability ratings, and obtaining the site suitability
classification from Table 5.10. Thus, for example, a site with suitability ratings
of R3 (drainage/effective soil depth), R2 (altitude), R1 (rainfall), R2 (erosion
hazard) and R3 (soil chemical fertility) would score 6 + 6 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 21
suitability points, and would therefore be classified at S3 (Marginally Suitable).
A site with suitability ratings of R2 (drainage/effective soil depth), R4 (altitude),
R1 (rainfall), R2 (erosion hazard) and R3 (soil chemical fertility) would be
classified as N (Not Suitable) because of the limiting R4 rating for altitude.
The site suitability classification is expressed by three categories of decreasing
generalisation, namely site suitability “Orders”, “Classes” and “Subclasses”.
Suitability Orders indicate whether the site is suitable or not. There are two
site Suitability Orders, the Order “Suitable” (represented by the symbol “S”,
and the Order “Not suitable” (represented by the symbol “N”).
Suitability Classes reflect the degree of suitability, and are numbered
consecutively, by arabic numbers, in sequence of decreasing suitability. Three
classes are recognised, namely “Highly Suitable” (S1), “Moderately Suitable”
(S2) and “Marginally Suitable” (S3). There are no suitability classes within the
Order “Not suitable”.
13 Section 5
Suitability Subclasses reflect the kinds of constraints or limitations, such as
poor drainage or erosion hazard, which are relevant to the particular site.
They are indicated by lower case letters of mnemonic significance, such as a
(altitude), c (accessibility), d (drainage/effective soil depth), e (erosion hazard),
f (soil chemical fertility), r (mean annual rainfall) and u (present land use). It is
recommended that drainage/effective soil depth and altitude limitations are
indicated for any suitability rating other than R1, but that rainfall, erosion
hazard and soil chemical fertility limitations are only indicated if the suitability
ratings are R3 or R4. Accessibility and present land use limitations are also
indicated, if they are considered significant. Thus, the overall site suitability is
expressed as a single site suitability classification. For example, a site with an
overall suitability classification of S2ae is Moderately Suitable, with limitations
due to altitude and erosion hazard.
Table 5.10: Converting suitability points into a site suitability classification
SUITABILITY ORDER CLASS SUBCLASS
POINTS
! 27 S1 S1a, S1d, etc.
(Highly Suitable)
23 – 27 S (Suitable) S2 (Moderately S2a, S2d, S2ae,
Suitable) etc.
17 – 22 S3 (Marginally S3a, S3d, S3ae
Suitable) etc.
17 or any N N
suitability rating (Not Suitable) (Not Suitable) Na, Nd, Nae etc.
scoring zero
5.1.5 Final site selection

The final decision on site selection for Arabica coffee production must be made
by the owners, managing agents, or funding agencies. However, the decision
should be primarily based on systematic site suitability evaluation, such as that
described above. Any site classified as N (Not Suitable) should not be
developed for coffee production. Sites classified as S3 (Marginally Suitable) are
not recommended for high input coffee production, particularly if loan-
financed, although they may be acceptable for low input production. Sites
which are S1 (Highly Suitable) or S2 (Moderately Suitable) are recommended
for either high input or low input Arabica coffee production.
14 Section 5
5.2 LAND CLEARANCE AND PREPARATION
5.2.1 Drainage
In Papua New Guinea, the provision of artificial drainage is generally an
essential consideration when planting coffee. Coffee is sensitive to poorly
drained soils and requires good drainage to maximise crop production. Most
operations such as herbicide application, pruning and the picking of coffee, are
mainly carried out manually, therefore the placement of drains may not cause
much problem. When the grower is not sure how to develop a drainage
system, he should seek advice from an expert to ensure that the following
operations are carried out:
x Draining excess water and discharging it in a controlled manner;
x Preventing overflow onto low-lying land;
x Controlling runoff from steep land;
x Removing obstacles from encumbered land.
5.2.1.1 Reconnaissance survey/mapping

A reconnaissance of the area is the first step in the planning stage. The object
of the reconnaissance is to make oneself completely familiar with the
area under consideration. All relevant observations and information should
then be transferred to a map.
Points to be observed
x The general “lay of the land” including the direction and steepness of
slope;
x Location of all natural watercourses. Even very small watercourses
should be noted because they invariably indicate depressions and may
give a good location for disposal drains, particularly with a view to
discharge;
x Positions of hills and ridges will have a considerable effect on the layout
of drains;
x Creeks or watercourses which cross the boundary from adjoining land
should be noted, because they may become a source of flooding or may
even disperse onto the block. In either case, cut off drains should be
provided;
x Change in soil type. It is not always practical to locate and map every
soil change, but it is important to note those soil features, particularly
texture and topsoil depth, which will affect drain spacing, depth of cut
and construction methods.
15 Section 5
If available, aerial photos, in conjunction with a ground survey, are probably
the best method of undertaking the reconnaissance survey.
The soils information is best gathered by using a hand auger, which should be
capable of sampling to a depth of at least 1.5m as drains may be cut to this
depth or more. If a hand auger is not available, small pits must be dug.
5.2.1.2 Drainage requirement and layout
No two areas of land are the same and although it is possible to generalise on
the subject of drain depth, spacing and channel size, it would be wrong to
follow these generalisations without consideration being given to the
individual features of the particular area concerned. The drainage
requirements are largely governed by the following factors:
x Soil characteristics;
x Present drainage class;
x Size of the catchment area;
x Topography.
The drainage requirements can be satisfied by several different layouts, which
will depend upon:
x Site development plans;
x Mechanisation availability.
Soil characteristics
The characteristics of soil, and in particular those which determine soil
permeability (structure, texture, porosity, organic matter content), are the
major factors in deciding the spacing and depth of drains (Table 5.11). Water
movement through clay is very slow, with the result that the surface often
becomes saturated during periods of wet weather. Under these conditions of
slow permeability, effective drainage can only be obtained by using very
closely spaced drains, in some cases as close as 3-5m, cut just below the clay
zone. On the other hand, in rapidly permeable soils, drain spacings up to 50m
or more would be sufficient.
Table 5.11: Drain spacings for different soil types
SOIL TYPE DRAIN SPACING (m)
Clay 3-15
Loam 10-30
San 20-50 +
16 Section 5
Making drains
When draining an area which is later to be planted with coffee, it is important
to carry out operations in the correct sequence.
The main drains should be marked and dug first, followed by marking the
position of the coffee with sticks at the recommended spacing. Once this has
been done, the field drains should be marked and cut in straight lines, between
the rows of coffee markers, ensuring that they are not cut too near the
markers. In order to reduce the risk of collapse, the sides of drains should be
constructed at a slope of about 25 degrees from the vertical.
The planting holes should then be dug as recommended (see Section 5.2.5),
and the coffee planted. Later, it may be necessary to modify the drains as
required.
Construction of a drain
With a line of pegs marking one side of the drain, the other side is measured to
the required width. A rope pulled tight on both sides of the drain will ensure
that the diggers cut a straight and uniform channel.
For draining large areas, a gang of workers with a supervisor should be

allocated for digging, with all workers being allotted a task (work mark), so that
a reasonable check can be maintained on labour output and costing.
Once the section has been prepared, construction can proceed with a
minimum of supervision. Errors can be kept to a minimum if checks on depth
of cut are made every 10-20m. The construction should always begin at the
outlet end of the drain, so that the accumulated drainage water is discharged
as the construction proceeds.
5.2.1.3 Channel gradient (slope)
To a large extent, the slope of the channel governs the velocity of flow, and by
careful siting of the main drains, it is possible to provide gradients which will
give flow velocities within the required limits.
If the gradient is too steep, scouring and erosion of the channel will occur,
whereas, if the gradient is too shallow, the channel will silt up and cause
flooding.
17 Section 5
Table 5.12: Maximum permissible velocities (cm/sec)
MATERIAL CLEAR WATER TRANSPORTING
WATER COLLOIDAL SILTS
Fine sand 46 76
Sandy loam 53 76
Silty loam 61 91
Alluvial silt, non-colloidal 61 107
Ordinary firm loam 76 107
Volcanic ash 76 107
Stiff clay 114 152
Alluvial silt, colloidal 114 152
Fine gravel 76 152
Coarse gravel 122 183
From Table 5.12 it can be seen that soil type will determine the maximum
permissible velocity of water in a channel, and hence the slope of the channel.
A slope of 1:250 is considered safe for stiff clays, whereas for peats, a slope of
1:2,000 is more appropriate.
In plantations, where drains are generally longer, the slope of the channel
should not exceed 1:400, but for smallholders, where drains are shorter,
steeper slopes up to 1:25 are common and workable.
5.2.1.4 Drain depth and width
The depth and spacing of drains are directly related, any change in one will
affect the other. Depth and spacing of drains will depend on soil type and
natural drainage status. A water table retained at 50cm from the surface will
allow uninterrupted growth of coffee, so the spacing and depth should be such
that the water table is retained at this level.
x Depth. Constant depth drains are easier to dig and maintain. Over
deepening of the drain when silt is being removed can cause low spots
which are difficult to remedy. The depth of drains should be such to give
50cm of well-drained soil between drains. This will mean drains of at
least 50cm depth and up to 150cm depending on soil type.
x Spacing. On deep, well drained soils an occasional cut off drain may be
required. On heavy clays, drains may be needed at 5m intervals,
whereas for most soils, drains may be spaced between 15 and 20m.
x Width. The width of the drain must be sufficient to carry the
volume of water which is governed by catchment area, drain length and
maximum rainfall.
18 Section 5
5.2.1.5 Drain maintenance
In order to gain full, long term benefit from any drainage system, regular
maintenance is essential. In clay soils, slumping of the sides of the drain is a
common problem, which in smallholder gardens can be controlled by bamboo
or timber retaining walls. Cutting, but not removal, of the grass along the sides
and bottom of the channel together with the removal of accumulated silt and
grass cuttings, should be part of normal drain maintenance. The base of the
drain should be cleaned so that the original gradient and depth are
maintained.
Drain outlets should be fenced with coffee sticks or other suitable material to
prevent pigs from entering and digging up the drain sides.
5.2.1.6 Special structures
On larger coffee developments, special drainage structures may be necessary
and justified:
x Where drains are located at steeper gradients than those
recommended, there are possibilities of serious soil erosion unless
control measures are undertaken. The velocity of the water can be
reduced by placing stone-filled wire baskets (gabions) across the base
of the channel, and attaching them to the sides. These should be spaced
so that the back-up water from one basket reaches the base of the next
up-stream basket.
x It is unavoidable that on plantations some of the access roads will have
to cross major drains. In order to overcome this problem, either a
concrete or galvanised iron culvert and concrete retaining walls may
have to be constructed.
x When installing culverts, they should be buried at least 1Ü times their

diameter below the surface, even if this means building up the road
above the culvert. In peat soils, because allowance must be made for
future deepening of drains, it is best to bury the culvert slightly below
the surface of the base of the drain.
x Wherever possible, gully control should be achieved by vegetative
methods or a combination of vegetation and cheap, simple structures.
However, where an excessive sediment load threatens down-stream
water supplies, a permanent silt-trap may have to be considered.
19 Section 5
x The principle of a silt trap is to slow the flow of water sufficiently to
allow sedimentation of the suspended particles. The requirements and
design of silt-traps are the same as for water-storage dams, where the
object is maximum storage capacity for minimum cost.
5.2.2 Commencing land clearance
Just where the clearing of the land begins, depends primarily on the lay of the
land. In cases where the land slopes to one side, the best place to start would
be at the top of the slope working towards the lower end. In this case it would
also be advisable to construct a storm drain before the clearing progresses too
far, in order that it may catch the flood water likely to rush down during heavy
showers from the slope above the area to be developed.
Where the land is fairly level or just marginally sloping, clearing can start at
either end to suit the convenience of the farmer. In this situation most
smallholders prefer to begin at the bottom of the slope and slash the
vegetation working upslope.
5.2.2.1 Method of clearing
The time and work involved in clearing the land is governed by the type of
vegetation and consequently the method employed.
In instances where the coffee development is to be carried out in a forest area,
it would be worthwhile to make an assessment of the available timber and to
selectively fell the useful trees first. Then, provided no shade is required, all
the remaining trees may be felled; should shade be necessary, some of the
forest trees could be employed for the purpose. Following felling of trees, care
must be taken to ensure that the stumps and roots are removed completely;
the remnant stumps and roots often become a source of root diseases such as
Armillaria if they are allowed to decay on the site. Trees may be removed by
either of the following methods:
x By poisoning the trees and stumps if time permits, since they die slowly;
x By uprooting the trees by means of a tackle and winch so that the roots
are torn out of the ground, and the remaining root stumps pulled out
with a tractor;
x Using a bulldozer or suitable tractor with chains for very large trees. The
use of heavy machinery should be avoided as far as possible since they
disturb the topsoil too much. It is often more suitable but also more
economical to use hand labour and smaller implements.
20 Section 5
Although the trees may be felled and the stumps removed over the entire plot,
the herbaceous growth should be left as a soil cover for as long as possible.
The next step will be to clear the vegetation and unusable timber by burning in
multiple fires rather than one big blaze so that the soil beneath is not harmed
too much. Arabica coffee is extremely sensitive to high pH soils, therefore the
timber should be stacked on the lines of the coffee inter-rows before being
burnt, if possible.
The clearing of land which has only grass and/or pitpit, may be done by
slashing as follows:
x Mechanically by means of a tractor and slasher, and the growth once
slashed can be pulverised further into smaller pieces with a machine and
then left there. This is later to be ploughed into the soil;
x Manually by using serifs and grass knives; if the slashings here are not
going to be pulverised and ploughed into the ground, then they should
be heaped and burnt in multiple fires.
5.2.2.2 Land preparation for high input production system
Once the land has been cleared the next step is to prepare it for planting.
Preparation usually begins with a round of ploughing and harrowing as this
helps to destroy the roots of small plants, particularly the perennial varieties of
grasses. The land should be dug or ploughed to a depth of between 25-30cm
using a disc plough with a tractor and then left to dry for a week or so. Then if
necessary, a second round of cultivation with a disc harrow can follow; this
may have to be repeated several times to effect reasonable clearance. At the
same time care must be taken to ensure that the soil is not broken up more
than is absolutely necessary; it must be brought to a rough tilth stage.
While preparation is in progress a lookout must be kept for noxious weeds
such as couch grass, since neither ploughing nor raking the creeping stems of
this weed will supress its vigour. These weeds must be controlled by using
herbicides. It is always preferable to use herbicides before the coffee is
planted rather than after, as you can quite easily damage the young trees in
trying to get rid of the weed. Herbicide can however, be used safely between
the rows without harming the coffee.
Having cleared, cultivated and cleaned the land, if there is to be a long period
of almost a year or more before planting commences, then it is worth planting
a good soil cover crop. This can later be ploughed into the ground as a green
21 Section 5
manure before the marking of the block begins. Below are a few of the suitable
cover crops:
Technical name Common name
Mucuna pruriens Velvet bean
Pueraria hirsute Pueraria
Calopogonium mucunoides Calopogonium
Where the ground cover is required for shorter periods one of the following
may be used:
Cowpea
Pigeon pea
Tephrosia sp.
Cover crops may be hand sown or sown using a seeder. The cover crop chosen
should preferably be a legume which is locally available and is known to grow
well. This should reduce erosion during wet weather and suppress the
germination of smaller weeds.
Roads should be lined and cut soon after the operation begins as these will
help with access to the block by the machinery.
5.2.2.3 Land Preparation for low input production system
Land preparation for the low input production system will depend on manual
labour, perhaps with the use of some small-scale machinery such as chain
saws. The coffee will require shade, so any suitable shade trees should be
identified and retained. Other trees can be felled, chopped into smaller pieces
and removed. As far as possible, stumps and roots should also be removed, or
burned in situ.
Other vegetation should be slashed and/or pulled/dug up and burned; or
herbicide may be applied to the slashed vegetation. If shade trees need to be
planted, this should be done as soon as possible.
The cleared land may be utilised for food crops until the coffee is planted and
established. Bananas, corn, legumes and other vegetables are suitable crops,
although sweet potato should be avoided if possible since it can harbour pests
of coffee.
5.2.3 Spacing
The spacing at which coffee trees are planted depends on the growth habit of
the cultivar (tall or compact), the pruning system to be adopted and whether
22 Section 5
or not tractor access is required for spraying or cultivation. Other factors to be
considered are slope, drainage and disease risk.
The tendency is towards closer planting because of much higher production
levels during the early years. However, the benefits of close spacing tend to
decline in later years unless appropriate pruning systems like rotational
stumping are applied to mediate or eliminate the effect. Optimum coffee
spacing should combine high plant populations with easy access for:
x weed control;
x fertiliser application;
x spraying for disease and pest control;
x maintenance pruning;
x harvesting the cherries.
5.2.3.1 Spacing and land utilisation
The most frequently practised planting arrangements are square, and
rectangular (hedgerow) spacings; triangular and avenue planting systems are
also practised to some extent (See Figures 5.1-5.4).
Square planting
In the square planting system, the trees are spaced at equal distances in a grid
pattern (a=b), as shown in Figure 5.1.
The area per tree is determined by multiplying the distances in metres

between trees, i.e. a x b = ab m2, where a = b. Thus for a spacing of 1.95m x
1.95m, the area per tree is 1.95 x 1.95 = 3.80 m2.
xmb o x x x x
n
a
p
x x x x x
x x x x x
Fig. 5.1: Square planting arrangement
The tree population per hectare is determined by dividing the number of
square metres in a hectare (10,000) by the area per tree. Thus, for a spacing of
1.95m by 1.95m, the area per tree = 1.95 x 1.95 = 3.80m2, and the number of
trees per hectare = 10,000/3.80 = 2,631 trees/ha.
23 Section 5
Rectangular planting (hedgerow)
The trees are spaced on a grid of unequal sides (a ≠ b) as shown in Figure 5.2.
xmbo x x x
n
a
p
• x x x
x x x x
Fig. 5.2: Rectangular planting arrangement

The area per tree is determined by multiplying the distances between trees i.e.
a x b = ab m2, where a is not equal to b. Thus for a spacing of 2.5m by 1.5m the
area per tree = 2.5m x 1.5m = 3.75m².
The tree population per hectare is thus 10,000/3.75 = 2,667 trees/ha

Triangular planting
In triangular planting, the trees are spaced at the corners of an equilateral triangle, where a
= b = c, as shown in Figure 5.5. In general, triangular planting gives about 10 to 15% more
trees per unit area than square or rectangular planting.
x x x x x
c a
xmb o x x x x
x x x x x
Fig. 5.3: Triangular planting arrangement

The area per tree is determined by multiplying two sides of the triangle by 0.87
(a constant for all equilateral triangles). Thus, for an equilateral triangle with
2.0m sides, the area per tree = 2.0 x 2.0 x 0.87 = 3.48m2.
The tree population per hectare is thus 10,000/3.48 = 2,873 trees/ha.
24 Section 5
Avenue Planting
The avenue planting system consists of 2, 3, 4, or 5 closely spaced tree rows
with a wide space between the blocks, as shown in Figure 5.4.
x 2m ! x x x m 4m ox x x x
1.5m
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
Fig. 5.4: Avenue planting arrangement
The area per tree is determined by multiplying the space between the trees
(1.5m in the diagram) by the sum of the inter-rows (3x2m) and avenue (4m),
divided by the number of rows per block (4).
Thus, for four-row blocks spaced at 1.5m between trees and 2.0m between
rows, with 4.0m avenues:
Area/tree = 1.5 x (2.0 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 4.0)
4
= 3.75m²
Trees/hectare = 10,000m² = 2,667 trees/ha.

3.75m²
5.2.3.2 Practical tree densities

The optimum tree densities are normally quoted in the form of a range. The
density range depends on climate, tree type (tall or compact) and the
management requirements, such as disease control. In order to manage
Coffee Leaf Rust in PNG, it is recommended that all Arabica tall varieties should
be planted at 2,500 to 3,000 trees per hectare. The CIC RGSD recommends
2,667 trees/ha at a spacing of 2.50m x 1.50m. Tables 5.13 and 5.14 show the
number of trees per hectare for various single row, and square or triangular
systems with access avenues, respectively.
Dwarf Caturra may be planted at a higher density range of 3,000 to 4,500
trees/ha. Two popular Caturra densities being practised are 3,030 and 4,444
trees/ha. The former density can be raised on two bearing heads per tree,
25 Section 5
while the latter can only be raised on a single-stem on each tree. The
respective spacings are 2.20m x 1.50m and 1.50m x 1.50m.
Dwarf Catimor may be planted at higher densities between 5,000 to 6,500
trees/ha, with a single upright on each tree. Suitable spacings are 2.0m x 0.9m
(5,555 trees/ha), 1.3m x 1.3m (5,917 trees/ha), and 2.0m x 0.8m (6,250
trees/ha).
Table 5.13: Trees per hectare for various single row spacing
Spacing 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
(m)
1.00 10000 8000 6667 5714 5000 4444 4000 3636 3333
1.10 9090 7273 6060 5195 4545 4040 3636 3306 3030
1.20 8333 6667 5555 4762 4167 3703 3333 3030 2778
1.30 7692 6154 5128 4395 3846 3418 3076 2797 2564
1.40 7143 5714 4762 4082 3571 3174 2857 2597 2381
1.50 6667 5333 4444 3809 3333 2962 2667 2424 2222
1.60 6250 5000 4167 3571 3125 2777 2500 2272 2083
1.70 5882 4706 3922 3361 2941 2614 2353 2139 1961
1.80 5556 4444 3704 3175 2778 2469 2222 2020 1852
1.90 5263 4210 3509 3007 2632 2339 2105 1914 1754
2.00 5000 4000 3333 2857 2500 2222 2000 1818 1667
2.10 4762 3809 3175 2721 2381 2116 1905 1732 1587
2.20 4545 3636 3030 2597 2273 2020 1818 1653 1515
2.30 4348 3478 2899 2484 2174 1932 1739 1591 1449
2.40 4167 3333 2778 2380 2083 1851 1667 1515 1389
2.50 4000 3200 2667 2285 2000 1777 1600 1455 1333
2.60 3846 3077 2564 2197 1923 1709 1538 1398 1282
2.70 3704 2963 2469 2105 1852 1646 1481 1347 1235
2.80 3571 2857 2380 2040 1786 1587 1429 1299 1190
2.90 3448 2758 2299 1970 1724 1532 1379 1254 1149
3.00 3333 2667 2222 1904 1667 1481 1333 1212 1111
26 Section 5
Table 5.14: Trees per hectare for various spacings in square and triangular
planting systems with access avenues between blocks
Access Avenue in Metres
Between-row Within-row No. of
Spacing (m) Spacing (m) rows Square Planting Triangular Planting
per
block 3.00 4.00 3.00 4.00
1.00 1.00 2 5000 4000 5750 4600

3 6000 5000 6900 5750
4 6667 5714 7667 6571
5 7143 6250 8214 7187
1.40 1.40 2 3247 2645 3734 3042

3 3694 3151 4249 3634
4 3968 3484 4563 3007
5 4153 3720 4776 4278
1.80 1.80 2 2315 1915 2662 2203

3 2525 2193 2904 2522
4 2645 2364 3042 2719
5 2723 2480 2132 2852
2.00 2.00 2 2000 1667 2300 1917

3 2143 1875 2464 2159
4 2222 2000 2555 2300
5 2272 2083 2614 2996
2.50 2.50 2 1454 1231 1763 1415

3 1500 1333 1725 1533
4 1523 1391 1752 1599
5 1538 1428 1769 1642
5.2.4 Planting holes

5.2.4.1 Digging
The size of the planting hole is very important for good growth of the coffee
plants. A permanent crop like coffee must not be prevented from developing
and establishing an effective root system.
27 Section 5
The holes should be 45cm square and 45cm deep, approximately the size of a
harvesting bucket. The top-soil and sub-soil should be piled separately, below
the hole if the site is sloping.
The planting hole should be left open for a minimum of two weeks to allow for
weathering to occur. However, where the soil has a poor physical and
chemical status, the planting holes should be left open for about six (6) weeks
after digging, for weathering to occur.
If the planting holes are seen to fill with water, then the site drainage is
inadequate, and will need to be improved by deepening existing drains and/or
by digging additional drains.
5.2.4.2 Filling
When the sides of the planting holes have begun to weather, and at least two
weeks before planting the coffee seedlings, the holes should be refilled with a
mixture of approximately 4 parts topsoil to 1 part organic matter. The organic
matter should ideally be compost, but any organic material, such as well rotted
coffee skins will suffice. About 50gms of triple superphosphate (TSP) should
also be added to the planting hole mixture.
If the topsoil is shallow, then it will be necessary to include some subsoil in the
mixture for refilling the planting hole. In this case, the subsoil should be mixed
with an equal amount of organic matter before being added to the mixture.
The organic matter and topsoil should be mixed thoroughly and the planting
hole refilled such that a slight mound is formed above the ground. The
remaining subsoil should be spread and levelled, and the planting hole marked
with a stick.
After leaving the mound to settle for two weeks, planting can take place by
opening a small hole and inserting the seedling (see Section 5.2.5).
5.2.5 Field planting
Planting should be done at the beginning of the main rains when the seedlings
have 2 to 3 pairs of primary branches and have been in the nursery for 6-9
months. The younger the seedlings the greater the percentage field
establishment, as long as sufficient brown bark has developed. This should
occur as early as 6 months.
There are two important points to remember when planting:
28 Section 5
x The seedling root mixture or the potting mixture should not be damaged
or interfered with;
x The seedling must be planted in an upright position to the same depth
as it grew in the nursery to avoid too deep or too shallow planting.
Planting procedure:
x The planting hole should be opened with a spade to receive the
seedling;
x The plant should be held firmly in an upright position;
x In the case of polypot seedlings, the polythene pots should be slit open
using a sharp knife and removed;
x The seedling should be placed in the centre of the hole. In the case of
bare root seedlings, the tap root must be straight;
x The soil should be pressed firmly by hand as the hole is filled in. The soil
should finally be compacted around the potting mixture and the surface
mounded slightly to compensate for subsidence and to facilitate
drainage.
Planting overgrown seedlings
If it is unavoidable that overgrown seedlings must be planted, then the
following practices will improve field establishment:
x Bending
The overgrown seedling may be planted in the normal way, then after
allowing the roots to develop for 3 months, the stem should be bent
over and pegged. When new suckers have developed, the old stem
should be cut off.
x Root pruning
Where the tap root has been bent in the polybag, it should be pruned at
the point of bending and the seedling planted in the normal way.
x Capping in the nursery
Overgrown seedlings may be capped 5cm above a pair of laterals which
are between 30 and 45cm above the soil surface, providing that brown
bark has developed at this point.
5.2.6 Intercropping
During the first two years of coffee establishment, smallholder growers should
be encouraged to intercrop coffee with annual food crops.
29 Section 5
The practice has five major advantages:
x Farmers are encouraged to maintain their coffee seedlings as they take
care of the annual food crops;
x Mulching materials are provided from the crop residues;
x Erosion and weeding requirements are reduced;
x The farmers make use of relatively unproductive land by obtaining food
crops while waiting for the coffee to yield returns in the third year;
x The farmers may generate income while waiting for the coffee to yield
returns in the third year.
The most suitable crops for the purpose of intercropping are legumes e.g.
peanuts and wing beans, because they add nitrogen to the soil. Other crops
such as cabbage, broccoli, tomato and onion have been used in intercropping.
Tall annual crops such as corn should never be planted in young coffee, as they
compete with the young seedlings for light. The intercropping should be done
within the inter-row avenues and not within 30 cm of the coffee trees.
Possible disadvantages of intercropping include:
x Pests and diseases of coffee may be encouraged. Sweet potato
(kaukau) in particular should not be intercropped with coffee because
sweet potato harbours pests of coffee;
x Cultivating inter-rows with annual crops may impede the development
of the coffee’s ‘surface plate’ lateral roots;
x The high nutritional demand of some crops may compete with the
coffee for available nutrients.
5.3 MULCHING
Immediately the coffee seedlings are planted in the field, they must be
mulched, especially in dry areas. In wide spacing, a circle of dry grass, banana
trash or corn residue should be put around the seedlings to a radius of 30cm.
In rectangular (hedgerow) close spacing, a strip of mulch 60cm wide should be
placed along the tree row. The mulch should never be placed right up to the
stem of the plant. A space of 10cm should be left between the stem and the
edge of the mulch to prevent rotting of the stem. The mulch is important to
suppress weed growth around the young plants and to conserve soil moisture
during the dry periods.
30 Section 5
5.4 INFILLING
Even under optimum management, some seedlings die during establishment,
necessitating replacement if a uniform stand is to be achieved. Death of young
seedlings is caused by various factors such as pests and diseases, wild animals,
pigs, drought, injury during weed control, poor growth, poor planting, and
poor seedlings. Infilling should be done at the earliest opportunity, and as
often as necessary, to produce a uniform stand.
As much care should be taken with infilling as with the original planting. The
remains of the original plant should be removed to prevent fungal infection of
the infill.
5.5 REPLANTING
5.5.1 Introduction
A coffee plantation is expected to have an economic productive life of
between 25 and 40 years. Thereafter, it is necessary/advisable to replant an
existing coffee garden or block with new coffee. Replanting can be necessary
for several reasons:
x The coffee trees are old, and have become low-yielding, broken or
damaged;
x The coffee trees have undergone so much recycle pruning that
generating healthy new uprights is becoming difficult;
x The coffee trees are badly infected by disease, such as coffee leaf rust;
x The coffee trees have died due to lack of fertiliser (very common in
unshaded coffee).
Replanting a block of coffee is similar to establishing a new coffee garden (see
Sections 5.2-5.4). The land must be cleared and drained, the planting holes
marked out, and the coffee seedlings raised and planted.
5.5.2 Land clearance and draining
The old coffee trees should be uprooted and removed or burnt. Burning is
particularly important if the old trees were badly infected with coffee leaf rust
or Pink disease. As much of the old root system as possible should be removed
to avoid infecting the new coffee with root diseases.
The old drains should be cleaned out and new drains dug as necessary.
Particular care should be taken to ensure appropriate discharge of drainage
water.
31 Section 5
5.5.3 Shade trees
If the old shade trees are not too tall, they may be retained, but if they are old
and very tall, they should also be cut down and removed from the site.
New shade trees should be planted as soon as possible in order to provide
some shade for the young coffee. Temporary shade and windbreaks may also
be planted (see Section 6.5).
5.5.4 Preparing the new coffee seedlings
The variety of coffee to be planted should be decided and seeds obtained from
the CIC RGSD. Replanting provides an ideal opportunity to plant the coffee leaf
rust resistant variety, Catimor (see Section 3.2.6).
A nursery should be constructed, and seedlings raised as described in Section
4.
5.5.5 Marking out and planting the new seedlings
The new coffee is best planted in the old coffee rows, particularly if the old
stumps have not been completely removed. This will facilitate subsequent
access to the coffee for maintenance and harvesting. Replanting in the existing
coffee rows will also fit best with the old drainage system.
The disadvantage of replanting in the old coffee rows is that the new spacing
options are limited. The easiest option is to simply use the old spacing, but
consideration can be given to increasing the plant density within the old lay-
out. If dwarf Catimor (or Caturra) is to be replanted, then the plant density will
almost certainly be significantly increased (see Section 5.2.3 for options).
The planting holes should be dug and refilled, and the new coffee seedlings
should be planted, as described in Sections 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 respectively.
5.5.6 Intercropping
The cleared plot may be utilised for growing annual crops (but not sweet
potato) before the coffee is planted, and intercropped for the first two years
after the coffee is replanted (see Section 5.2.6).
32 Section 5
6.0 MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG COFFEE
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The early years of the coffee bush are vital to its future growth and
productivity. Poor management practices, such as taking a heavy crop during
establishment, can result in serious die-back of the primary branches and
damage to the root system. Early cropping should be discouraged by removing
the lower skirt branches if the lower primaries are carrying unsustainable crop,
for which additional fertiliser cannot be provided.
During the first three years the coffee trees should be encouraged to develop a
deep and extensive root system. Deep rooted trees can draw moisture from a
greater depth of soil, whilst trees with an extensive root system can draw
nutrients from a greater volume of soil. Trees with a deep and extensive root
system can therefore bear heavier crops without die-back and are more
drought resistant. By retaining soil moisture, mulching can assist in the
development of a suitable root system. Coffee grown under good nutrient
management is less susceptible to pests and diseases.
Pruning is an important aspect of shaping the tree for future productivity. A
decision should be taken before planting on whether to raise the tree on single
or multiple stems and pruning should be undertaken in the first year.
Unwanted suckers and excessive secondary growth should be removed by
regular pruning as a means of training the tree to the desired shape for future
productivity.
The anticipated yields for both the plantation and smallholder sector can be
seen in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
6.2 DEFINITION OF YOUNG COFFEE
For the purpose of this Handbook, any bushes which have not carried their first
main crop are defined as young coffee.
The age at carrying first crop can be affected by several factors, such as:
x Variety;
x Nutrition;
x Climate;
x Altitude;
x Management practices.
1 Section 6
It is unwise to define young coffee too precisely, but generally it is tall varieties
in their first 2 years and compact varieties in their first year.
6.3 NUTRITION OF YOUNG COFFEE IN THE FIELD
6.3.1 Planting holes
Planting holes should be refilled with a mixture of approximately 4 parts
topsoil to 1 part organic matter, such as well rotted coffee skins. If topsoil is
insufficient to fill the hole then subsoil should be used mixed equally with
organic matter. About 50 g of triple superphosphate should also be added to
the planting hole mixture.
6.3.2 Year one fertiliser schedule
Two fertiliser schedules are presented in Table 6.1 for the first year in the field,
one for tall varieties, such as Arusha, Bourbon and Blue Mountain, and one for
compact varieties, such as Caturra and Catimor. A typical plant density of
2,500 trees/ha has been assumed for tall varieties. For compact varieties
application rates of ground applied fertiliser are increased in order to
accommodate the greater planting density and more rapid growth, typical of
such varieties.
Table 6.1: Fertiliser schedules for tall and compact varieties of Arabica coffee during
the first year in the field.
DATE OF QUANTITY AND TYPE OF FERTILISER
APPLICATION FROM
PLANTING TALL VARIETIES COMPACT VARIETIES
Day of planting
6 weeks Zinc foliar feed(1) Zinc foliar feed(1)
6 weeks 70kg SOA(2)/ha 140kg SOA/ha
10 weeks Zinc foliar feed Zinc foliar feed
14 weeks Zinc foliar feed Zinc foliar feed
14 weeks 85kg DAP(3)/ha 170kg DAP(3)/ha
July Standard foliar feed(4) Standard foliar feed
August Standard foliar feed Standard foliar feed
September Standard foliar feed Standard foliar feed
Notes: 1. Zinc foliar feed is described in Table 7.4.

2. SOA = sulphate of ammonia.
3. DAP = diammonium phosphate, the most appropriate
fertiliser for young coffee (18% N, 46% P205).
4. Standard foliar feed is described in Table 7.4 and application
is optional for the months of July, August and September.
2 Section 6
Foliar feed should be applied until run-off commences. For young coffee, the
amount of foliar feed applied per hectare would range from 100-200 litres,
which should be sufficient for about 3,000-4,000 trees. Ground applied
fertilisers should be applied around the drip circles of the young trees, which
should be kept free of weeds where mulch has been applied.
6.3.3 Year two fertiliser schedule
Only one fertiliser schedule is presented in Table 6.2 for the second year in the
field. This is for tall varieties only, since compact varieties should produce a
crop in their second year in the field, and should therefore receive the mature
coffee fertiliser application.
Foliar feed should be applied until run-off commences. A 200 litre drum of
foliar feed should be sufficient for one hectare or for about 3,000-3,500 trees.
Ground applied fertilisers should be applied around the drip circles of the
young trees.
Table 6.2: Fertiliser schedule for tall varieties of Arabica coffee during the
second year in the field.
DATE OF FERTILISER QUANTITY AND TYPE OF
APPLICATION FERTILISER
September/October 85kg DAP/ha
November/December 70kg SOA(1)/ha
January/February 85kg DAP/ha
April/May 70kg SOA/ha
June/July Standard foliar feed(2)
July/August Standard foliar feed
August/September Standard foliar feed
Notes: 1. SOA = sulphate of ammonia.

2. Standard foliar feed is described in Table 7.4 and application is optional for the
months of July, August and September.
6.3.4 Corrective fertiliser application

Various nutrient deficiency symptoms may become apparent during the first
two years in the field. Before considering corrective fertiliser applications
however, it should be ensured that other factors are not causing the
symptoms. In particular, inadequate drainage, competition from weeds, a lack
of shade cover, and poor planting can result in unhealthy looking coffee trees.
If specific nutrient deficiencies are suspected, the recommendations for
corrective fertiliser applications to mature coffee (Section 7.3.4.7) are
applicable.
3 Section 6
As with nursery seedlings, young coffee in the field is particularly susceptible to
leaf damage due to biuret toxicity. Home-made foliar feeds are not
recommended, but if they are used, urea should be avoided if possible.
6.4 WEED CONTROL
A weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted. Coffee growth and yields
can be severely depressed by weeds which generally compete for water,
nutrients and sunlight with young coffee. Other adverse effects of weeds
include harbouring pests and diseases. Mulch provides the ideal form of weed
control, but for both economic and practical reasons, the level of mulch
applied is seldom sufficient to give full control of weeds. In high rainfall areas,
where mulch depresses coffee yields, mulching as a cultural practice is not
compatible with practical management. The use of mechanical weed control
methods can increase soil erosion and/or compaction, while the use of
selective herbicides may result in a build-up of resistant weeds. Weed control
therefore, requires an integrated approach involving mulching as well as
mechanical/manual and chemical methods.
6.4.1 Weed control in young coffee
It is important that the control programme should start before planting, when
perennial grasses such as kunai (Imperata cylindrical) and couch (Cynodon
dactylon) in particular, must be eradicated. The newly established coffee
seedlings should be kept weed-free to eliminate competition for soil moisture,
nutrients and sunlight.
Regular hand weeding around the seedlings is most appropriate as the danger
of injuring young trees is minimised. Careful application of herbicides within
the inter-row avenues quickens the operation.
During the early establishment period it is essential to control weeds which
may compete with the young trees. This generally means that they must be
controlled at least within a radius of 50cm from the main stem, and this area
will increase as the tree develops. Weed control at this stage is best achieved
using a ring of mulch around the plant, which should not be placed closer than
10cm to the stem. Within this circle it is advisable to remove weeds by hand,
outside this circle weeds may be removed by the use of a spade or bushknife;
however, residual and contact herbicides may also be used. Care must be
taken to avoid damaging young trees by using a spray guard or protective
shield around the young tree, and suitable nozzle e.g. polyjet.
As the tree grows from seedling stage to maturity, its leaf canopy will play an
increasing role in controlling weed growth. An additional advantage is an
4 Section 6
improved root environment under the canopy provided by fallen leaves.
However, once the trees begin cropping, the roots soon develop to cover the
area between the rows. Thus weed control is mainly in the inter-row area.
From this stage on, weeds should be controlled through an integrated
programme of mechanical e.g. slashing or cultivation, and chemical residual or
contact herbicide methods.
6.4.2 Weeds
Successful weed control can best be achieved by first identifying the weed
species and then choosing the most suitable herbicide. Table 6.3 shows some
of the common weeds in coffee growing areas of Papua New Guinea.
Table 6.3: Some common weed species in coffee growing areas of Papua
New Guinea
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Family: Amaranthacea
Amaranthus lividus L. Slender Amaranth
Family: Carophyllaceae
Drymaria cordata L.**
Family: Commelinaceae
Commelina benghalensis *** Wandering Jew
Commelina diffusa *** Wandering Jew
Murdannia nudiflora L. Day Flower
Family: Compositae
Ageratum conyzoides L.** Goat Weed
Bidens pilosa** Cobbler’s Pegs, Black Jack
Crassocephalum crepidioides** Thick Head
Eleutheranthera ruderalis
Emilia prenanthoidia
Emilia sonchifolia Purple Sowthistle, Milk Thistle
Erigeron sumatrensis** Sumatran Fleabane
Galinsoga parviflora Yellow Weed, Gallant Soldier
Sonchus asper Spiny Sowthistle
Synedrella nodiflora L.* Pig Grass, Synedrella
Family: Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea batatas * Sweet Potato, kaukau
Ipomoea triloba
Family: Cruciferae
Cardamine hirsute L. Bitter Cress
Family: Cyperaceae
Cyperus rotundus L.* Nut-grass, Purple Nutsedge
Cyperus aromaticus
Cyperus bifax*** Giant Nutgrass
5 Section 6
Cyperus brevifolius** Short Kyllingia
Cyperus cyperoides L.**
Cyperus distans
Fimbristylis dicotoma
Kyllingia brevifolia
Kyllingia polyphylla willd* Navua Sedge
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia hirta L. Asthma Plant, Sneeze Weed
Euphorbia thymifolia L. Dwarf Spurge
Phyllanthus niruri L.
Family: Gramineae
Axonopus compressus Carpet Grass, Sogeri Grass
Brachiaria mutica
Cynodon arcuatus* Giant Couch Grass
Cynodon dactylon L. Pers*** Cough Grass, Bermuda Grass, Star Grass
Digitaria insularis Feather-top Grass
Digitaria sanguinalis Giant Crab Grass, Hairy Finger Grass
Digitaria setigera** Crab Grass
Eleusine indica L. Goose Grass, Crowsfoot Grass, Wild Finger Millet
Eragrostis tenuifolium Wiry Love Grass, Waghi Grass
Imperata cylindrica Kunai, Sword Grass
Melinis minutiflora* Molasses Grass
Paspalum conjugatum** Thurston Grass, Sour Grass
Paspalum orbiculare Paspalum
Paspalum paniculatum L. Paspalum
Pennisetum clandestinum Kikuyu Grass
Setaria spp. Yellow Bristle Grass, Foxtail
Family: Leguminosae
Aeschynomene indica L.
Casia alata L. Ringworm Shrub
Desmodium carnum (Gmelina) Spanish Clover
Desmodium purpureum
Desmodium tortuosum
Leucaena leucocephala Leucaena
Mimosa invisa Giant Sensitive Plant
Mimosa pudica L. Sensitive Plant
Family: Malvaceae
Sida microphylla
Sida rhombifolia*** Broom Weed, Broomstick
Urena lobata L. Pink Burr
Family: Melastomaceae
Clidema hirta L. Kosters Curse
Family: Oxalidaceae
Oxalis corniculata L. Yellow Wood Sorrel
Oxalis europaea
Oxalis repens
Family: Piperaceae
Peperomia pellucida L. Peperomia
6 Section 6
Family: Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea L. Pig Weed, Purslane
Family: Polygonaceae
Polygonum nepalense** Slender Knotweed
Polygonum orientale L.
Polygonum strigosum Rough Knotweed
Family: Polygalaceae
Polygala paniculata
Family: Rubiaceae
Hedyotis corymbosa L.
Mitracarpus villosus
Spermacoce laevis
Spermacoce repens
Family: Solanaceae
Physalis angulata Bladder Cherry, Wild Cape Gooseberry
Solanum nigrum L. Black Nightshade
Family: Urticaceae
Laportea interrupta L. Hen’s Nettle
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
KEY: * Difficult weed to control.
** Predominant weeds in coffee gardens.
*** Predominant hard-to-kill weeds.
6.4.3 Herbicides
6.4.3.1 Herbicide types
Herbicides can be classed as selective when they are used to kill weeds
without harming the crop, or nonselective when their purpose is to kill all
vegetation.
However, herbicides can also be classified as contact or translocated
(systemic).
x Contact herbicides. These kill the plant parts to which the
chemical is applied and are most effective against annuals, those
weeds that germinate from seeds and grow to maturity each year.
Complete coverage is essential in weed control with contact
herbicides.
x Translocated herbicides (systemic). These are absorbed either by
roots or above-ground parts of plants and then circulate within
the plant system to distant tissues. Translocated herbicides may
be effective against all weed types, however, their greatest
advantage is in the control of established perennials, those weeds
that continue their growth from year to year. Uniform application
7 Section 6
is needed for translocation herbicides, but complete coverage is
not required.
Another method of classification is the timing of herbicide application with
regard to the stage of crop or weed development. The three categories of
timing of application herbicide are pre-planting, pre-emergence and post-
emergence.
Note: It is not advisable to mix contact and systemic herbicides. The contact herbicides kill
the weeds and the translocated herbicides cannot be absorbed by the plant.
6.4.3.2 Characteristics of available herbicides

Glyphosate (Roundup)
Roundup is a non-selective, translocated, non-residual, post-emergence
herbicide. It is very effective on deep rooted perennial species. Annual and
biennial species of grasses, sedges and broad-leaved weeds are effectively
controlled.
Toxicity: LD50 – 4,900 mg/kg. May cause eye and skin irritation.
Rate: 0.50-4.50 litres/ha. General application rate.
3.00 litres/ha. Specific application rate.
Absorption, translocation and response
It is absorbed by foliage and translocates throughout the plant.
The predominant effect is the inhibition of aromatic amino acid synthesis in
the plant. This results in an increase in the level of free ammonia, ethylene
and cellulose. Total free amino acids are increased and protein levels are
decreased, resulting in the characteristic glyphosate injury symptoms. Another
important enzyme induced is phenylalanine ammonialyase. This is an
important enzyme for the production of phenolic compounds which inhibit
growth of plants.
Symptoms are slow to develop and are evident 2-3 weeks following
application. Plants affected develop a yellow-orange foliage followed by
chlorosis and necrosis. Symptoms are delayed in the dark, because light is
essential for glyphosate injury. There is also a ‘witches broom’ effect (multiple
shoots), growth inhibition of rhizomes and stolons, leaf wilting and wrinkling.
Good results have been obtained when treating plants at full maturity. Annual
weeds are controlled regardless of growth stage. Repeat application may be
needed on tough and deep rooted perennials.
8 Section 6
Annual weeds continue to germinate throughout the season so retreatment
may be necessary.
Important weeds controlled
Cynodon dactylon (Couch Grass), Digitaria arcuatus (Giant Couch Grass),
Imperata cylindrica (Kunai Grass), Digitaria setigera (Crab Grass), Digitaria
sanguinalis (Giant Crab Grass), Paspalum spp., Sedges, Portulaca oleracea (Pig
Weed) and most perennial, annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds.
Precautions
1. Do not spray green bark of coffee.
2. Do not apply if rain is expected within six hours, as it will reduce the
herbicide’s effectiveness.
3. Do not mix with dirty water, because clay particles deactivate
glyphosate, reducing its efficacy.
Soil persistence
Roundup is biodegradable – it rapidly breaks down in the soil, with no residue
build-up.
Glufosinate-ammonium (Basta)
Basta, a phosphate compound, is a contact herbicide with systemic activity
used as a broad-spectrum, post-emergence herbicide.
Toxicity: LD50 – 1,620 mg/kg
Rate: 1.5-5.0 litres/ha (3.25 litres/ha)
Glufosinate-ammonia (Basta) is translocated within the leaves and not to other
plant parts. If inhibits photosynthesis, and ammonium ions are accumulated in
the leaves resulting in the foliage burning down. This herbicide controls a wide
range of annual and perennial weeds (grasses, broad-leaved, ferns and shrubs).
On perennial weeds, burn down of foliage will occur, but plants will regrow
from roots. Multiple applications may be necessary where perennial weeds
are involved.
Symptoms of application are noticeable on weeds within 2-5 days.
9 Section 6
Digitaria setigera (Crab Grass), Portulaca oleracea (Pig Weed) and Solanum
nigrum (Black Nightshade). The chemical is more effective on broad-leaved
weeds than on grasses.
Precaution
Do not apply if rain is expected within six hours. Rainfall immediately after
application will reduce the effectiveness.
Soil persistence
There is no soil activity, thus weed seeds and seedlings not yet emerged will
not be controlled.
2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid)
2,4-D is a selective, translocated phenoxy herbicide used mainly in post-
emergence application to leaves. It is mainly active on broad-leaved weed
species.
Toxicity: LD50 – 400 mg/kg
The herbicide is absorbed through the leaf surface and translocated
throughout the plant, generally in the direction of carbohydrate (food)
movement within the translocation system of the plant, leaving the root
unharmed. New shoots will regenerate from the undamaged roots.
Susceptible plants usually become malformed before they die.
2,4-D can be used in coffee plots where broad-leaved annuals such as Thick
Head (Crassocephalum crepidioides), Goat Weed (Ageratum conyzoides) etc.
are abundant. This herbicide gives good control of perennial broad-leaved
weeds such as Commelina diffusa (Wandering Jew) and Sida rhombifolia
(Broom Weed).
Precautions
It is volatile, so special care must be taken to avoid drift because the highly
volatile esters will cause injury to coffee. Therefore, low pressure should be
used while spraying to avoid drift.
Soil persistence
10 Section 6
Low concentrations of 2,4-D are decomposed in the soil, persisting only 1-4
weeks, in warm wet conditions.
MCPA (Methoxone)
MCPA is a post-emergence, selective, translocated phenoxy herbicide, mainly
active on broad-leaved weed species.
Toxicity: LD50 – 700 mg/kg. May cause irritation to eyes and skin.
Rate: 0.20-2.00 1/ha (1.5 1/ha)
It is absorbed through the leaf surface and translocated throughout the plant.
The plants become malformed before they die.
Cyperus sp. (sedges), Portulaca oleracea (Pig Weed) and many other broad-
leaved weeds. Safer on crops than 2,4-D. It is more effective on some broad-
leaved weeds than 2,4-D, but considered less effective on most broad-leaved
weeds.
Precautions
Formulated as amine salts and low volatility esters, and therefore not as
volatile as 2,4-D. However, drift has to be avoided to prevent injury to coffee
trees.
Soil persistence
Persists in the soil for 8-12 weeks or longer.
Triazines
Atrazine (Gesaprim), Ametryne (Ametrex) and Simazine are triazine
compounds.

These herbicides are taken up by the roots and more exclusively through the
transpiration stream. When applied on the foliage they move and collect at
the leaf margins in dicotyledons, and throughout the leaf in monocotyledons.
Seeds absorb these chemicals on the seed coat, and with germination, the
chemicals move into the seedlings.
11 Section 6
These chemicals inhibit growth of plants by blockage of photosynthesis. There
is chlorosis followed by necrosis (nitrite injury).
Atrazine (Gesaprim)
Rate: 0.20-2.00 kg/ha (2.00 kg/ha)
Atrazine is a selective herbicide used pre-emergence.
Absorption and translocation
Moisture activates the chemical. It is usually considered more toxic than other
triazines. Acts mainly through the roots but there is some activity through
foliage contact. Resembles Simazine, but is faster acting under low rainfall
conditions. Does not prevent germination, but kills weeds after being
absorbed by the roots.
Digitaria setigera (Crab Grass), Setaria sppp (Foxtail), Cyperaceae spp (Sedges),
Portulaca oleracea (Pig Weed) and many broad-leaved weeds and grasses.
Precautions
The chemical can be leached downwards, causing damage to coffee roots.
Soil persistence
Residues may remain in the soil for one year.
Ametryn (Ametrex)
Ametryne is a triazine compound, used as a pre- and post-emergence
herbicide. It has a broad spectrum of activity against broad-leaved and grass
weeds.
Rate: 0.60-3.00 kg/ha (1.5 kg/ha)
Absorbed through the root system as the weeds germinate. Therefore, weeds
will emerge before dying. There is also considerable activity through foliage
contact. Mature weeds of certain species will be controlled by post-
emergence application.
12 Section 6
Cyperaceae spp (Sedges), Eleusine indica (Crowsfoot grass), Portulaca oleracea
(Pigweed), Digitaria setigera (Crab grass) and most grasses and broad-leaved
weeds.
Precautions
Avoid excess application as the chemical moves vertically and laterally due to
its high water solubility.
Simazine
It is a selective triazine compound used as a pre-emergence herbicide. It is
chemically related to Atrazine but has no post-emergence activity.
Its mode of action is through roots and shoots of emerging weeds. It does not
prevent germination. Controls a broad spectrum of weeds.
Toxicity: LD50 – 5,000 mg/kg. May cause slight eye and skin irritation.
Rate: 1.00-4.50 kg/ha (3.00 kg/ha)
Absorption, translocation and response (see notes on Triazines)
Cynodon dactylon (Couch Grass), Digitaria spp. (Crab Grass), Emilia sonchifolia
(Purple Sow Thistle), Portulaca oleracea (Pig Weed) and many broad-leaved
weeds and grasses.
Precautions
1. Has long residual effect.
2. Requires moisture for its activation. Results may be disappointing if
applied under dry conditions.
Soil persistence
Tightly bound to soil particles. Micro-organisms break it down in about a year.
Persists longer in dry, cold or low-fertility soils. May persist in soils for more
than a year.
Diuron
Diuron is a non-selective substituted urea compound generally used as a pre-
emergence herbicide, but has some post-emergence activity on smaller weeds.
13 Section 6
Diuron, as with Ametryne and Atrazine, has its post-emergence activity
enhanced by a surfactant or wetting agent.
Rate: 0.50-1.50 kg/ha (1.25 kg/ha)
As with other soil applied herbicides, Diuron is absorbed by the roots and
translocated via the transpiration stream to the leaves, the primary sites of
photosynthesis.
The primary action of Diuron is to disrupt photosynthesis, giving rise to leaf
chlorosis. Acute symptoms start with light green areas (within two days) and
develop into a water soaked blotch after two days.
Digitaria setigera (Crab Grass), Sorghum halapense (Johnson Grass), Portulaca
oleracea (Pig Weed) and many others.
Precautions
1. Care must be taken using Diuron as it can be leached into the rooting
zone of coffee causing serious damage.
2. Do not use on light sandy soils where coffee is grown.
Soil persistence
The chemical has low water solubility and is adsorbed by soil colloids. Resists
leaching as a consequence and stays near the soils surface. It leaches more
slowly than Monuron (another substituted urea compound).
May persists in soils for 12 months.
Dicamba (Banex, Banvel)
Dicamba is a benzoic acid derivative used as a pre-and post-emergence,
selective, translocated herbicide.
14 Section 6
It is a foliar and soil applied herbicide. It is readily absorbed by leaves and is
translocated throughout the plant. The herbicide is also taken up by the roots
and kills weeds as they germinate.
Effectively controls many annual and perennial broad-leaved weed species.
Oxalis corniculata (Yellow Wood Sorrel), Polygonum sp. (Knotweeds), Portulaca
oleracea (Pig Weed) and many more broad-leaved weeds.
Precautions (see general precautions)
Persistence in soils
Dicamba is rapidly degraded in soils with 50% loss in less than 14 days.
General precautions on the use of herbicides

x Do not spray foliage and green bark of coffee trees;
x Avoid drift onto coffee trees;
x Do not apply in the drip line of tree crops;
x Avoid mixing with dirty water, because the herbicide’s effectiveness may
be reduced;
x Never apply contact herbicide with translocated (systemic) herbicide,
because contact injury to plants inhibits effective translocation of the
systemic herbicide;
x Over-application of residual and/or soil applied herbicides leads to a
build-up of residues in the soil. This can be injurious to coffee trees;
x Repeated use of any particular herbicide may lead to a build-up of
specific weeds. Good herbicide rotation prevents this from happening.
6.4.4 Application of herbicides

6.4.4.1 Knapsack Sprayers
A knapsack sprayer consists of a tank with pressurising device, a plastic hose or
metal line and sprayer nozzle. It can be used for spraying a wide range of
agrochemicals such as herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and liquid fertilisers.
A knapsack sprayer is carried on the back with the help of straps, firmly
fastened over the shoulders.
Knapsack sprayers work on pressurised air, forced into an air-tight chamber,
and then the liquid/mixture is released through a spray gun, via a nozzle which
facilitates dispersion of the liquid/mixture to the target.
15 Section 6
6.4.4.2 Types of Knapsack Sprayers
There are various types of knapsack sprayers available, based on their capacity,
pressurisation system as follows:
x Diaphragm Sprayers;
x Compression Sprayers;
x Piston Sprayers;
x Motorised Sprayers;
x Mist Blowers.
Plate 6.1: Diaphragm sprayer Plate 6.2: Compression sprayer
Plate 6.5: Motorised fogging

sprayer or mist blower
Plate 6.3: Piston sprayer Plate 6.4: Motorised sprayers
6.4.4.3 Essential Features of knapsack sprayers

Knapsack sprayers should have the following features:
x Filter in the lance grip;
x Large filling mouth;
x Filling filter with level indicator;
x Strong, adjustable, non-corrosive, oriented straps;
x Guide nut with washer for sealing and lubrication;
x Operating lever with ergonomic handle;
x Chrome plated brass or pvc lance;
x Resistant, light and ergonomic tank with handle for transport;
x Mechanical stirrer with device to fit the closing valve;
x Stainless steel balls in valve and sleeve;
16 Section 6
x Rubber washer;
x Reversible handle fitting capacity: can be used in either hand;
x Large capacity and highly resistant pressure chamber;
x Corrosion-proof base;
x Connector for accessories;
x Trigger release valve;
x Pressure regulator that can be set at 1 to 3 bar.
6.4.4.4 Pressure regulators

Pressure regulators or spray management valves are used to control and
maintain a constant pressure that allows a fixed amount of liquid/mixture to
flow from the knapsack through the lance and out of the nozzle (Figure 6.6).
There are various types of colour coded spray management valves of varying
sizes and shapes, as follows:
Red - used for herbicides;

Yellow - used specifically for herbicides (large droplets);
Green - used for insecticides, pesticides (very fine droplets);
Blue - can be used for herbicides, insecticides and fungicides.
Plate 6.6: Spray management valves

6.4.4.5 Types of nozzles
Nozzles and spraying pressure determine the rate and type of spray produced.
There are many different types of nozzles, designed for various purposes. They
come in different sizes, shapes and colours; the operator should check the
purpose of each nozzle as identified by colour.
17 Section 6
VLV nozzles : used for spraying herbicides:
Conical nozzles : used for spraying herbicides, insecticides and

fungicides.
Hollow Cone nozzles : used for spraying insecticides and fungicides
Full Cone nozzles : used for spot spraying of herbicides.
Plate 6.7 Polijet nozzles
6.4.4.6 Droplet size

Droplet size is determined by two factors:
x the sprayer operating pressure;
x the type of nozzle used.
For example, a low-pressure setting and a Polijet nozzle will give larger
droplets. A high-pressure setting and a Hollow Cone nozzle will give finer
droplets. Thus fungicides and insecticides are always applied with Hollow Cone
nozzles and a high pressure setting (3 bar).
18 Section 6
6.4.4.7 How to calculate Total Volume Application Rate
Often, chemicals are wasted when too much chemical is used in the mix and or
the volume of mix is too high or too low. It is, therefore, very important to
know:
x the volume of chemical needed to cover a particular area;
x the volume of water needed;
Therefore, the farmer should know how to calculate the Total Volume
Application Rate (TVAR) in litres/ha.
TVAR = Flow rate (litres) per minute (FR) x 10,000 m2
Swath width (m) of nozzle (SW) x walking speed (WS)
Example 1. A Green Polijet nozzle has a flow rate of 1.2 litres/minute and a
swath width of 1.2 metres. Thus, with the operator walking at 40 metres per
minute the TVAR is calculated as follows:
TVAR = FR x 10,000 = 1.2 x 10,000 = 250 litres/ha
SW x WS 1.2 x 40
The volume of chemical needed can be calculated from the volume to be

mixed in each litre of water.
6.4.4.8 Care and Handling of Agro-chemicals
Agro-chemicals refer to chemicals that are mainly used in agricultural
operations such as herbicides, pesticides, animal drugs (veterinary chemicals),
fungicides, insecticides, molluscicides, rodenticides etc.
Chemicals can be dangerous when they enter the blood stream and they can
be absorbed through the skin (dermal), nose (inhalation), mouth (oral) and
eyes. Therefore all chemicals have a warning or ‘signal header’ at the top of
their labels.
The Signal Header is a warning on how to use the chemical:

S4: Limited to animal health products.
S5: Caution: Keep out of reach of children – Read Instructions carefully
S6: POISON
S7: DANGEROUS POISON
The Lethal Dose (LD50) and Lethal Concentration (LC50) is the dose or
concentration at which 50% of the test population, for example rats or mice,
which were subjected to the test, were killed in a laboratory environment. The
lower the LD50 or LC50, the more dangerous it is.
19 Section 6
Table 6.4: Chemicals and their toxicity
Signal Header Chemical LD50 (mg/kg) Toxic Level
Glyphosate 5,000 (Less Toxic)
S5 Pyrethrum 1,500 Lower the
Copper Fungicides 1,131 concentration, the
2-4-D 699 greater the toxicity.
S6
Chlorpyriphos 200 (More Toxic)
A Soluble Concentrate (SC) is a liquid homogeneous pesticide formulation to be

applied as a true solution of the active ingredient after dilution in water. An
Emulsifiable Concentrate (EC) is a concentrated solution of the pesticide and
an emulsifying agent in an organic solvent which will form an emulsion when
added to water.
Steps in mixing agro-chemicals:
1. Always read the label before mixing or spraying chemicals.
2. Use an appropriate measuring jug or cylinder.
3. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment such as face
mask/respirator, goggles, overalls, gumboots and rubber gloves, before
handling chemicals.
4. Read the signal header and LD50 or LC50 to understand the toxicity level
before measuring the chemicals.
5. Measure chemicals strictly according to the instructions on the label.
6.5 COVER CROPS/INTERCROPPING
6.5.1 Cover crops
During the first 2-3 years after field planting, coffee at normal spacing covers
only a small proportion of the soil surface. Cover crops can be inter-planted in
young coffee, particularly with wide-spaced arrangements, to smother weeds
and protect the soil from erosion. They can also add nitrogen to the soil if a
leguminous crop is used and the seed is inoculated with a culture of the
appropriate nitrifying bacteria.
Cover crops may compete with the coffee for mineral nutrients, but these are
eventually returned to the soil with the leaf litter. They can have an adverse
effect on coffee through competition for moisture, especially in dry areas.
However, this can be minimised by cutting back the cover crop at the end of
the rains and leaving the foliage on the soil surface as mulch. If the cover crop
20 Section 6
is a climbing vine, a circle should be kept clean-weeded around young coffee
trees and the cover crop should be kept cut back around mature trees.
Cover crops used in coffee include, Flemingia congesta, Pueraria javanica,

Calapogonium sp., Desmodium and Stylosanthes gracilis. Other crops such as
Crotaloria sp., Tephrosia sp. and Cajanus cajan (Pigeon Pea), normally
interplanted to provide shelter to young coffee, also help in smothering weeds.
6.5.2 Intercropping
Intercropping with annual food or cash crops during the first two years
following the planting of coffee seedlings in the field is possible without serious
detrimental effects on the young coffee. Smallholders can utilise the inter-row
spaces to plant food crops such as cabbage, broccoli, onion and banana, and
these also act as temporary shade for the young coffee seedlings. The most
suitable crops for intercropping are legumes such as peanuts and wing beans,
because they add nitrogen to the soil. Tall annual crops such as corn should
not be planted in young coffee, because they compete with the young
seedlings for light.
Advantages of intercropping include:

x Farmers are encouraged to maintain their coffee seedlings as they take
care of the annual food crops;
x Mulching materials are provided from the crop residues;
x Erosion and weeding requirements are reduced;
x The farmers make use of unproductive land to grow food crops;
x The farmers may generate income.
Some food crops that compete with the young coffee seedlings for moisture
and nutrients, or host pests and diseases (such as sweet potato, kaukau, which
hosts weevils), should be avoided. Some annual crops may impede the
development of the coffee’s ‘surface plate’ lateral roots, so the intercropped
plants should not approach within 30 cm of the coffee trees.
6.6 SHADE AND SHELTER BELTS
6.6.1 Introduction
Shade can be either temporary or permanent. Temporary shade plants are

quick growing, often hedge-planted in lines and will be kept for only the first 2-
3 years of coffee establishment.
21 Section 6
Permanent shade trees are more widely spaced and should eventually grow
tall enough to provide an even shade over the coffee.
Shelter belts are usually planted at right angles to the prevailing wind and
where the wind is strong and persistent, they should be considered
permanent.
The provision of shade is up to the individual farmer, since it will depend on
the intended future management level; but in areas where shelter belts are
considered necessary, they must be provided.
6.6.2 Shade
Shade trees are strongly recommended for all smallholder coffee gardens,
because without regular applications of fertiliser unshaded coffee will die.
6.6.2.1 Advantages of shade trees
x Reduction of incoming light intensity and daytime temperature at coffee
level in hot areas: this helps to control the cropping level and reduce
overbearing die-back in areas where rapid growth might otherwise lead
to these problems;
x Reduction of diurnal temperature variation in areas where there is a
marked difference between day and night temperatures: this reduces
the incidence of distorted leaf growth as found in the ‘hot and cold’ and
‘crinkle leaf’ syndromes;
x Protection from low night temperatures and from frost incidence;
x Protection from wind and hail;
x Protection of the soil from the impact of falling rain, thus reducing soil
erosion and nutrient loss;
x Reduction of soil temperature and evaporation;
x Reduction in growth of weeds, especially perennial grasses and sedges.
The weeds found in shaded coffee are less harmful and are easier to
control;
x Reduction of nutrient losses by leaching. Deep shade tree roots
intercept leached nutrients, which are recycled by leaf litter, and extract
nutrient reserves from the subsoils;
x Addition of nitrogen to the soil by the leaf litter and root nodules of
nitrogen fixing shade trees;
x Tree roots can assist in breaking up hard pans and improve drainage;
x Source of firewood and building material.
22 Section 6
6.6.2.2 Disadvantages of shade trees
x Under dry conditions, the shade trees compete with the coffee for soil
moisture and nutrients;
x Shade trees require regular pruning and thinning to prevent the shade
becoming excessive. This can be difficult and dangerous to carry out,
and falling branches can cause considerable damage to the coffee trees;
x If the shade is dense, the coffee stems become etiolated and weak, and
are liable to breakages. Production cycles may be shortened;
x The cropping potential of coffee under shade is limited due to reduced
flowering resulting in reduced fruit set;
x The yield response to nitrogen fertilisers is limited. For this reason,
intensively managed coffee is grown without shade, whereas coffee
grown on a low input/low output system, as is the case of smallholders,
is usually shaded and unfertilised;
x At higher altitudes and cooler areas, shade may alter night-time
temperatures and maintain leaf wetness, thus producing more
favourable conditions for germination of and infection by coffee leaf rust
spores and other fungal diseases.
6.6.2.3 Management of shade trees
The ideal shade tree should provide high, light and even shade that reduces
the light intensity by about 25%. The trees should be deep rooted so that they
do not compete with the coffee for surface moisture and nutrients and so that
they bring up nutrients from the subsoil and recycle it in the form of leaf fall.
Many of the best shade trees add nitrogen to the soil through the action of
nitrogen fixing bacteria in root nodules.
When shade trees are planted, it is usual to plant permanent shade trees at
fairly wide spacing, inter-planted with quick-growing temporary shade trees at
closer spacing. The temporary shade trees are gradually thinned out and
eventually removed completely once the permanent shade trees are effective.
The most widely used permanent shade trees in Papua New Guinea are
Albizzia stipulata, Leucaena leucocephala, and Casuarina oligodon (‘yar’).
Temporary shade trees include species of Leucaena, Tephrosia and Crotalaria.
Most of the Leucaena varieties are seriously defoliated by psyllids (an insect
pest). However, three varies of Leucaena, resistant to psyllids, are available
from the Bulolo Forestry College. The varieties are Mexican Giant, Mexican
Hybrid and Leucaena diversiflora.
23 Section 6
While Leucaena is more adapted to the lower altitudes, it can grow well at high
altitudes. Albizzia grows well at all altitudes, whereas Casuarina is more
commonly grown in the highlands.
Leucaena and Casuarina (‘yar’) should be planted at a spacing of 10-12m, to be

thinned to 20-24m at maturity. Albizzia should be planted at 20-24m and
thinned to 40-48m. On poor soils shade trees may grow less well and so may
not require thinning. All the trees should be regularly pruned, removing all
branches to a height of 3-5m above the coffee bushes.
6.6.3 Shelter belts
In exposed situations, a shelter crop should be inter-planted between the rows

of coffee to give protection from the wind and sun for the first year or two
until the permanent shelter belts are effective. Crops for this purpose can
either be food crops such as pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan) or else erect cover
crops such as Crotalaria junces, Flemingia congesta, Tephrosia sp., Sesbania sp.
and banana.
Strong and persistent wind can do considerable damage to the coffee, causing
stunted growth and rapid drying out during the dry seasons. In areas where
this is likely to be a problem, lines of trees should be planted in the coffee at
right angles to the prevailing wind and along the borders. Shelter belts should
be thick and high, composed of stout trees which will stand up to winds.
Shorter interplants should be provided to protect the ground level. A suitable
tree for permanent windbreaks is Casuarina, which should be planted about
3m apart in the rows and later thinned to 6m. The distance between shelter
belts should be three times the eventual height of the mature shade tree.
6.7 PRUNING
During the first two years if the field, the early ‘training’ or ‘formative’ pruning
is directed towards prevention of heavy cropping. In tall varieties, no crop
should be allowed on one-year-old trees and only very little crop should be
allowed on two-year-old trees provided proper fertilising is carried out. This is
achieved by proper ‘skirt’ control (removal of the lower branches). Dwarf
varieties will begin cropping during their second year in the field.
Training of the young tree to achieve the required framework should be
carried out during the first two years in the field, the trees ending up with
single or multiple stems. Better results are achieved if the young trees are
capped during the first year.
24 Section 6
For the multiple stem system, usual for tall coffee, seedlings should be capped
at 30-45cm above ground level and 5cm above a pair of primary branches. It is
advisable to cap maturing wood which is normally indicated by brown bark.
Normally two uprights are required during the first cycle. Overgrown seedlings
can be bent over and pegged to produce two uprights. In subsequent cycles,
the plant densities determine the number of uprights.
Regular ‘handling’ and ‘desuckering’ should be carried out at this early stage to
achieve the required canopy structure.
25 Section 6
7.0 MANAGEMENT OF MATURE COFFEE
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Two management levels are referred to in this section, with very different
management requirements. The ‘high input system’ represents unshaded
coffee requiring high inputs and generating relatively high yields. It is found in
PNG in the few remaining coffee plantations and in a small proportion of
smallholder coffee, often former plantation or managed block coffee.
The ‘low input system’ represents shaded smallholder coffee gardens that are
actively managed albeit at a low level, and harvested regularly. This coffee is
found in ‘rehabilitated’ or ‘rejuvenated’ or ‘improved’ smallholder coffee
gardens. It does not include unmanaged or abandoned smallholder coffee.
This section focusses on nutrition and pruning of mature coffee, since weed
management is described in Section 6 (Management of Young Coffee) and
Disease and Pest Management are considered in detail in Sections 8 and 9
respectively.
7.2 DEFINITION
For the purpose of this Handbook, mature coffee bushes are tall varieties after
year two, and compact varieties after year one. Mature coffee could also be
defined as bearing coffee.
7.3 POTENTIAL YIELDS
During the first year of coffee establishment, no yield is normally expected,

therefore production starts in the second year, but for tall varieties very little
crop is achieved. Compact varieties can however produce a significant crop in
the second year. The maximum production is realised during the fourth or fifth
year. On attaining the maximum production levels, the yields start declining
until the situation is arrested by a change of cycle whereby the old bearing
heads are replaced by new ones. The yield decline is mainly caused by the fact
that the stems grow too tall for effective management, and if pruning has been
carried out correctly, the bearing wood is too far up the tree. It may therefore
be possible to maintain yields in compact varieties for a longer period, enabling
longer production cycles.
In tall varieties the production cycles are normally five years i.e. two years of
establishment or raising suckers and three years of cropping (see Table 7.1);
1 Section 7
while production cycles in compact varieties may be extended to 6 or 7 years
(in this exercise a production cycle of 6 years is used) (see Table 7.2). During
the change of cycle, the yields produced on the remaining bearing heads are
between 50-65% of the maximum.
The figures presented here are purely hypothetical and do not represent any
specific plantation or garden. However, they are based on realistic experiences
and yield measurements in plantations, smallholder coffee and research
situations. They represent potential yields; that is, yields that can be achieved
if the coffee is correctly managed and the ripe berries are harvested regularly.
It is assumed that production levels in the low input, rehabilitated smallholder
sector are approximately 60% of those realised in the high input plantation
sector. This is purely because the management levels are different,
particularly in relation to the amount of fertiliser applied, the degree of
pruning exercised and especially the shade density. Unfortunately, most
smallholders are far from achieving these potential yields.
Table 7.1: Potential yields in tall Arabica coffee (kg green beans per hectare
per year)
*YEAR IN THE FIELD HIGH INPUT LOW INPUT
(PLANTATION) (REHABILITATED
SECTOR SMALLHOLDER) SECTOR
1 0 0
2 250 150
3 1000 600
4 2250 1350
5 3000 a 1800 a
6 1300 b 780 b
7 1800 c 1080 c
8 2500 1500
9 3000 a 1800 a
10 3000 a 1800 a
11 1200 b 720 b
12 1800 c 1080 c
13 2500 1500
14 3000 a 1800 a
15 3000 a 1800 a
* Refers to coffee year October – September
a Maximum yields after planting and change of cycle
b Yields solely from old bearing uprights during change of cycle.
c Yields mostly from old bearing uprights during change of cycle.
2 Section 7
It is also assumed that all ripe cherries are harvested. In practice, a
considerable amount of ripe cherries are either stolen or not harvested, being
left on the trees to eventually fall to the ground.
These figures are based on healthy seedlings planted in the field early in year
one and assuming 2 bearing heads in the first cycle and 3 bearing heads in
subsequent cycles.
Table 7.2: Potential yields in compact Arabica coffee (kg green beans per
hectare per year)
*YEAR IN THE FIELD HIGH INPUT LOW INPUT (REHABILITATED
(PLANTATION) SECTOR SMALLHOLDER) SECTOR
1 0 0
2 1300 780
3 2500 1500
4 3500 a 2100 a
5 3500 a 2100 a
6 3000 1800
7 1300 b 780 b
8 2500 1500
9 3500 a 2100 a
10 3500 a 2100 a
11 3000 1800
12 1300 b 780 b
* Refers to coffee year October – September.

a Maximum yields after planting and change of cycle.
b Yields from old bearing head during change of cycle.
These figures are based on healthy seedlings planted in the field early in year
one, one free growth bearing head in all cycles and slab pruning at the end of
year 6.
7.4 NUTRITION
7.4.1 Introduction
Fertiliser applications are the biggest difference between the low input and
high input systems. Shaded coffee can survive with little or no fertiliser
application, but unshaded coffee will die without sufficient fertiliser. This
section is therefore most relevant to the high input system, and the focus is
very much on unshaded coffee. However, improved smallholder gardens are
3 Section 7
likely to benefit from small amounts of fertiliser, and so this need is also
addressed.
Fertiliser recommendations for a particular coffee garden or plantation block
depend on many factors, including natural soil fertility, drainage, shade
density, standard of husbandry, age of the coffee and anticipated yield.
Recommendations for the industry as a whole must, therefore, be very
general. They are intended to provide guidelines for the majority of growers
who receive no other advice on fertiliser programmes, and as a yardstick
against which growers may compare fertiliser advice from elsewhere. They are
not intended to replace advice based on site specific soil and leaf analyses,
yield data, and field observations. Indeed, the general recommendations
should be modified where appropriate if site specific information suggests any
abnormalities.
Although coffee yields may respond to fertiliser applications, for any particular
location the response will level-off beyond a particular level of application, and
further fertiliser will result in little or no additional yield. Furthermore, the
response will be limited by other considerations such as climatic conditions,
shade density, pruning policy and the degree of weed, pest and disease control
achieved. It is not possible therefore to simply apply fertiliser to achieve
desired yields. Rather the reverse is true. Yields are largely determined by
other climatic and husbandry factors and the aim is to provide sufficient
fertiliser to achieve the economically optimum yield attainable under those
climatic and husbandry constraints.
To apply too little fertiliser would result in inadequate nutrition to support the
developing crop and the coffee will be under stress. Partial dieback may occur
and the following year’s crop will be affected. To apply too much fertiliser
would not make economic sense, since yields cannot be significantly further
increased because of the over-riding climatic and husbandry constraints. It is
also likely to generate excessive foliage.
The recommended approach to the nutrition of mature coffee is therefore to
estimate the following season’s yields (October–September), and then to
provide sufficient fertiliser to adequately support this crop, and to meet the
requirements of the trees. Yields can be increased by improved husbandry
techniques, but always within the limits imposed by climatic factors and their
effect on flowering. Yield estimates are based on the general condition of the
coffee, the stage reached in the current production cycle, previous yield
records and the amount of unripe cherries, pinheads and flowers. An initial
estimate of yields can be made in September or October and a rather better
4 Section 7
estimate, based on actual unripe cherries, in December or January. It is
recommended therefore, that fertiliser programmes be provisionally derived in
September and modified where necessary in January.
7.4.2 Nutrients and nutrient ratio
Many nutrients (see Table 7.3) are required for the healthy growth of Arabica
coffee, and in the appropriate proportions. However, nitrogen is the nutrient
with the most marked effect on the growth of Arabica coffee, since it is
required for both vegetative growth and crop production. A simple approach
to deriving fertiliser programmes is therefore to determine the level of
nitrogen required, and then to calculate the quantities of the other nutrients
using appropriate ratios. The quantities of each nutrient thus derived are then
modified where necessary as suggested by any evidence of specific deficiencies
or toxicities.
Table 7.3 Nutrients and their main functions in the coffee plant
Nutrient Main uptake Main requirement and use
as
Nitrogen (N) NO3-, NH4+ Plant growth, protein, enzymes, hormones,
photosynthesis
Phosphorous HPO42-, Energy compounds, root development, ripening,
(P) H2PO4- flowering
Potassium (K) K+ Fruit quality, water balance, disease resistance
Calcium (Ca) Ca2+ Cell walls, root and leaf development, fruit ripening and
quality
Magnesium Mg2+ Chlorophyll, seed germination
(Mg)
Sulphur (S) SO42- Amino acids and proteins, chlorophyll, disease resistance,
seed production
Chlorine (Cl) Cl Photosynthesis, gas exchange, water balance
Iron (Fe) Fe2+ Photosynthesis
Boron (B) H3BO3 Development and growth of new shoots and roots,
flowering, fruit set and development
Manganese Mn2+ Photosynthesis, enzymes
(Mn)
Zinc (Zn) Zn2+ Hormones, enzymes, plant height
Copper (CU) Cu2+ Chlorophyll, protein formation
Molybdenum MoO2- Nitrogen metabolism
(Mo)
Source: IPNI, 2012; Winston et al., 2005.
In deriving fertiliser programmes for Arabica coffee, it is important to know the

ideal ratios of the nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium required by
the coffee as stated above, since the nutrient balance is as important as the
5 Section 7
total amount of each nutrient available to the tree. It is usual to express the
ratios of the nutrients N:P2O5:K2O, and for this 8.5:1:8.5 is currently suggested
as the general recommendation for coffee in PNG. The closest compound
fertiliser for coffee which is available on the market is 13:3:20 + MgO (Section
7.4.4.1), the difference being made up with application of straight fertilisers.
Should other appropriate compound fertilisers such as 10:5:20 become
available on the PNG market, as stated again in Section 7.4.4.1, then according
to Section 7.4.5, the ratios of the nutrients N:P2O5:K2O provided by the
compound are 2:1:4. Thus ammonium sulphate only will be applied in October
and April, whilst compound 10:5:20 will be applied in December and February.
7.4.3 Rates of application
Table 7.4 shows general recommended rates of application of N for

anticipated yields ranging from less than 500kg green bean/ha to over 3,000 kg
green bean/ha, for Arabica coffee in PNG. Rates of N, P2O5 and K2O, based on
ratios of 8.5:1:8.5, are also shown. Note that Table 7.4 shows rates of
nutrients and not rates of fertilisers.
Table 7.4: Recommended rates of nutrients for Arabica coffee in PNG.
ANTICIPATED YIELD RATES OF APPLICATION (kg/ha/year)

(kg GB/ha) N P2O5 K 2O
500 60 7 60
500-1000 60-100 7-12 60-100
1000-1500 100-140 12-16 100-140
1500-2000 140-200 16-23 140-200
2000-2500 200-300 23-35 200-300
2500-3000 + 300-400 35-46 300-400
Many growers will find it difficult enough to estimate their yields to within
500kg green bean/ha, however, those growers who are confident that they can
estimate yields more accurately than this may calculate fertiliser rates on a
pro-rata basis. Thus, for example, if a yield is estimated at 1750kg green
bean/ha, the recommended rate of N application is 170kg N/ha/year.
7.4.4 Types of fertilisers
The nutrient requirements of coffee, discussed in the previous sections, can be

provided by a wide variety of combinations of fertilisers. This section identifies
the most appropriate for coffee nutrition in PNG.
6 Section 7
7.4.4.1 Compound fertilisers
It should be noted that bulk (or dry) blends, whereby straight fertilisers are
mixed together, are not the same as granulated complete fertilisers, where
each granule contains a relatively uniform mixture of nutrients. Cheaper, bulk
bends should be used with care since uniform application of individual
nutrients cannot be guaranteed, and they often degrade when not used
quickly. Furthermore, there is no control over the quality of the individual
constituents used in the blend. Nevertheless, good quality, granulated bulk
blends are available in PNG, and these have a useful contribution to make to
coffee nutrition. Such granulated bulk blends consist of a mixture of several,
usually different coloured, granules of approximately the same size. Unlike
granulated complete fertilisers, each granule is derived from only one straight
fertiliser. However, provided the granules are well mixed, applications will
contain the appropriate proportions of N, P2O5 and K2O.
The simplest and most convenient way to ensure that coffee receives a
balanced supply of nutrients is to use an appropriate compound (or complete)
fertiliser, containing N, P, K, Mg and other elements. Of the formulations
currently available in PNG, 13:3:20 + 2.5 (MgO) is the most suitable, bearing in
mind that in mature Arabica coffee the requirement for phosphorus is
relatively low and it could extract most of its requirements from the soil.
Generally, the P2O5 can be supplied solely by the compound fertiliser, and the
appropriate levels of N and K2O are provided by additional applications of
straight N and K fertilisers.
However, should a compound such as 10:5:20 become available in Papua New
Guinea, there would be no need for additional K2O to be provided by straight
fertilisers, as the total requirement will be provided by the compound (see
Section 7.4.2).
Compound fertilisers are more expensive than the equivalent straight
fertilisers, but require less fertilising rounds and therefore labour costs are
reduced. Compound fertilisers also reduce to a minimum the possibilities of
errors in calculating balanced rates of application.
The formulations express the percentage by weight of N, P2O5, K2O and MgO
respectively. Thus 13:3:20 + 2.5(MgO) contains 13% N, 3% P2O5, 20% K2O and
2.5% MgO. The proportion by weight of the other nutrients may also be
included on the label, particularly sulphur (S) and boron (B). A very small
supply of trace elements is also often included, and the balance of the fertiliser
consists of filler. Thus, for example, an application of 250 kg of 13:3:20 +
7 Section 7
2.5(MgO) would add 250 x 13% = 32.5 kg N, 250 x 3% = 7.5 kg P2O5, 250 x 20%
= 50 kg K2O and 250 x 2.5% = 6.25 kg MgO.
7.4.4.2 Nitrogen
For annual application in excess of 140kg N/ha, it is recommended for
economic reasons that some of the nitrogen be applied as straight N fertiliser,
such as urea, ammonium sulphate, or calcium ammonium nitrate. Since this
corresponds to a yield of 1500 kg gb/ha, improved smallholders with low/light
shade are recommended to apply compound fertilisers (smallholders with
medium or heavy shade are not likely to achieve this yield level), and most
plantations are recommended to apply a mixture of compound and straight
fertilisers.
Urea contains 46% N, and is cheapest per unit of N. However, it must be
applied to moist soil in order that it may be hydrolysed. Before hydrolysis,
which takes 1-4 days, urea is very mobile, and leaching losses can be high. At
soil pH values higher than 7, NH4+ ions can be converted to NH3 (ammonia gas)
and lost to the atmosphere by volatilisation if the soil is dry. Such losses can
be considerably reduced if the urea is placed below the soil surface, by
incorporation, deep placement or simply by downward movement due to
rainfall.
Ammonium sulphate (21% N) has been shown to be as effective as urea in the
tropics, and although slightly more expensive than urea per unit of N, it also
contains 24% sulphur. Furthermore, ammonium sulphate when broadcast on
the soil surface does not suffer substantial volatilisation losses. Leaching losses
are also generally lower than with urea.
Thus, generally ammonium sulphate is recommended. However, long term
use of ammonium sulphate can lead to increased soil acidity, and consequent
reduction in availability of bases. If soil analysis indicates that this may be a
problem, and soil pH (soil:water, 1:5) is below 5.0, then a less acidifying
material such as calcium ammonium nitrate (26% N and 11% CaO) should be
used, alternating with, or in place of, ammonium sulphate.
Another possible source of N, particularly if Mg is also a problem, is
Nitromagnesia. In addition to 22% N, Nitromagnesia also contains 7% MgO
and 11% CaO.
7.4.4.3 Phosphorus
Since mature Arabica coffee has a relatively low requirement for phosphorus,
the P2O5 contained in compound fertilisers should be more than adequate.
8 Section 7
If straight P fertiliser is required, then triple superphosphate or diammonium
phosphate, which contain 44% and 46% citric-soluble P2O5 respectively, are
recommended. The slightly more expensive diammonium phosphate also
contains 18% N; whilst triple superphosphate also contains 19% CaO and 1% S.
Rock phosphate, which contains about 10% citric-soluble P2O5 and 41% CaO
has yet to be demonstrated in any way superior when applied to Arabica
coffee and in PNG is considerably more expensive per unit of available P. It
does however release non-citric-soluble P2O5 (34%) into the soil over a longer
period of time.
7.4.4.4 Potassium
Muriate of potash is the only straight potassium fertiliser currently available on
the market. It contains about 60% K2O.
7.4.4.5 Magnesium
If, despite the magnesium contained in the compound fertilisers, a problem

with magnesium is still suspected, kieserite (magnesium sulphate, containing
27% MgO) should be applied at a rate of 50kg MgO/ha/year. Another source
of MgO is Nitromagnesia, containing 7% MgO and 22% N.
7.4.4.6 Foliar sprays
Foliar Nitrophoska (10:4:7 + 0.2 + TE) or Folifert (26:4:17 + 0.07 + TE) both
provide a balanced range of all macronutrients, plus some micronutrients at
rates of 6-8 litres/ha/application and 1.5 kg/ha/application respectively. Other
suitable products are Bayfolan (11:8:6 + TE) which should be applied at a rate
of 4 litres/ha/application, Spreigro (12:5:8 + 6.5 + TE) at 1.5 kg/ha/application,
and Liquifert “Supergrow” (24:4:17 + TE) at 1.5 kg/ha/application.
It is not recommended to mix a general trace element foliar spray with the
standard foliar applications, or to mix two trace element sprays together e.g.
Zinc sulphate monohydrate mixed with Solubor. They are best applied
separately. Fetrilon Combi 1 (higher in magnesium) or Fetrilon Combi 2 (higher
in zinc and boron) are recommended products at rates of 0.6
kg/ha/application. The boron sources and recommended rates of application
are Solubor at 90 g/ha/application or Borax at 180 g/ha/application; whilst for
zinc they are zinc sulphate monohydrate at 60 g/ha/application, or zinc
sulphate heptahydrate at 96 g/ha/application, or Zincsol at 120
ml/ha/application.
9 Section 7
All the above foliar rates assume that 300 litres of solution are applied per
hectare to mature Arabica coffee. The recommended foliar feeds are
summarised in Table 7.5
Table 7.5: Recommended foliar feeds
PRODUCT QUANTITY PER 200 LITRES WATER
STANDARD (MACRO AND MICRONUTRIENTS
FOLIFERT 1000 g
or LIQUIFERT (“SUPERGROW”) 1000 g
or SPREIGRO 1000 g
or BAYFOLAN 4 litres
or FOLIAR NITROPHOSKA 4 litres
MICRONUTRIENTS
MIXTURES
FETRILON COMB 1 400 g
or FETRILON COMB 2 400 g
BORON SOURCES
SOLUBOR 60 g
or BORAX 120 g
ZINC SOURCES
ZINC SULPHATE MONOHYDRATE 40 g
or LIBREL ZINC 20 g
or ZITRILON 60 g
or ZINC SULPHATE HEPTAHYDRATE 64 g
or ZINCSOL 80 ml
7.4.4.7 Corrective fertiliser applications

Despite careful adherence to a balanced fertiliser schedule, it is still possible
that some coffee will require additional applications of fertiliser in order to
correct one or several nutrient deficiencies. Such deficiencies can be
recognised either from soil or leaf analytical data (bearing in mind when the
leaves were sampled), or by the occurrence of visual deficiency symptoms.
Nutrient deficiencies usually occur as a result of a heavier than expected crop,
or soil-related factors.
If sub-optimal levels of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus or magnesium are
suspected, an immediate application of the standard foliar feed (see Table 7.5),
followed by another four weeks later, will provide a more rapid response. Two
applications for Foliar Nitrophoska 15:30:15 Solub at 6 litres/ha is particularly
appropriate for a rapid response to phosphorus deficiencies.
Sub-optimal levels of sulphur are best corrected by applying nitrogen as
ammonium sulphate.
10 Section 7
Zinc deficiencies can be corrected by foliar applications. Three foliar
applications, at monthly intervals of 600 g zinc sulphate monohydrate/ha, or
960 g of zinc sulphate heptahydrate/ha, or 300 g Librel zinc (zinc chelate)/ha,
or 900 g Zitrilon (zinc chelate)/ha, or 1.2 litres Zincsol/ha are recommended.
Boron deficiencies can be corrected by either foliar or ground applied
fertilisers. Three foliar applications, at monthly intervals, of 900 g Solubor/ha,
or 1.8 kg Borax/ha, are recommended. Alternatively, 50 kg Solubor/ha, or 75
kg FB48/ha, or 100 kg Borax/ha, may be applied once to the soil.
Molybdenum deficiencies can be corrected by three foliar applications of 150
g ammonium molybdate/ha.
Where foliar application is recommended, the rates are given assuming that
1ha of mature coffee receives 300 litres of solution.
It should be noted that many factors other than simply inadequate supply can
affect nutrient uptake. For example fixation of phosphorus or potassium by
some soils, volatilisation of nitrogen, leaching of nitrogen or magnesium,
inadequate drainage, inadequate soil moisture, nutrient imbalances and soil
pH, can all have over-riding effects on nutrient uptake, which are not
necessarily mitigated by applying more fertiliser.
For ease of reference, all fertilisers discussed in the preceding sections are
summarised in Tables 7.6 and 7.7.
7.4.4.8 Organic fertiliser - recycling coffee skins

Coffee skins, the ‘waste product’ resulting from pulping ripe coffee cherries,
contain significant amounts of potassium and nitrogen – typically 1.5-2.5%
nitrogen and 2.5-4.0% potassium (dry weight basis), depending on the amount
of fertiliser previously applied to the coffee, plus smaller amounts of other
nutrients. When applied to coffee in the field, coffee skins therefore make a
very useful organic fertiliser for the coffee, and the high amounts of organic
matter are also beneficial to the health and structure of the soil.
11 Section 7
Table 7.6: Ground applied fertilisers
NAME OF PRODUCT ABBREVIATION TYPICAL ANALYSIS
Compound fertilisers
13:3:20 + 2.5 - 13% N, 3% P2O5, 20% K2O, 2.5% MgO
Nitrogen fertilisers
Urea - 46% N
Ammonium sulphate AS or SOA 21% N, 24% S
Calcium ammonium CAN 26% N, 11% CaO
nitrate
Nitromagnesia Nitromag 22% N, 7% MgO, 11% CaO
Phosphatic fertilisers
Triple superphosphate TSP 44% P2O5, 19% CaO, 1% S
Diammonium DAP 46% P2O5, 18% N
phosphate CIRP (Grade C 10% P2O5, (soluble), 41% CaO
Rock phosphate Dust 34% P2O5, (slow release)
(Christmas Island)
Potash fertilisers
Muriate of potash MOP 60% K2O
Magnesium fertilisers
Kieserite - 27% MgO, 22% S
Dolomite - 17% MgO
Nitromagnesia Nitromag 7% MgO, 22% N, 11% CaO
Boron fertilisers
Solubor - 20.5% B
FB48 - 15.1% B
Borax - 11.3% B
Every tonne of ripe cherries contains about 200 kg of dry matter, of which the
coffee skins account for 50 kg. Therefore, the coffee skins from every tonne of
ripe cherries contain about 1 kg of N and 1.6 kg K (or about 2 kg K2O).
Although many coffee farmers are aware of the potential benefits of returning
coffee skins to their coffee gardens, most are discouraged by the high costs of
handling, transporting and applying the product. Properly composted skins
however is a far more attractive product to handle and transport since it is
relatively light, friable and dry. Composted coffee skins are about one fifth of
the weight of fresh skins, so every 50 kg of composted coffee skins contain
12 Section 7
about 1 kg N and 1.6 kg K (or 2 kg K2O), small amounts of other nutrients, and
lots of beneficial organic matter.
Table 7.7: Foliar applied fertilisers
NAME OF PRODUCT TYPICAL ANALYSIS
Complete foliar feeds

Folifert 26:4:17 + 0.07 + TE
Foliar Nitrophoska 10:4:7 + 0.2 + TE
Bayfolan 11:8:6 + TE
Spreigro 12:5:8 + 6.5 + TE
Liquifert (“Supergrow”) 24:4:17 + TE
Nitrophoska Foliar Solub 15:30:15
General micronutrients feeds

Fetrilon Combi 1 9% MgO, 3% S, 1.5% Zn, 0.5% B
Fetrilon Combi 2 2% MgO, 2.8% S, 4% Zn, 1.5% B
Zinc fertilisers
Zinc sulphate heptahydrate 22% Zn, 11% S
Zinc sulphate monohydrate 36% Zn, 18% S
Librel zinc 15% Zn (Chelate)
Zitrilon 10% Zn (Chelate
Zincsol 16.7% Zn
Boron fertilisers
Solubor 20.5% B
Borax 11.3% B
Molybdenum fertilisers
Ammonium molybdate 56.3% Mo
To compost fresh coffee skins, they should be heaped and then turned and
mixed every three or four days. Mixing in small amounts of urea will further
facilitate the composting process. Covering the heap will help to retain the
heat, but some air must also be able to escape. Suitable materials for covering
the heap are banana leaves, hessian sacks or plastic sheets with a few 2cm
wide holes pierced through them. Protecting the pulp from direct rainfall by
constructing a simple, low roof, will keep the pulp dry and reduce leaching
losses. Under these circumstances, the composting process should be
completed in about three weeks. The compost can then be used as part of the
13 Section 7
fertiliser programme, every 50 kg of compost replacing 1 kg N and 2 kg K2O of
inorganic fertiliser.
7.4.5 Timing of application

It is recommended that the total annual dose of nitrogen is best applied in four
equal applications in September/October, November/December, January/
February and March/April, whereas potassium should be applied in two equal
applications in November/December and January/February. However, due to
differences in the rainfall distribution pattern which determines the main
flowering, application schedules should be adjusted to meet the nutritional
requirement of the growing coffee.
A straight nitrogen fertiliser therefore is recommended in September/October
to assist with recovery from harvesting, and the growth of new stems, roots
and flowers. Applications of compound fertilisers are required during the wet
season when fruit set and major fruit growth are taking place
(November/December and January/February), and straight fertiliser nitrogen is
again recommended in March/April to prepare the coffee for the ripening
phase.
The application of foliar sprays is particularly recommended for high yielding
coffee in years of heavy crop or coffee showing stress signs, in January and
March and during the drier period each year (July-September) particularly if
the coffee is showing signs of die-back.
Foliar applied zinc fertiliser is recommended when new suckers are developing
after a new production cycle is initiated. It is recommended that foliar zinc is
applied soon after the first sucker selection; that would be four to six months
after change of cycle was initiated, followed by monthly application for the
next two months. Should the deficiency symptoms appear during the suckers’
two years of establishment, foliar zinc must be applied at monthly intervals for
at least three months.
7.4.6 How to apply fertilisers
Ground applied fertilisers should be applied in a circle around individual trees,
not closer than 7cm to the stem in newly planted coffee, or 20cm in mature
coffee, and extending to the edge of the drip circle. Ideally, it should be lightly
mixed into the topsoil (particularly urea, compound fertilisers and
superphosphates).
In practice, all too often fertiliser is merely thrown at the base of the tree,
where it is unavailable for uptake by the majority of the roots. A practical
14 Section 7
compromise is to broadcast the fertiliser under the canopy in a uniform layer,
as thinly as possible.
Measuring the appropriate quantity of fertiliser to be applied to each tree is, in
practice, very difficult. Precise applications, to the nearest gram, are not
possible. A common practice is to calculate the number of bags of fertiliser
required for a particular block, and then to distribute them as evenly as
possible over the block. This relies on the good judgement of the workers
applying the fertiliser and therefore often results in a very uneven application
of fertiliser. In this situation, it is advisable to begin each alternate application
at opposite ends of the block in order to avoid one end always being under
fertilised.
If possible, containers such as fish tins cut to the appropriate size, should be
used to apply the desired quantity of fertiliser to each tree. Nevertheless, even
this can lead to considerable rounding errors.
Ground applied fertilisers should not be applied during the drier season since
there is often insufficient moisture available near the surface to enable the
nutrients to go into solution and thereby be taken up by the trees. There is
also little point in applying fertilisers to inadequately drained land, or to land
containing grasses or weeds.
Foliar applied fertilisers are most beneficial during the drier season. However,
they may also be applied during the wet season, although the risk of being
washed from the leaves by heavy rain is obviously greatly increased. Foliar
fertiliser should be applied evenly to the entire tree, to the point of runoff.
Typically, one hectare of mature coffee will require about 300 litres of solution.
7.4.7 Fertiliser programmes
By considering the nutrient requirements of coffee, the recommended
fertilisers and the ideal time of application, it is possible to derive fertiliser
programmes for Arabica coffee in PNG. Table 7.8 contains summaries of
fertiliser programmes for two different levels of management, namely
improved (or rehabilitated) smallholder with low/light shade and unshaded
commercial (plantation) coffee.
Two examples – an improved smallholder and a commercial coffee estate are
presented below in order to illustrate how Table 7.8 used in conjunction
with Table 7.4 and the recommendations relating to fertilisers, can be used to
prepare a generalised fertiliser programme for Arabica coffee at any level of
15 Section 7
production in PNG. Section 7.4.7.3 considers the needs of more typical
smallholders.
7.4.7.1 A commercial plantation
It is assumed that commercial coffee managers are able to estimate yields with
a reasonable degree of reliability, and will know the number of trees per ha for
each of their blocks of coffee. The following example is for a block with coffee
at a density of 2,667 trees/ha and with an anticipated yield of 2,000 kg green
bean/ha.
From Table 7.4 it can be seen that the recommended rates of application of
nutrients for an anticipated yield of 2,000 kg green bean/ha are 200 kg N/ha,
23 kg P2O5/ha and 200 kg K2O/ha. Table 7.8 suggests a fertiliser programme of
applications of straight N and straight K in September/October, compound
fertiliser in November/December and January/February and straight N in
March/April, and foliar fertiliser in December/January and February/March
only for heavily bearing coffee, or coffee showing signs of stress and foliar
fertiliser in June/July, July/August and August/September only for coffee
showing signs of die-back. From section 7.3.4, recommended fertilisers are,
for example, 13:3:20 + 2.5(MgO), ammonium sulphate, muriate of potash and
Folifert.
From section 7.3.5 it is recommended that potassium is applied in two equal

applications. This would be ideal if a compound on the market contains two
times as much K2O as N, and a lesser amount of P2O5, e.g. a compound of
10:5:20. However, as one is restricted by the ideal compound available on the
market, the closest being 13:3:20 + 2.5(MgO), it is recommended that 77% of
the total potassium requirement is applied as compound in equal applications
in November/December and January/February, whilst, the remaining 23% is
applied as straight K in the form of muriate of potash in September/October,
along with ammonium sulphate.
One quarter of the recommended annual application of N is 50 kg/ha, which is
equivalent to 385 kg 13:3:20 + 2.5(MgO)/ha or 238 kg ammonium sulphate/ha.
The two applications of compound fertiliser also supply 385 x 20% = 77 kg
K2O/ha/application (total 154 kg K2O/ha), which leaves 46 kg K2O/ha to be
supplied by straight K fertiliser. This is equivalent to one application of 77kg
muriate of potash/ha. Phosphorus (23 kg/ha) and magnesium (31 kg/ha) are
also supplied by the compound fertiliser and sulphur (114 kg/ha) by the
ammonium sulphate. The foliar fertiliser application(s) of, for example Folifert,
16 Section 7
Table 7.8: Generalised fertiliser programmes for Arabica coffee in Papua
New Guinea
COFFEE GROWER TYPE Improved Commercial
Smallholder Plantation
TYPICAL YIELD (kg green bean/ha) 1000-1500 ! 1500
MONTH ACTIVITY FERTILISER PROGRAMME(3)
SEP/OCT Onset of rains Straight N

Main flowering Straight K
OCT/NOV H Growth of new stems Compound
e fertiliser
NOV/DEC a Fruit set Compound
v fertiliser
DEC/JAN y Folifert(1)
Fruit
JAN/FEB r Compound Compound
a growth fertiliser fertiliser
FEB/MAR i Folifert(1)
n
MAR/APR s Maintenance Straight N
pruning
APR/MAY
MAY/JUNE Main
harvest
JUNE/JULY Drier Folifert(2)
JUL/AUG period Main pruning Folifert(2)
AUG/SEP Folifert(2)
Notes: 1. Foliar applied where the coffee is bearing a heavy crop or showing stress signs.
2. Foliar applied where the coffee is showing signs of die-back.
3. The fertiliser programme can be brought forward or back, depending on the climatic
conditions, which stimulate the main flowering.
supply relatively small but timely, amounts of all macronutrients, as a

supplement to the main applications of ground fertiliser and necessary
micronutrients should their application be required. Such a balanced
programme of applications of nutrients should suffice under conditions typical
of the coffee growing areas of PNG, however, additional appropriate fertiliser
may be applied in response to evidence of any shortages of specific nutrients,
as explained in Section 7.4.4.7.
17 Section 7
Since there are 2,667 trees/ha, the fertiliser programme can be summarised as
in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9: Summary of general fertiliser programme for a commercial
plantation producing 2,000kg green bean per ha with a tree
density of 2,667 trees/ha.
MONTH FERTILISER APPLICATION/HA APPLICATION/TREE
(kg) (g)
SEP/OCT Ammonium sulphate 238 89

SEP/OCT Muriate of potash 77 29
NOV/DEC 13:3:20 + 2.5 385 144
DEC/JAN Folifert(1) 1.5 110 ml(3)
JAN/FEB 13:3:20 + 2.5 385 144
FEB/MAR Folifert(1) 1.5 110 ml
MAR/APR Ammonium sulphate 238 89
JUN/JUL Folifert(2) 1.5 110 ml
JUL/AUG Folifert(2) 1.5 110 ml
AUG/SEP Folifert(2) 1.5 110 ml
Notes: 1. Foliar applied where the coffee is bearing a heavy crop or showing signs of stress.
2. Foliar applied where the coffee is showing signs of die-back.
3. Assume for foliar applications, 300 litres of solution is applied per hectare to
mature coffee.
Application of coffee skins will slightly reduce the amounts of N and K

fertilisers applied, since every 50 kg of composted coffee skins applied will
reduce the inorganic fertiliser requirements by 1 kg N and 2 kg K2O. The
greatest benefit however will be to the health and structure of the soils.
7.4.7.2 An improved smallholder

Before it is possible to derive a fertiliser programme, it is necessary to know
the anticipated yield. For the sake of an example, it will be assumed that the
anticipated yield is 1,200kg green bean/ha (such a yield would be likely with
light shade only). Extrapolating from Table 7.4, it can be seen that for such a
yield, the suggested rates of application of nutrients for the year are 116 kg
N/ha, 13.6 kg P2O5/ha and 116 kg K2O/ha. From Table 7.8, it is recommended
that an improved smallholder should provide the appropriate levels of
nutrients for his coffee by two equal applications of compound fertiliser, the
first in October/November and the second in January/February. Section
7.4.4.1 recommends that, if possible, 13:3:20 + 2.5(MgO) be used, and explains
how the rate of application of fertiliser is related to the rate of application of
nutrients. Since 13:3:20 + 2.5(MgO) contains 13% N, the desired annual rate of
18 Section 7
application of 116 kg N/ha would be provided by 116 x 100/13 = 892 kg
compound fertiliser/ha. Note that more than the necessary quantity of K2O
(892 x 20% = 178 kg K2O/ha) and P2O5 (892 x 3% = 27 kg P2O5/ha) than the
desired 116 kg K2O and 13.6 kg P2O5/ha are provided.
Thus, an appropriate fertiliser programme would be 446 kg 13:3:20 +
2.5(MgO)/ha in October/November and 446 kg 13:3:20 + 2.5/ha in
January/February. Rates per tree can be calculated by dividing by the number
of trees per ha. If the spacing is 2.74m x 2.74m (9ft x 9ft) there should be
1,332 trees/ha, and therefore 446 kg/1332 = 335 grams compound
fertiliser/tree should be applied in both November and February. Note that
this rate per tree is applicable no matter how large or small the garden may be.
If the spacing is irregular, the actual number of trees must be counted and
divided by the measured area of the garden (in ha) to give the number of
trees/ha, from which application rate/tree can be calculated.
In practice, many smallholders will not be able to estimate their yield, will not
know the area of their garden, or be able to measure out their fertiliser
applications. Therefore, a simple rule of thumb for such growers is to apply
300 g compound fertiliser per tree in November and February. This can be
measured approximately by applying two 5.5 oz (155 g) fish tins full of
compound fertiliser to every tree.
Application of coffee skins is of particular relevance to smallholders since every
50 kg of composted coffee skins contains 1 kg N and 2 kg K2O. The 1,200 kg
GB/ha yield assumed for an improved smallholder, would require 7,500 kg ripe
cherry, which would generate 1,850 kg fresh coffee skins, or 370 kg composted
coffee skins, containing about 8 kg N and 16 kg K2O.
Any smallholder, no matter how much coffee they produce, would be advised
to utilise his/her coffee skins by spreading them evenly throughout their coffee
gardens. Composted coffee skins are the most efficient, but if fresh coffee
skins are used, care should be taken to avoid touching the coffee tree trunks
since fresh coffee skins are acidic.
7.4.7.3 Typical smallholders
The improved smallholder in Section 7.4.7.2, with lightly shaded coffee, would
be a high yielding smallholder. His/her coffee will require regular applications
of fertiliser to remain healthy, as recommended. However, most improved
smallholders will have moderately shaded coffee, which will yield considerably
less. Most other smallholders with unimproved coffee will have moderate to
19 Section 7
heavy shade, and low yields. These two categories of coffee grower currently
represent the majority of the coffee industry in Papua New Guinea.
Improved smallholders with moderately shaded coffee may produce up to 800
kg green bean/ha. According to Table 7.4 they should therefore provide their
coffee with up to 80 kg N and 80 kg K2O/ha. A production level of 800 kg
GB/ha would generate 250 kg composted coffee skins/ha, containing 5 kg N
and 10 kg K2O/ha. The rest of the fertiliser requirements could be provided by
two applications of 308 kg 13:3:20+2.5(MgO) in October/November and
January/February. At a tree density of 1,332 trees/ha, this would be
equivalent to a rate of 230 g /tree. A simple rule of thumb would be to apply
one 5.5 oz (155 g) fish tin full of compound fertiliser to each tree in
October/November and January/February.
Unimproved smallholders with medium to heavy shade will be producing low
yields of less than 350 kg GB/ha, and so will probably not need to apply any
fertiliser to their coffee, particularly if they are shaded by Yar trees (which fix
nitrogen from the air). The nutritional needs of the garden will probably be
provided by the nitrogen fixed by the Yar trees, the leaf litter from the coffee
and shade trees, unharvested ripe cherries falling to the soil and decomposing,
and recycling of the coffee skins. However, when possible, an application of
compound fertiliser, at a rate of one 5.5oz (155g) fish tin full per tree, would
always be beneficial, provided the coffee garden has been weeded first.
7.5 PRUNING
Pruning is an important aspect of coffee management as it influences the tree
growth and responses to weeding, mulching and fertiliser application, while
inducing favourable conditions for pest and disease control. Pruning is also a
means of exercising crop control. The pruning practices recommended here
are based on experiences and practices in other coffee growing countries, but
they have been tried and tested successfully in Papua New Guinea, in formal
trials and by coffee growers small and large .
7.5.1 Pruning operations
x Training (formative pruning). Capping of young seedlings during the
first two years of field establishment.
x Skirting. Cutting up (removal) of primary branches below 60cm on the
stem, during the first two years of establishment or during change of
production cycle.
x Handling. Removal of excessive secondary and tertiary growth.
20 Section 7
x Desuckering. Removal of suckers and secondary branches along the
primaries within 20cm of the main stem.
x Centring. Removal of suckers and secondary branches along the
primaries within 20cm of the main stem.
x Maintenance/main pruning. Removal of exhausted, dead wood and
interlocking branches, following crop harvest. This includes handling,
desuckering and centring.
x Stumping. Removal of all the bearing uprights (heads, stems) at the end
of a production cycle.
x Recycle Pruning. Removal of one or two uprights and primary branches
on the remaining upright during the change of the production cycle.
x Sucker selection. Identification of suitable suckers and removal of
unwanted suckers during the change of production cycles.
These pruning activities require the following pruning equipment:
x A pair of secateurs;
x A pruning saw;
x A measuring stick;
x A power saw.
7.5.2 Pruning objectives
x To concentrate the vigour of the tree into those parts that produce the
most crop. New wood produces more crop than old wood.
x To assist in the production of regular crops. Pruning reduces the risk of
over-bearing which results in biennial bearing due to crop strain on the
tree.
x To facilitate harvesting. In its natural conditions, the coffee tree can
grow tall and bushy, presenting difficulties in cherry harvesting.
x To make spraying more efficient and economical. This is important in
both disease and pest control.
x To produce a less favourable microclimate for pests and diseases. Some
pests and fungal diseases, such as coffee leaf rust, thrive best in the
humid environment of unpruned trees.
x To rejuvenate old trees. As the bearing wood grows older, production
declines. As the trees grow taller, harvesting, pruning and spraying
become more difficult.
21 Section 7
7.5.3 Pruning systems
Basically, there are two pruning systems, single stem, and multiple stem.
A single stem system, has one bearing upright (head, stem) per tree.
In a multiple stem system, there are two or more bearing uprights (head, stem)
per tree. Production cycles are changed every 4 to 7 years. At low altitudes
(and with Robusta coffee), where growth is fast due to the hotter climate,
change of cycle is recommended after 4 to 6 years of cropping, while at higher
altitudes with cooler climates, the cycle can be extended to 6 to 7 years of
cropping depending on coffee variety and management.
Note: Once the single and multiple stem pruning systems are established, the yield
differences are insignificant. Under smallholder conditions, the multiple stem
pruning system is recommended as it is easier to manage, and is also cost effective.
7.5.4 Factors that influence the choice of the pruning system

x Growth rate
At higher altitudes, the growth is slower and internodes become shorter,
with the result that stems become rigid and do not bend outwards to
facilitate picking on the multiple stem system, and so a single stem
pruning system may be appropriate.
x Spacing
Pruning is very closely integrated with spacing in many aspects. At wide
spacings, more bearing heads per tree are allowed because there is
more room for the spreading of branches. At closer spacings, a single
stem pruning system will be easier to manage.
x Variety
Generally dwarf coffee varieties are best suited to single stem pruning
systems and tall coffee varieties are best suited to multiple stem pruning
system.
x Management
Local management requirements may dictate the pruning policy. These
include the size of the holding, cultural methods, terrain, drainage, spray
equipment etc. and all influence the choice of pruning system in one
way or other.
22 Section 7
7.5.5 Pruning practices
Pruning of mature tall coffee should start during the third year (during the
second year for compact varieties) after field planting or change of production
cycle, i.e. after complete stumping or recycle pruning. The main operations
involve main pruning, handling and desuckering. Each of these terms is
explained below:
7.5.5.1 Main pruning
Main pruning is done annually immediately after harvesting the main crop.
This is the time to prepare the trees for the next flowering. The main pruning
should coincide with the drier period between August and October. The
operations carried out during the main pruning are:
x Annual removal of the lower primary branches from the main stem(s),
depending on the stage of pruning, to maintain a desired length of the
bearing head.
x Removal of suckers (upright growth) i.e. desuckering.
x Removal of secondary growth within 20cm of the main stem(s). The
combined effect of this and desuckering is to open the centre of the
coffee tree.
x Removal of any secondary and tertiary branches growing towards the
stems, downwards and upwards.
x Removal of interlocking branches.
x Arrangement of the remaining secondary branches on alternate sides of
the primary branch up to a maximum of six per primary. Only 2-4 of
these secondary branches should be allowed to carry a crop each year.
Note: Precaution against Pink disease
In areas with Pink disease problems and Fusarium Bark disease, the pruning saws
and secateurs should be disinfected by dipping in any fungicide after dealing with
diseased trees to minimise the spread of the disease. All infected material should be
carefully removed and burned on site if possible.
7.5.5.2 Number and length of bearing heads

The number of bearing heads is determined by tree population, and the length
of bearing head is derived by removing all primaries that have carried two
crops.
23 Section 7
Table 7.10: Tree density and bearing heads
DENSITY TREES/HA BEARING HEADS PER TREE
2000 4
2000 – 3000 3
3000 – 4000 2
! 4000 1
7.5.5.3 Handling
The onset of rains is followed by flowering and vegetative secondary growth.
The unwanted vegetative growth should be removed at intervals of 2 to 4
months (See Section 7.4.5.1). Failure to remove this vegetative growth results
in serious competition for both water and nutrients, between the developing
berries and vegetative growth. This competition has an adverse effect on the
size of the beans, which has a direct impact on bean quality.
7.5.5.4 Desuckering
As with vegetative secondary growth, suckers are promoted by the availability
of soil moisture. Unwanted suckers should also be removed at intervals of 2 to
4 months to prevent adverse effects similar to those of delayed handling.
7.5.5.5 Handling and desuckering
The combined effects of timely handling and desuckering (‘centring’), assist in
maintaining an open tree canopy for efficient pest and disease control, air
circulation and light penetration for better tree growth, flowering, fruitset and
production.
All the above can be referred to as ‘maintenance pruning’. It is advisable to
maintain well pruned bearing heads for effective application of fungicide
sprays.
7.5.6 Change of production cycle
x Multiple stem coffee

In the multiple stem pruning system, the lower branches are removed each
year during the main pruning once they have produced a maximum of two
crops (two years of cropping). The change of cycle is initiated when the lower
branches have been removed up to 1.40m from the ground.
24 Section 7
Sufficient bearing heads are removed to leave one or two bearing heads.
(Below 2000 trees/ha, leave 1 or 2 bearing heads, above 2000 trees/ha, leave
only one). Bearing heads should be removed as close to the stump as possible.
Both recycle pruning and stumping are achieved by cutting the stem with a
pruning saw at 30-45cm above ground level. The cutting angle should be 45q,
sloping away from the centre, to avoid rain water collecting above the cut and
causing stump rot.
The bearing heads left on the stump should be strong, high yielding, preferably
away from the rising sun, so that they do not cast a shadow over the new
suckers. Growing suckers should always be exposed to the sun, to avoid
producing weak suckers with long internodes. This is achieved by cutting off
any branches on the remaining bearing heads, above the growing points of the
new suckers.
In areas of unsatisfactory sucker growth, the top green tip of the remaining
stem(s) should be capped at the time of notching to break apical dominance.
When rejuvenating old coffee by recycle pruning, sucker growth can be
encouraged by stem notching. Injuring the bark by repeated knocking with the
blunt edge of the secateurs is as effective as making a deep cut with a pruning
saw. It is also faster and less laborious.
The process of changing the production cycle takes 12 to 24 months to be
completed, depending on the growth of the suckers. Under shaded conditions,
suckers often grow rapidly, producing long internodes. In this case it would be
better to remove the remaining bearing head after 12 months (one cropping
season), particularly if the developing suckers are being overshaded by the
bearing head.
In unshaded coffee, where the suckers grow more slowly, with short
internodes, the remaining bearing head may be left for 24 months (two
cropping seasons) before removal.
x Single Stem
Closely-spaced coffee brought up on a single stem system e.g. Catimor and
Caturra, should be handled and desuckered as for multiple stem coffee.
However, annual removal of the lower branches may not be necessary unless
the trees are likely to over-bear.
When changing the production cycle, all branches on one half of the tree,
preferably the sunny side, should be removed (‘slab pruned’). A notch about
1cm deep at 45cm above ground level, should be made in the trunk, on the
25 Section 7
pruned side. At this time, moss should be removed from the stump and the
green tip should be capped. The remaining primaries may be thinned out if
necessary, particularly in closely spaced coffee. The remaining old head is
removed just above the highest sucker, after 2 cropping seasons.
At close spacing, complete stumping by rows or blocks, preferably leaving lung
branches, may be more practicable.
x Single stem capped coffee (umbrella type)
Although not recommended, much smallholder tall coffee is managed as a
single stem capped coffee, on which an ‘umbrella’ of growth develops around
the capped stem. To recycle such coffee, half the umbrella on the side
exposed to the sun should be removed. The remaining branches of the
umbrella should be thinned out and a notch made on the pruned side of the
stem, about 1cm deep at 45cm above ground level. The number of suckers
encouraged to develop will depend on the plant density. The remaining old
head is eventually removed just above the highest sucker.
x Stumping
The change of production cycle can also be achieved by complete stumping,

particularly where the coffee is closely spaced. This is an option with multiple
and single stem coffee, and is the simultaneous removal of all bearing heads.
When complete stumping is practiced, care should be taken to leave a lung

branch or breather, otherwise the stumps may dry up. A lung branch is the
lowest primary and is removed later when the old stump is trimmed just above
the highest new sucker.
Advantages
• Much stronger suckers are obtained due to the fact that sunlight
penetrates to the base of the tree.
• It is simpler and quicker.
Disadvantages
• The grower is without a crop for about 2 years.
• Stumps may die.
• More weeding will be necessary
26 Section 7
Figure 7.1: Stumped coffee with a lung branch.
Stumping is most appropriate in populations greater than 2500 trees/ha. Here

stumping can be arranged by rows or blocks on a rotational basis to ensure the
grower does not suffer total crop loss. The best approach is to stump
approximately 20% of the coffee trees each year.
x Timing of recycle pruning/ stumping
The timing of recycle pruning/stumping is based on the production cycle.

Normally, coffee yields increase with maturing bearing heads up to a point and
then start declining. With experience, a grower will be able to initiate the
change of cycle at the right time to maintain regular production.
As with main pruning, the actual recycle pruning/stumping should be
undertaken immediately after the main crop is harvested. The length of the
production cycle depends on altitude, plant growth, production capacity and
the level of management. In general, production cycles of between 4 to 7
years are maintained in different situations. Production cycles tend to be
shorter at lower altitudes and longer at high altitudes.
x Sucker selection
Many suckers per stump will grow following recycle pruning/stumping and
onset of the rains. Sucker selection should therefore be initiated as early as
possible and continued on a regular basis. Except for the selected suckers, all
the other suckers should be removed with secateurs.
The selected suckers should be strong, healthy and well-spaced around the
stem. Two suckers should not be allowed to originate from the same bud,
because they are both likely to break off. Initially, more suckers than required
27 Section 7
are selected. If three are required, it is safer to start with 5 and reduce them
progressively until 3 are left. The final selection should be done at the time of
removing the remaining old heads. No suckers should be allowed below 15cm
on the main stem, since such suckers are liable to frequent breakages. Ideally
suckers should be between 30 and 45cm from the ground and never above
60cm.
Sucker selection should be initiated when the suckers are 10-15cm tall and
continued on a regular basis. Unwanted suckers are a drain on plant nutrients.
See Section 7.3.4.6 for foliar fertiliser recommendations.
7.5.7 Multiple stem coffee without change of production cycle
An alternative pruning practice currently in use in PNG (but not yet tested by
the CIC RGSD) is multiple stem coffee, on which one upright is removed and
replaced each year. Such coffee therefore has uprights of different ages,
including a young sucker(s) developing in place of the most recently removed
old upright. Uprights only last for three or four years (depending on the
number of uprights on each tree).
The advantages of this system are that there is no change of cycle, and
therefore no yield loss due to the change of cycle; and yields remain more
even over the years. The disadvantages are that, unless carefully managed,
young suckers risk being over-shaded by older uprights, which would result in
weak uprights with long internodes and therefore less crop; and there is a risk
that too many uprights will develop.
28 Section 7
8.0 DISEASES OF COFFEE
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8.1 COFFEE LEAF RUST

8.1.1 Introduction
Coffee leaf rust (CLR) is caused by the fungus Hemileia vastatrix Berk and
Broome and is the most serious disease of Coffea arabica in Papua New
Guinea. Since April 1986, CLR has been detected in almost all coffee growing
areas of the country. The main damage is due to premature leaf fall, which in
most cases results in the trees becoming heavily defoliated. Since leaves carry
out photosynthesis (the process by which carbohydrates are formed),
defoliation has serious consequences for the coffee trees. It results in
inadequate carbohydrate formation, the tree then begins to use carbohydrate
reserves in the roots and stems, leading to undernourishment of the tree.
Undernourishment results in dying back of the feeder roots which normally
carry out the absorption of nutrients from the soil. Similar die-back can be
noticed on the branches. Since the coffee tree demands a high carbohydrate
supply for successful maturation of the crop, it is evident that CLR has an
adverse effect on yield as well.
8.1.2 Symptoms
Infection results in the formation of large yellow-orange, powdery, circular
pustules, produced on the underside of leaves. Pustules are at first roughly
circular and about 2-4mm in diameter. At a later stage, adjacent pustules may
coalesce forming irregular patches larger than 40mm across. The centres of
the pustules eventually die, changing to a brownish colour. The pustules can
be seen through the upper surface of the leaf but the powdery orange spores
(uredospores) are only produced on the underside of leaves.
The presence of only one or two pustules on the leaf is likely to cause
premature leaf fall.
8.1.3 Control
The development of CLR resistant varieties is the long term answer to the
problem, and since 1992, Catimor variety, a compact rust resistant hybrid, has
been available from the CIC RGSD.
However, the majority of plantings are of varieties susceptible to CLR, and
adequate rust control can be achieved by the use of appropriate fungicides.
Before coffee can be considered for spraying, it must be:
1 Section 8
• adequately weeded
• well drained
• in a good physical state showing no nutrient deficiency symptoms
• fenced
• well pruned
• and with no, or correctly maintained, shade.
Application of fungicides to coffee which does not comply with the above
standards will be less effective than when applied to correctly maintained
coffee, and consequently a waste of money. The chemicals (fungicides) used
to control CLR can be classified as either protective or systemic.
x Protective fungicides
These fungicides will prevent the rust spores penetrating the leaf, and
should be applied before the visible symptoms of the disease. All
copper based fungicides belong to this group.
x Systemic fungicides
These are sometimes called curative fungicides. This means that the
fungal infections which have already becomes established can be
stopped from developing further. Examples of this group of fungicides
are Bayfidan, Tilt and Anvil.
8.1.3.1 Protective spray programmes
Copper fungicides should be applied as a spray to protect the foliage from

infection well before the symptoms of the disease are visible. The
recommended time and frequency to apply the copper fungicides are detailed
in Table 8.1. Studies by CIC recorded seasonal peaks during May-July at Waghi
Mek and July-September at Jolamuna. At both sites minimum disease levels
were recorded in November-January with inoculum levels increasing steadily
from around January-February onwards.
From studies of the seasonal pattern of development of epidemics of CLR and

the seasonal periodicity of epidemics, there is only one peak in the CLR
epidemic each year (Figure 8.1). At most sites in PNG this peak occurs
between May and July, although the precise timing varies with locality and the
year.
2 Section 8
Figure 8:1: The seasonal pattern of development of epidemics of CLR
between March 1989 and October 1991.
The severity of CLR epidemics is closely related to both the mean monthly
maximum and minimum temperature. Temperatures above 30qC and below
15qC are detrimental to the development of CLR because of their adverse
effect on the germination and infection processes.
If no temperature data are available and altitude alone is used, the following
modifying effects should be considered.
• Broad valleys in the highlands are often warm for their altitude e.g. Wau,
Bena, Asaro, Waghi and Lai Valleys.
• Enclosed basins, narrow timbered valleys, and places with high rainfall
tend to be cold for their altitude, e.g. Oksapmin Basin and the Mendi
Valley.
An additional benefit in spraying protective copper fungicides is from the
copper tonic effect. This promotes leaf retention and results in more nutrients
being available for the ripening fruit. However, it should also be noted that
incorrectly timed applications of copper fungicides can in some circumstances
make the coffee rust worse.
3 Section 8
Table 8.1: Spray programmes for coffee leaf rust
ALTITUDE OF COFFEE SPRAY PROGRAMME
Over 1550 m.a.s.l. One or two copper sprays in January

Annual temperature range. and February.
Max. below 25qC
Min. below 15qC
Below 1550 m.a.s.l. Two or three copper sprays (the first

Annual temperature range. in October, second in December and
Max. above 25qC the third in February/March).
Min. above 15qC
m.a.s.l. = metres above sea level
Currently recommended rates for copper fungicides are shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Recommended rates for copper fungicides
Fungicides Rates Volume per hectare
Champion 50% Cu WP
Copper Nordox 50% Cu WP Either 3.5g/l 700 litres
Copper Sandoz 50% Cu WP or 5-7g/l 300 litres
Champion 35% Cu Flowable 4ml/l 300 litres

Kocide50% Cupric Hydroxide 3.5g/l 300 litres
8.1.3.2 Systemic spray programmes
If CLR has already become established, systemic fungicides should be used to

prevent further development of the infection.
Coffee should be monitored regularly throughout the year for CLR, and the
level of infection calculated in the following way. Walk diagonally across the
coffee block monitoring every tenth tree, ensuring that in small blocks a
minimum of 10 trees are monitored. Select four laterals from each tree
equidistant between the top and the lowest primary, spaced evenly around the
tree. Count the total number of leaves present on the four laterals, then count
the number of leaves with orange rust spots (pustules).
4 Section 8
The infection level can then be calculated as follows:
Number of leaves with rust spots x 100 = % infection

Total number of leaves 1
e.g. Number of leaves with rust spots = 8

Total number of leaves = 89
‫ ׵‬% infection = 8 x 100 = 9%
89 1
Should the level of CLR infection rise to 15% or more around 5 to 6 weeks prior
to harvest, a recommended systemic fungicide should be applied.
Currently recommended systemic fungicides are shown in Table 8.3
Table 8.3: Recommended rates for systemic fungicides
Fungicide Rate Volume per hectare
Bayfidan 25% E.C. (triadimenol) 3.3 ml/l 300 litres
Anvil 5% SC. (hexaconazole) 3.3 ml/l 300 litres
8.2 LEAF AND BERRY SPOT

8.2.1 Introduction
Brown eye leaf spot is caused by the fungus Cercospora coffeicola, Berk and
Cooke. This is mainly a disease of plants in the nursery but can also occur in
poorly managed mature coffee. The conditions that favour the development
of this fungus are high relative humidity and poor nutritional status of the
coffee. It also occurs as a secondary infection in physiological die-back.
8.2.2 Symptoms
The fungus causes small brown spots on the leaves. The spots usually have a
reddish brown margin often surrounded by a slight yellow halo. The centre of
the spot turns grey and necrotic, and occasionally may drop, leaving a
‘shothole’ on the affected leaf.
The fungus can also attack berries, causing small depressed spots, and when
this spreads, the whole berry is damaged and may drop to the ground.
5 Section 8
8.2.3 Control
In the nursery, spraying with a 0.5% copper fungicide solution at 4-6 week
intervals is generally advised to protect the seedlings from severe defoliation
and die back.
In the nursery, proper shade management and seedling spacing, and in mature
coffee, proper shade management and pruning, allows good air circulation and
will minimise the infection. Also adequate nutrition will avoid infection both in
the nursery and field.
8.3 PINK DISEASE
8.3.1 Introduction
Pink disease on coffee is caused by Phanerochaete salmonicolor (Berk and

Broome) Julich, formerly called Corticium salmonicolor Berk and Broome. This
fungus is widely distributed and recorded on many other tropical crops such as
rubber, cacao, citrus, tea, some food crops and ornamentals in Papua New
Guinea. Wet, humid conditions favour the development of the fungus, and an
extended period of dry weather may slow down the infection, and the infected
stem may recover.
8.3.2 Symptoms
On coffee, the fungal mycelium is at first superficial i.e. on the surface, and
appears as fine white threads on stems, branches or berries. The affected
young green twigs can later become dark brown and die. When the older
stems are infected, the mycelial threads change into a pink crust and the
fungus enters the cambium, killing it. This crust develops on the underside of
branches. When the infection surrounds the whole stem or branch, the upper
parts die due to interruption of the normal nutrient translocation.
If the growth of the pink crust is halted, the bark may often crack and lift,
causing it to flake off and expose the hard wood underneath. Around the edge
of the bare wood the bark forms callus tissue which can sometimes be so
extensive as to ring-bark a stem.
Occasionally the asexual stage of the fungus occurs on the upper surface of
branches as orange-red cushion-like structures. The role of this stage of the
fungal life cycle in the spread of the disease is unknown.
6 Section 8
8.3.3 Control
The disease can be controlled by either cultural or chemical methods. Heavy

shade, and/or unpruned coffee, tends to maintain high humidity in wet
seasons, favouring fungus development. Correct shade density and pruning
will minimise disease infection and development.
Infected laterals should be cut out and burned on site, or placed in a large
plastic bag and removed from the coffee to be destroyed elsewhere. Any
infection on the uprights should be cleaned and treated with copper paste (mix
just enough water with copper powder to make it sticky). Where the infection
has reached an advanced stage, it may be advisable to stump the tree and
burn all the infected branches.
Pink disease also lives on, and attacks, a wide range of other plants, e.g. cacao,
rubber, citrus, tea and many ornamental and shade plants. Therefore, it is
essential to pay attention to all other plants grown in and around coffee.
Should these plants be infected with Pink disease, they must be treated and/or
removed from the coffee.
Chemical control can be effected by spraying with Bordeaux mixture (1kg

copper sulphate, 1kg hydrated lime and 100 litres of water), or painting the
affected areas with Calixin fungicide. In circumstances where the crop is
heavily infected with Pink disease, Bayfidan at the rates recommended for
coffee leaf rust will control the disease. The effects of Bafidan application will
become evident after 56 days. For serious infection of Pinks disease Baifidan
should be applied in October, December and February.
8.4 BLACK ROT
8.4.1 Introduction
Black rot is caused by Koleroga noxia Donx, and is sometimes referred to as

Tawny Thread Blight. The disease is favoured by warm, moist conditions, so it
is most common in lowland areas. In highland areas it is rarely of economic
significance.
8.4.2 Symptoms
The fungus grows on the under-side of coffee leaves as a silvery web and later
spreads to the petiole and then down the stem. The affected petiole dies and
the leaf is detached, eventually turning black. Usually leaves remain hanging
7 Section 8
to the branch by brown fungal threads. The green twigs and berries can also
be affected.
8.4.3 Control
The disease is best controlled by proper shade management and by cutting out
and burning infected branches on site. Chemical control is usually not an
economical proposition, although a 0.5% copper fungicide may be considered.
8.5 WHITE THREAD BLIGHT
8.5.1 Introduction
The disease is caused by species of Marasmius and Corticium, and although not
a serious disease could be a problem in high rainfall areas.
8.5.2 Symptoms
The white strands of mycelium, known as rhizomorphs, spread from the

stems onto the under-side of the leaves. The affected leaves dry up and
become detached, however, they do not fall off because they are held by the
white fungal mycelial strands.
8.5.3 Control
It can be controlled by reducing humidity by careful thinning of shade, proper
pruning and by cutting out infected branches and burning them on site.
8.6 SECONDARY INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH DIE-BACK
8.6.1 Introduction
When the coffee tree is carrying an unusually heavy crop, but for various
reasons is receiving inadequate nutrition, overbearing die-back can occur.
Some reasons for inadequate nutrition are incorrect crop estimation and
consequently insufficient fertiliser being applied; waterlogging, when the roots
cannot absorb sufficient nutrients; and removal of shade trees without
adequate fertiliser application (refer to Section 7.3, for correct fertiliser rates).
Under these conditions the berries are often infected by three fungi, namely,
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz) Penz and Sacc., Cercospora coffeicola
Berk. and Cooke and Fusarium sp.
These fungi are not the primary cause of die-back, but are secondary invaders
which aggravate the situation.
8 Section 8
8.6.2 Symptoms
Twigs and branches die back from the tips and considerable defoliation occurs.
The secondary invading fungi cause brown-black sunken spots on
mature berries and occasionally on green immature ones. In a more advanced
stage on the affected branches, the berries die and fall to the ground.
8.6.3 Control
An appropriate balance of shade and fertiliser application and crop regulation
by stripping if necessary, will control die-back and therefore avoid secondary
infection.
However, should any secondary infection occur, it can be controlled by normal
coffee leaf rust fungicides.
8.7 STEM CANKER
8.7.1 Introduction
The disease is caused by Fusarium sp., and it has been observed that
waterlogging favours the infection.
8.7.2 Symptoms
The fungus usually infects the bark at ground level (collar) and grows in the
bark around the stem. The symptoms seen in a more advanced stage are
general leaf yellowing followed by wilting and eventual death. The infection
site is usually constricted and the bark above the constriction is usually soft
and spongy. The region under the infected bark is reddish brown to purple
when cut.
8.7.3 Control
Young seedlings should not be planted too deeply, in order to avoid soil
contacting the bark of the stem, as this minimises the incidence of the disease.
The bark at ground level should be kept free from excess moisture by providing
good drainage, and affected dead plants should be uprooted and burned on
site to reduce the inoculum for further infections.
9 Section 8
8.8 ROOT DISEASE
8.8.1 Introduction
Root rot is not considered to be a serious problem in coffee in Papua New
Guinea.
When it occurs it may be caused by one of a number of different fungi
including Phellinus noxius (Brown Root Rot), Rosellinia sp., (Black Root Rot),
Fomes lignosus (Red Root Rot), Fusarium sp. as well as a number of other
fungi.
8.8.2 Symptoms
General yellowing and wilting of foliage of the whole tree. Brown, black or red
fungi mycelium or staining of woody tissue below the bark may be evident,
giving an indication of the causal fungus. Occasionally fungal fruit bodies may
be present in the collar region of the trunk from which a definitive
identification may be made.
In all cases wilting and yellowing of the foliage is accompanied by a decay of
the roots.
8.8.3 Controls
Once a tree has become infected it cannot usually be saved and must be dug
out along with its diseased roots to prevent root to root infection between
adjacent trees. Sometimes it may be necessary to dig a trench around the
diseased tree and its immediate (apparently healthy) neighbours to contain the
disease by eliminating root contact between these and other trees.
Once an infected tree has been removed it should burned if possible. Because
the pathogen can remain infectious on decaying roots which have not been
removed from the soil, infilling should be delayed for at least two seasons to
allow complete decay of diseased roots and consequent death of the
pathogen.
8.9 LIGHTNING STRIKE
8.9.1 Introduction
Lightning strike is quite common on coffee and other trees throughout Papua
New Guinea. Whilst not a disease it is frequently mistaken for one and
diagnosis can be complicated by the invasion of dead and dying trees by
saprophytic fungi if trees are not examined as soon as possible after the
lightning strike.
10 Section 8
8.9.2 Symptoms
A ring of trees around the centre of the lightning strike will be affected.
Trees in the centre of the group appear to collapse and die very quickly whilst
foliage of surrounding trees, particularly in the crown area, wilts, becomes
brown and the affected branches die. Symptoms become less pronounced
moving away from the centre of the strike.
8.9.3 Control
No control is possible but it is useful to be aware of the condition and to be
able to distinguish it from the diseases with which it may sometimes be
confused.
11 Section 8
9.0 PESTS OF COFFEE
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9.1 SCALE INSECTS

9.1.1 Introduction
Green scales Coccus spp., (Hemiptera: Coccidae) are scale insects that feed on
coffee and other plants in Papua New Guinea. The scales are widely
distributed and occur in most coffee growing areas, attacking both Arabica and
Robusta coffee. Ants are always associated with them because they feed on
the honeydew excreted by the scales. Two species, C. celatus De Lotto and C.
viridis, are present, but identification in the field is difficult and must be carried
out by a specialist. Both species occur together in most locations. Scales are
attacked by Coccinellid beetles, fungi, and parasitic wasps native to PNG, but
seldom severely enough to limit heavy scale infestations.
9.1.2 Description and damage
The adult females are oval shaped, fairly flat, and pale green in colour, with a
soft skin, varying in size up to 4mm long and 2mm wide. C. viridis is pale green
in colour while C. celatus is myrtle (dark) green in colour. Males have never
been recorded and the genus reproduces asexually (parthenogenetic). It takes
one to several months for the scale to complete its life cycle. The adults are
most abundant during October to January in the Eastern Highlands, however
this may vary slightly for other regions. Generally, green scales favour young
coffee, new shoots and the lower habitat of the coffee bush. There are many
alternative hosts for green scales, of which citrus is the most important.
Both adult and young (crawlers) suck the sap, and the adults become firmly
attached to the plants. The scales excrete honeydew on the leaves and
branches, which provides food for a group of fungi called ‘sooty mould’ to
grow on. In mature plants, the scales and the sooty mould affect the number
of fruiting nodes per branch per tree, one of the components of yield in coffee.
Where there are severe infestation levels (defined as green scale and sooty
mould seen on the primary branches in the top, medium and low canopy of
bearing coffee bushes) in the field during flowering, there is a loss of 21% of
flowers, and subsequently a loss of 16% of fruiting nodes. The overall effect
would be a loss of about 50% of cherry. However, reduced growth and death
are common in young plants with heavy infestation.
There are at least 4 species of ants that attend the green scale. The
commonest is Pheidole spp., which is about 2-4mm long, with a black head and
abdomen, and a red-brown thorax. Yellow Crazy ants (Anoplolepis gracilipes)
1 Section 9
can be found in the warm highland areas, and can displace Pheidole spp. Small
Black ants (Crematogaster spp.), Weaver ant (Oecophylla samardgina) and
Tropical Red Fire ant (Solenopsis germinata) are widespread on Robusta coffee
in the lowlands. The green scales benefit from the ant tending through the
removal of honeydew, protection from natural enemies, transportation to
more favourable sites, and construction of mud shelters.
9.1.3 Control
x Chemical control
Ants : Dieldrin has been used in the past to control ants, but it is now banned
due to its toxicity and persistence. The following chemicals have been
recommended in other countries for the control of ants but could also be used
in PNG. Infested coffee should be treated with Dursban EC, Losban EC, Cislin
25, Bifenthrin EC, or Amdro bait (0.2% hydramethylnon). Two applications
should be applied before and after flowering between September and
December, at the concentrations shown in Table 9.1 (a).
The trunks of infested bushes should be sprayed with insecticide from ground
level to a height of about 50cm. This should keep the ant population at low
levels for 2-3 months to allow effective parasitism of the green scale by the
parasitic wasps (see Biological control). Amdro can be applied directly on the
ground near green scale infested trees. Ant control should be seen as the best
long term measure for green scale control.
Green scale : White Oil alone can be used on young crawlers during the dry
season months of March to June. The number of applications depends on the
severity of infestation. It can also be mixed with a low concentration of
Malathion 500EC to achieve control, using three applications at monthly
intervals between August and October.
Table 9.1 (a): Pesticides for the control of ants
Pesticide Active Ingredient Amount to mix Method of Application
name with 200 litres
water to treat one
ha of infected
coffee
Dursban or Chlorpyrifos 500 EC 800 ml Spray on base of infected tree
Lorsban and on trunks and branches.
Two applications, applied
before and after flowering
between Sept. and Dec.
Cislin 25 Deltamethrin 2.5 EC 3.75 litres Spray on the base of infected
tree and on trunks and
2 Section 9
branches. Two applications,
applied before and after
flowering between Sept. and
Dec.
Bifenthrin Bifenthrin 100g/litre 2 litres Spray on the base of infected
tree and on trunks and
branches. Two applications,
applied before and after
flowering between Sept. and
Dec
Amdro bait Hydramethynon 0.2 2.5 kg Spread the bait around the
% base of infected tree. Two
applications, applied before
and after flowering between
Sept. and Dec.
From September to December, only coffee bushes that are severely affected
by green scale should receive foliar application of higher concentrations of the
insecticides. Severe infestation is defined as the presence of green scale on
the top, middle and lower canopy of the tree. The insecticides can be applied
at the rates shown in Table 9.1 (b) using either a knapsack or a mist blower,
targeting the spray to the lower canopy and working up the coffee bush.
Table 9.1 (b): Pesticides for the control of green scale
Pesticide Active Amount to mix Method of Application
Name Ingredient with 200 litres
water to treat
one ha of
infected coffee
White Oil White oil 2 litres Spray foliage and branches of
infected trees. Number of sprays
depends on severity of infestation.
Usually applied to mature coffee
trees in the dry season – Mar –June
Malathion Malathion 700 ml Spray foliage and branches of
and White 500 EC Malathion infected trees. Apply 3 times at
Oil mix 2 litres White Oil monthly intervals : Aug. - Oct.
Dursban or Chlorpyrifos 800 ml Spray foliage and branches of
Lorsban 500 EC infected trees. Apply 3 times at 14
day intervals between Aug. and Sept.
before flowering
Mospilan Acetamipirid 400 g Spray foliage and branches of
20% SP infected trees. Apply twice in Sep. at
14 day intervals
Confidor Imidaclopirid 800 ml Spray foliage and branches of
200 EC infected trees. Apply once in October
3 Section 9
x Biological control
One introduced parasitic wasp, Metaphycus baruensis Noyes (Hymenoptera:

Encyrtidae), has been released, and has established in many areas of the coffee
growing regions. The parasitism level recorded was up to 80% in the absence
of ants. Field parasitism has been very variable when ants are present. The
parasite has been seen to increase during months when the adult green scales
are most abundant. Other control agents include Coccinellid beetles, an
entomophagous fungus (Verticillium lecanii) (see Table 9.1 (c)), and a native
wasp in the genus Cheiloneurus nr chlorodryini. A biological pesticide is
currently being tested and is showing early positive results.
Table 9.1 (c): Biological control of green scale
Biological Active Amount to mix Method of Application
Control Concentration with 200 litres
pesticide water to treat
one hectare of
infected coffee
Verticillium Verticillium 3.2 x 1012 spores Spray foliage and branches of infected
lecanii spores at 1.6 x and 40 ml trees. Two monthly applications in
mixed with 107 spores/ml glycerol October and November. For best
glycerol in 0.1% results, apply Verticillium after single
glycerol. application of Chlorpyrifos, Confidor
or Mospilan.
x Cultural
Maintenance pruning or handling which serves as a hygienic cultural method
can be employed according to an individual garden’s field programme to
reduce the green scale population. This should be targeted on unwanted
secondary branches and shoots, mainly in the lower canopy of the coffee
bushes, where most of the scale population are found. This cultural control
method can best be employed during the months of November to December, the
period of peak adult scale population generally observed in most sites.
x Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

More effective control can be achieved using a combination of chemical,
biological and cultural control methods.
4 Section 9
9.2 COFFEE BERRY BORER
9.2.1 The Pest
The Coffee Berry Borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera:

Scolytidae), is a small black beetle 1.5-1.8 mm long. The female beetle bores
into young and ripe coffee berries, generally through the navel (tip) region.
The adult female lays between 30-120 eggs (average 50) in the tunnel bored
into individual mature coffee beans. The grubs (larvae) feed on the bean,
making small holes. Complete development from egg to adult takes about 25
to 35 days. All life stages can be found within the coffee bean. The juvenile
stages last for 4 (eggs), 15 (larva) and 7 (pupa) days, respectively at 27oC.
Mating normally takes place inside the berries and the female is capable of
laying eggs in 3-4 days after emergence. On average, the fertilised female lives
up to 157 days and seeks out other fresh berries for oviposition. Males may
live for 20 to 28 days. In one year, up to 9 generations of CBB are produced,
giving rise to a massive buildup of progeny, depending on the climate and
availability of coffee cherries.
CBB is found in all coffee-growing regions of the world. It was first recorded in
Gabon in 1901, and since then has spread to many parts of Africa, South
America, Central America and South-East Asia. It is not yet in PNG, but the
presence of CBB in Wamena and Oksibil districts of Papua province in
Indonesia, and in New Caledonia, is a serious threat to the coffee industry of
PNG.
9.2.2 Damage and crop loss
The pest is monophagous, feeding exclusively on immature and mature coffee
cherries, and not damaging the vegetative parts of the plant. The damage to
the bean is caused by adults tunneling into the distal end of cherries to lay eggs
and the grub (or larva) tunneling around the hardened beans inside the
cherries to feed.
The female adult tunnels into green cherries about 8 weeks after flowering. It
stays inside the tunnel, until the bean hardens, to lay eggs.
Crop losses are due to damage to the beans caused by CBB during its breeding
cycle in both young and older cherries. Considerable loss can be caused by
attacks on the young cherries, which fall to the ground following boring. It
may continue in ripe and over-ripe cherries on the tree or on the ground. In
case of severe infestation, 30-80% of the cherries may be attacked, resulting in
heavy crop loss.
5 Section 9
Market quality requirements demand the removal of damaged beans from the
harvested crops, and if the beans are further sorted, they are relegated to the
low-grade category.
If bean drying and storage conditions are not followed correctly, CBB can breed
on Arabica beans with moisture content above 13.5% and in Robusta beans
above 12.5%.
9.2.3 Host range
H. hampei is monophagous and lives and breeds only in Coffea species. The
two most widely grown species, C. arabica (Arabica) and C. canephora
(Robusta), are both susceptible to CBB. Other species are also attacked, but C.
liberica has shown resistance to CBB.
The pest is known to use other plant species for feeding only, including
Tephrosia, Crotalaria, Centrosems, Caesalpinia, Leucaena, Hibiscus, Rubus,
Vitis, Ligustrum, Oxycanthus and Phaseolus. However, these plants cannot
support the life cycle of the insect.
Hampei eggs have been found in a legume, Dialium lacourtiana, but

completion of the life cycle in the bean has not been demonstrated.
9.2.4 Ecological and cultural factors affecting development and spread
The seriousness of CBB is influenced by the altitude, prevailing temperature,

rainfall and the cultural conditions.
9.2.4.1 Altitude
H. hampei is a serious pest of both low and high altitude coffee. It has been
found to survive above 1,900 masl, and is thriving on Arabica coffee at
Wamena and Oksibil in Papua province, Indonesia at 1,700 and 1,750 masl
respectively. In PNG coffee production is concentrated between 1,200 to
1,600 masl.
9.2.4.2 Climate
The development of various stages of the pest’s life cycle is dependent on the
local conditions, particularly temperature, as influenced mainly by altitude. For
example in Mexico, the pest is most abundant between 500 and 1000 masl,
corresponding to average temperatures of 23-25 0C.
6 Section 9
Rainfall has little direct effect on CBB incidence, however where infested
cherries have fallen to the ground and become dry, renewed wetting through
rain stimulates the release of female borers.
Rainfall has a considerable indirect effect on CBB through its influence on
flowering and cherry development. The availability of cherry all year round (as
in PNG) provides food and breeding opportunities, resulting in the presence of
the insect throughout the year. Infestations can therefore be continuously
high, with up nine generations a year depending on climate and cultural
conditions. The generations may overlap, with various stages of insect being
present at any one time.
9.2.4.3 Cultural conditions
Infestation of CBB is favored by:
x heavy shade, even a single, very large, dense shade tree can cause a
serious local infestation;
x close planting;
x un-pruned trees;
x continuous flowering; and
x fallen cherries on the ground.
Infestation is greater in damp, shaded plantings than dry, open areas. These
conditions correspond to the smallholder production system in PNG, which
therefore provides the best environment for CBB to thrive and flourish.
Inefficient pruning not only creates the humid conditions favored by the pests
but also creates a situation where many cherries are too high to reach during
harvesting. These are therefore left behind, providing a food source for CBB.
9.2.5 Dispersal
Most females fly from infested cherries during mid to late afternoon to seek
out new cherries to infest. They may also be exploiting periods of maximum
heat convection in the atmosphere, which facilitate long-distance travel.
In free flight, beetles can fly for up to 22 minutes, tending to hover or move
forward only slowly. When wind assisted and in dry conditions they frequently
fly non-stop for 100 minutes. Flights of up to 345 minutes have been recorded.
Longer distance travel is probably brought about in numerous ways:
x Inter-country travel is more likely through human associated activities
than in air currents;
7 Section 9
x Infested beans are an obvious and recorded dispersal mechanism;
x Adults present in materials used for packing, or having bored into logs;
x In sacks which have contained infested beans;
x On clothing of coffee cherry pickers or other workers;
x Occurrence in imports of pods or seeds of non-Coffea species for
purposes other than coffee cultivation, e.g. legume cover crop seed.
9.2.6 Control measures

9.2.6.1 Sanitation
The average female CBB life span is 157 days. This means that the borer can
survive from one crop to the next even in countries where trees only produce a
single crop each year.
In the absence of chemical means, the only way to break the pest cycle is,
therefore, to remove every potential breeding site. This requires that:
x Harvesting is complete;
x All remaining cherries, both on the tree and on the ground floor, are
collected and destroyed;
x Removal of young cherries on which all adult females might feed;
x Removing off-season flowers.
9.2.6.2 Host Plant Resistance
Only C. liberica is practically resistant to CBB.

This coffee species could be used as a barrier crop in the overall
management of CBB.
9.2.6.3 Chemical control
Confidor (Imidacloprid) has been shown to provide effective in control when
sprayed at the same rate as recommended for Green Scale..
9.2.6.4 Biological control

To achieve greater control, biological control can be used as part of an
integrated programme of pest management.
A number of natural enemies of CBB exist including Cephalonomia

stephanoderis, Prorops nasutu, Phymastichus coffea and Beuveria bassiana.
The first two parasitoids enter tunnels made by CBB and lays eggs on the
larvae and pre-pupae. The emerging parasitoid larvae feed on the borer stages
8 Section 9
and kill them. The adult parasitoid also feeds on all life stages of CBB. P. coffea
parasitoid lays eggs on borer beetles when it enters the berry.
The White Muscardine fungus, B. bassiana, infects and kills the beetle under
favorable environmental conditions of high humidity (relative humidity above
80%) and optimum temperature between 25-30oC.
9.3 COFFEE RING BORER
9.3.1 Introduction
The coffee ring borer Meroleptus cinctor Marshall (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

is a weevil that is common in coffee plantations in the highlands. Its common
host is sweet potato but it also attacks coffee in nurseries and field plantings;
hence it is likely to be a more severe problem on smallholder coffee than on
plantations.
The adult weevil is brown to black in colour depending on age, and

approximately 7mm in length. If disturbed, it will pretend to be dead. The
short, flat, off-white larva has a dark head, while the pupae are off-white,
turning brown before emergence.
The larvae feed on the inner bark and the outer layer of wood, forming a
tunnel, usually horizontal, around the trunk. Severity depends on the age of
the tree. In larger trees, wounds heal quickly, but in young trees, wilting
occurs above the horizontal ring causing new shoots to develop from below. If
the trunk is more than 20cm in diameter, damage is usually repaired
progressively and wilting is often less severe. General yellowing, hastened fall
of leaves and symptoms of ‘die back’ occur after wilting. The effects on young
trees are generally delayed cropping and increase in yield the following year, if
there is not a repeat attack.
9.3.3 Control
Sweet potato should be cleared from prospective coffee planting areas.

Where incidence is high, the coffee uprights should be cut off and burnt.
Chemical control by foliar spray is generally not successful but Lorsban 0.5%
applied with a brush to the main stems of all bushes to a height of about one
metre, or where the bark becomes smooth, will give adequate control.
9 Section 9
9.4 LEAFHOPPERS
9.4.1 Introduction
Leafhoppers are plant insects (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). Eight species of
various families are common inhabitants of coffee but are not economically
important. Two species in the genus Batrachomorphus have so far been
reported to occur in medium to dense populations on coffee in the Morobe
(Wau), Eastern Highlands, Western Highlands and Enga Provinces (Tsak Valley).
These are B. szentivanyi Ghauri and B. blotei Ghauri. A new genus Archeguina,
has been described with 5 new species, mainly from the high altitude areas of
PNG.
These insects have two pairs of wings, and sucking mouth parts, feeding mainly
on plant sap (phloem). Any soft plant part may be pierced for ingestion of sap.
The general outline of their body is small, long and slender. The adult female is
brown, and the male varies from dark bluish colour to dark green. Male and
female can be told apart by the egg laying tube on the female abdomen.
Female leafhoppers lay their eggs embedded in soft internodes of primary or
secondary branches of coffee. The eggs hatch into wingless but very active
nymphs, black at first but changing to green at a later stage, which also feed by
sucking. The nymphs develop to adults, changing their skin several times
during the process. This is reported to take about 4 months. The insect is
reported to appear during the middle months, and to remain until the later
months, of the year, but this depends on locality. There is an overlap of
developmental time due to the presence of different stages, however,
populations are usually in ‘single phase’.
Generally leafhoppers are known to be occasional pests, but they can be found
in medium to dense populations. Where this insect is abundant in any crop,
the plant shows a lack of vigour, retarded growth and in most cases yellowing
of leaves. There is also warping of wood as a result of egg laying. Some
species are virus vectors, for instance Nilaparvata lugens causing ‘hopperburn’
in rice, and Graminella nigrifrons (Forbes) causing dwarfing in maize.
9.4.3 Control
Several natural enemies attack the eggs, nymphs and adults. Eggs are attacked
by a parasitic wasp and up to 50% parasitism has been recorded. Nymphs are
attacked by a Dryanid wasp, the wasp larva developing externally on the
leafhopper nymph; while adults are killed by an entomophagous fungus,
10 Section 9
normally prevalent when populations are high. Various predacious insects kill
both nymphs and adults by sucking body fluids.
Chemical control can be achieved by applying either Basudin, Actellic 50 EC, or
Orthene 75. Foliar spray application is advisable if heavy populations
consisting of equal numbers of nymphs and adults develop on extensive areas
in a coffee block.
Table 9.2: Pesticides for the control of leafhoppers
Pesticide Active ingredient Amount to mix Active product
name with 200 litres of in spray mix
water to treat 1
hectare of coffee
Basudin Diazinon 500 ml 0.25%
Actellic 50 EC Pirimiphos-methyl 500 ml 0.25%
Orthene 75 Acephate 330 g 0.25%
9.5 COFFEE CENTRE BORER

9.5.1 Introduction
The Coffee Centre Borer Zeuzera coffeae (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) is a

moth that attacks coffee in most coffee growing areas of PNG. Other
plants attacked include citrus, cocoa, tea, kapok and various
ornamental trees and shrubs.
The adult moth is grey or white with many small black dots or marks on the
wings and body. The female is larger, with a wingspan of about 5cm, whereas
the male’s is only 4cm. The adults fly to lights at night and are easily caught in
light traps. Eggs are laid singly in crevices and young larvae bore into wood
after hatching. The larvae are stout bodied and reddish in colour with a black
head, making cylindrical tunnels along the branches. Reddish brown frass
(mostly faeces) is extruded from the holes on the surface. Pupation occurs
inside the tunnel and adults emerge and fly out through the exit holes.
Attacked branches are usually killed.
9.5.3 Control
When the population of the Centre Borer begins to rise, parasitic wasps can
often control the levels of infestation. Various predacious insects kill both
nymphs and adults by sucking body fluids.
11 Section 9
Infested branches should be pruned and burnt.
9.6 COFFEE LEAF ROLLER
9.6.1 Introduction
The coffee leaf roller Hamona coffearia Nietn. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is a

moth distributed widely throughout the coffee growing areas. Alternative host
plants include Crotalaria, Dahlia, Albizzia stipulata, wild hops and silky oak.
The female moth is pale brown in colour, with relatively broad wings. The
male has darker brown markings with a distinctive upturned margin on the
inner parts of the forward edge of the forewing. Eggs are laid in scale-like
masses of 20-40 in rolled leaves. The larvae, after hatching, search and feed on
soft leaf tissue.
The larvae are dull green to bluish green in colour, with a dark head. They are
active and will wriggle if touched. The pupae are usually present in the leaf.
The life cycle takes about 8 weeks. Bushes are defoliated to a varying degree
and up to 80% leaf loss has been recorded in a single attack.
9.6.3 Control
Various parasites have been recorded attacking larvae, with up to 60%
parasitism. Control measures are rarely required, but if necessary Orthene or
Karate 75 will give adequate control. The amount to mix per hectare is 330g in
200 1itres of water, applied to the leaves. This would give 0.25% active
product in the spray mix. To achieve good results, the chemical spray is best
applied when the insect population is at the larval stage.
9.7 CICADAS
9.7.1 Introduction
Cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae) have been present in PNG coffee for some
time, but only occasionally do they become a problem. Little is yet known
about this pest or methods to control it. Four species have been found to
attack coffee plants, but they have not yet been scientifically identified. It is
thought that cicadas have become a pest due to the removal of shade trees
and the associated litter layer; by the removal of general predators through
loss of the litter layer; and through the use of insecticides to control other
pests.
12 Section 9
The adults are rarely seen, but their very shrill, high pitched call can often be
heard during the day, particularly towards dusk.
The first signs of damage are usually roughness and punctures about 15-20 cm
from the tip of young primaries. This may be so severe that the primary breaks
at this point and hangs down. The damage is caused by female cicadas laying
their eggs in the primaries, usually during February and March.
After several weeks the eggs hatch and the ant-like nymphs fall to the ground,
where they enter the soil through cracks. The pest is most vulnerable to
predators at this stage, and may also be unable to reach the soil if there is a
good layer of leaf litter.
Once in the soil, the nymphs excavate a small cell around feeder rootlets, from
which they suck the sap. In general, high populations of the nymphs are found
about 15cm below, and 50cm away from, the coffee trunk. If present in large
numbers, they can seriously diminish nutrient uptake and the vigour of the
tree, causing symptoms very similar to overbearing dieback.
The nymphs remain in the soil for at least one year, but some can spend up to
17 years underground, as in the case of an American species. Once they are
fully grown they burrow to the surface, emerging in large numbers at the same
time. They crawl up the trunk of the coffee tree, where they rest and emerge
as adults. The discarded skin (exuviate) of fully grown nymphs can be seen still
clinging to the tree.
9.6.3 Control
No effective and economic methods of chemical control have yet been proven.
Two fungi, Cordiceps species, and Metarrhizium species, have been found to
infest the adults and the nymphs. A larva of a beetle in the family
Rhipiphoridae is a predator of the late stage nymph of cicada. Ants are also
very important natural enemies of the cicada nymphs.
As a long term control measure, it is advisable to plant shade trees to provide
leaf litter, which inevitably will have many other positive effects.
9.8 ARMY WORMS
9.8.1 Introduction
Army worm, Spodoptera exempta (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a moth. It is a
seasonal pest of coffee, but it is also a pest on leguminous plants, cocoa,
13 Section 9
Gramineae, a few fruit trees, and some root and vegetable crops. Primary
(from low parent population), secondary (from previous outbreaks) or critical
(leading to subsequent outbreaks) outbreaks do occur in localities where there
is a distinctive dry period followed by some critical rainstorm days.
The adult moth has a robust light brown body, 40mm long. The larva is about
40mm in length, with a soft and often brightly coloured body. A creamy
yellowish stripe on both sides of the larva extends from the head to the tail.
The adult females lay eggs either singly or in batches on the host plant. The
growing larvae start feeding on the foliage. Several weeks later the final stage
larvae descend to the base of the tree, burrow to a depth of 5-6cm, create a
cavity resembling a cocoon, and pupate. After several days the adult moth
breaks open its casing, emerges and flies away. It takes 21-30 days to
complete the life cycle.
A larval density in the range of 16-25/tree is capable of causing considerable
defoliation, particularly if there are many immature cherries on the tree.
Furthermore the larvae also feed on the expanding cherry, which can be a
serious problem.
9.8.3 Control
Field monitoring, to detect the presence of feeding larvae, is essential to
ensure timely spray application. Chemical control can be achieved by applying
either Orthene 75 or Maldison 500, or both pesticides used in rotation. Foliar
spray application is advisable if most of the population is at the larval stage. To
achieve good results, a second application using a different chemical may be
necessary if the larvae are still observed on the foliage.
Table 9.3: Pesticides for the control of army worms
Pesticide name Active Amount to mix with 200 Active product
ingredient litres of water to treat 1 in spray mix
hectare of coffee
Orthene 75 Acephate 330g 0.25%
Maldison 500 Malathion 500ml 0.25%
14 Section 9
9.9 SHOT HOLE WEEVIL
9.9.1 Introduction
Shot hole weevil, Oribius spp., (Coleoptera:Curculionidae) is found in most
coffee growing regions, but appears to cause insignificant damage.
The adults are dark brown, dark grey or black in colour and about 5mm in size.
They feed mainly on the leaves causing many small holes scattered over the
leaf surface, so that it looks as if a shot gun has been fired at it .
9.9.3 Control
Often the damage is not serious and no control measures are required. Weed
control is necessary to minimise the adult population, as many weed species
are the main host.
Chemical control should not take used unless absolutely necessary and only in
cases of severe weevil attack. Insecticides such as Dursban, Chlopyrifos EC
500, Malathion 500 EC and Imidaclopirid 200 EC can provide adequate control.
Biological control agents include the fungus Beauveria bassiana.
Table 9.4: Biological control of shot hole weevil
Biological Active Amount to mix Method of Application
Control Concentration with 200 litres
pesticide water to treat
one ha of
affected coffee
Beauveria Verticillium 2 x 1012 spores Using knapsack spray
Bassiana spores 1.0 x 107 and 40 ml on the foliage,
mixed with spores/ml in glycerol branches and on base
glycerol 0.1% glycerol. of infected trees. Use
2 monthly applications
in Oct and Nov. for
best results.
15 Section 9
Table 9.5: Pesticides for the control of shot hole weevil
Pesticide Active Ingredient Amount to mix Method of
with 200 lt of Application
water to treat
one ha of
affected coffee
Dursban or Chlorpyrifos 500 600 ml Using knapsack
Losban EC spray on the foliage
and branches of
infected trees.
Malathion Malathion 500 EC 500 ml Using knapsack
and white Malathion spray on the foliage
oil mix 2 litres white oil and branches of
infected trees.
Confidor Imidaclopirid 200 600 ml Using knapsack
EC spray on the foliage
and branches of
infected trees.
Mospilan 20% SP 300 g Using knapsack
Acetamipirid spray on the foliage
and branches of
infected trees.
16 Section 9
10.0 HARVESTING AND PROCESSING
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
10.1 HARVESTING
In Papua New Guinea, the peak of the crop normally ripens in May, June and
July, but there is usually enough cherry ripening to extend the season from
March to October with what is known as ‘fly pickings’. Hand picking should
encourage individual cherry selection which is of vital importance. Only
uniform red ripe cherries can produce good quality coffee. Picking unripe or
green cherry is a waste, because it comes out as reject or Y3 grade green bean,
which has to be picked or graded out of the product at some expense. Even
pale or under-ripe cherry will still not pulp, because the mucilage has not yet
broken down and is still hard. The under-ripe material that does go through to
green bean, downgrades the quality of the crop by introducing raw, green or
grassy off-flavours.
Overripe cherry (dark red turning to black) will also be difficult to pulp
efficiently because the slippery mucilage has now dried up, and the
parchment will be badly discoloured. Mixed pickings, containing under-ripe
and overripe cherry, ferment unevenly and may also cause bad flavours and
taints.
Under conditions of water stress, cherry is likely to be yellow and will produce
‘lights’ (floater) coffee of poor quality. Cherry picked from over-bearing trees,
especially when leading to die-back, will also be yellow-brown and of inferior
quality. Cherry picked from trees under severe stress should not be mixed
with cherry from healthy trees.
It must be remembered at all times, that final bean
quality cannot be improved upon once the cherry has
been picked. It is essential therefore, that a very high
standard of picking is maintained.
As it is normal to have several flowerings in the course of the year, this results
in an extended picking season. However, there is always a ‘flush’ period in any
one area, when picking must be carried out every 10-14 days.
Picking is done by hand, the coffee is normally placed into buckets or bags,
and payment made at the prevailing agreed rate in the area. Pickers need to
be disciplined and prevented from causing damage by pulling over the trees
too far to pick them more easily, thus breaking branches and stems. They
should not be allowed to strip pick, that is, to run their hands down the
branches and take everything that comes off. The thoroughness of the picking
1 Section 10
of each individual tree must be checked, and fallen cherry should be collected
after each round and pulped separately.
The loss of cherry by theft, in the field and in transit, must be prevented.
Cherry weights should therefore be recorded in the field and checked again on
arrival at the factory.
The initial inspection must take place in the field. Only ripe cherry should be
accepted and paid for. Impurities such as stones, leaves and twigs must be
removed. A second inspection should be made on the cherry when it arrives
at the factory. In addition to a visual inspection, a count should be made on a
small grab sample of 100 cherries, to indicate the picking standard. A count of
2-4% of under-ripe and overripe cherry is acceptable. Larger amounts cause
unacceptable pulper problems, uneven fermentation, losses in weight and a
poorer quality of green bean at the end of the process. As a result of this
inspection, sorting may be required and any poor quality cherry should be
pulped and processed separately. When handling large quantities of cherry,
as on a plantation, hand sorting at the factory is not practical and so extra care
must be taken in the field.
10.2 PROCESSING
In accordance with the Coffee Industry Corporation (Statutory Powers and
Functions) Act, 1991, Part VI – Registration of Coffee Dealers, standard
conditions have been issued by CIC to regulate the design, construction and
operation of facilities for processing coffee so as to control the quality of the
product.
The current regulations specify the basic requirement, for either wet or dry
processing, is a building constructed of permanent materials and having the
following features:
(a) Office space installed with current communication facilities.
(b) Secure and weatherproof.
(c) Designed storage area for parchment and green bean, physically
separated from areas housing furnaces, dryers and machinery.
10.2.1 Processing Methods
The main method of processing ripe coffee cherries into parchment is known
as the ‘Wet Process’.
The wet process is where the coffee cherry is pulped, and the released beans,
largely free from the skin and pulp of the cherry, are then fermented, washed
and dried to make parchment coffee. An alternative method is called ‘de-
mucilaging’, using an eco-pulper. The wet process is the only process that is
2 Section 10
acceptable in Papua New Guinea. The product, parchment, is sold to dry
factories to process into green bean. The two major categories of producers,
namely the large plantations and the smallholders, use different methods of
wet processing their cherry, so a brief comment will be made about each one,
before going on to describe the various types of operations in detail.
The current minimum equipment requirements for Wet Factories are:
(a) Water supply and pump reticulation system adequate for
designed plant capacity.
(b) Weighing bay appropriately built to weigh cherry coffee with
internationally accepted scales and/or standard scales.
(c) Receiving pit, washing and conveying channels and fermenting
vats adequate for designed plant capacity.
(d) Pulper with sieve and re-passer adequate for designed plant
capacity.
(e) Kivu-type pumps for washing and transferring coffee.
(f) Drying facilities adequate for designed plant capacity
10.2.2 Plantations
In PNG, plantation factories vary considerably in size, handling from 5-200

tonnes of cherry/day at the peak of the season. However, with very few
exceptions, all the pulping operations are done with a disc pulper, (to be
described later). Most of the drying process, to produce the parchment
coffee, is also done with machinery known as Asaro and Guardiola type driers,
to speed up drying and to handle the large volumes of coffee involved.
Nevertheless, most factories try to carry out at least some of the drying
process in the sun, to improve the quality of their product. The usual method
is on long lengths of 2 metres wide plastic groundsheets or ‘sails’.
Most plantations also operate a dry factory, where they hull the parchment,
clean and grade the green bean, and then pack it in special 60kg hessian bags,
ready for export. The waste hulls from the dry factory are used to fuel the
driers.
10.2.3 Smallholders
The great majority of smallholders wet process their own coffee, using small
drum pulpers, or other hand methods. Fermenting and washing is carried out
mostly in bags. The wet parchment thus produced is then sundried on plastic
sheets. The currently recommended procedures for processing cherry to dry
parchment, which follow, apply to both plantation factories and small
pulperies. To avoid repetition, these are given in general terms, to be put into
practice where applicable and practical.
3 Section 10
10.3 PULPING
Cherry must be delivered to the factory, and pulped on the same day it is
picked. It should be pulped within 8 hours of picking. If there is any delay,
then the cherry must be stored under water to keep the temperature and the
respiration rate as low as possible. The damage done by pulling the cherry off
the tree, initiates the fermentation process within the cherry. When
fermentation continues inside an unpulped cherry, it leads to discolouring of
the parchment, and the further formation of fruity taints inside the green
bean.
After inspection, the cherry is emptied into the cherry hopper. The hopper is
designed to feed the cherry in a steady flow to the pulper. There are two
types of hopper feed systems in general use, namely siphon feed and dry feed.
10.3.1 Siphon feed

With a siphon feed (Fig 10.1), the hopper is filled with water prior to cherry
delivery. The ripe cherry sinks to the bottom, from where it is fed by a siphon
up to the pulper. The foot of the siphon tube should always be high enough
above the floor of the hopper to leave any stones etc. behind. Provision must
be made to release any blockages which may occur within the siphon feed
pipe, which is usually 100mm in diameter for a four disc pulper. By using tee
junctions, with an inspection plug, instead of elbows at every bend in the pipe,
things like fragments of sacking can be removed when they cause blockages.
With a flooded hopper, the light cherry floats, and can be raked over into a
separate hopper and pulped separately. After pulping each day, the water
should be drained out, the hopper cleaned of all cherry and the stone sump
cleared.
The main benefit of a siphon feed system, is the separation of light from heavy
cherry, and the prevention of foreign matter such as stones or metal objects,
being carried in to damage the pulper. It also conserves height, if there is a
minimal amount of vertical fall to work on in the factory. The siphon feed
hopper however, requires large amounts of water and the feed of cherry into
the pulper may become more difficult to regulate or control.
4 Section 10
Figure 10.1: A siphon feed hopper
10.3.2 Dry feed

This type of hopper is not filled with water (Fig. 10.2), but only has some water flowing into
the bottom of it. The cherry is fed in dry, and the flow from the bottom of the hopper to
the pulper is controlled by a simple choke or sliding placed over the outlet. The water is
not used to actually transport the coffee, but more to provide a lubricant action. If the
slope on the bottom of the hopper is not very steep, some extra water may be required,
but it is nevertheless still called a dry feed hopper. A stone sump (trap) should be
incorporated into the feed channel to the pulper.
Figure 10.2: A dry feed hopper

5 Section 10
10.3.3 Disc pulper
For large factories, the 4 disc pulper (Plate 10.1) is virtually the industry
standard. These machines are robust, and many parts are interchangeable
with the smaller 3 and 2 disc models. They are well supported by the PNG
local agents, with both spare parts and technical advice.
10.3.3.1 Disc pulper adjustment
The speed of the pulper should be about 120 rpm. The knife bars must be set
parallel to the disc, with a clearance of 0.7-0.9mm, depending on the local
conditions. The thickness of a hacksaw blade is a very good approximation,
and the use of an old blade as a feeler gauge makes it easy to both set and
check this clearance. The knife bars should have sharp square edges, to stop
the beans being wedged down into the gap and being nipped,
Plate 10.1: Four disc pulpers with pregarder
If the replaceable knife edge shows signs of wear, then it should be unscrewed
and turned over, or turned end for end, to give a new square sharp edge. The
ploughs, or pulping chops, which sit on top of the knife
bars, guide the flow of cherries down the sides of the rotating discs. They too
should be set parallel to the discs with a clearance of 6-8mm. The best guide
to this setting is the width of a wooden six sided pencil, measured either
across the flats, or turned a fraction to measure across the corners for the
wider setting. This distance depends on the type and size of cherries that are
being pulped, and so the factory manager should experiment to get the best
results with the local product. If the setting is too close, larger beans will be
nipped. If it is too wide, smaller cherries will not be pulped.
6 Section 10
Experienced managers sometimes set the ploughs on a slight taper, to both
speed up cherry flow and spread the wear on the knife bar. The bigger
cherries will get caught at the beginning of the bar, and the smaller cherries
further down the bar, where the plough is closer in. Further adjustments may
be required during the year to counter the seasonal variations in the size of
cherries and beans. With multi-disc pulpers, all disc clearances should be the
same. When pulping, check that as much as possible:
x Beans are not being nipped;
x No beans are passing out with the skins;
x Only the smallest cherries, plus the unripe ones, remain unpulped and
are passed on over the sieve or grader, to be pulped by the repass
pulper.
Figure 10.3: Disc pulper parts

1. Left-hand pulping bar complete 11. Detachable reed with screw
2. Right-hand pulping bar complete 12. Chop cover with fixed washers
3. Steel base bar 13. Bolt and washer for chop cover
4. Left-hand pulping chop with reed 14. Cast iron bulbed disc
5. Back bearing for eccentric spindle 15. Copper-covered disc
with circlip 16. Cast iron hub for disc
6. Eccentric spindle 17. Brass hub for disc
7. Front index bearing for eccentric 18. Bolt with brass dome nut clamping
spindle with fixing bolts disc to hub
8. Adjusting lever with pin 19. Copper disc, always sent in pairs
9. Knife edge with 5 screws 20. Rivet and washer for copper disc
10. Right-hand pulping chop with reed 21. Sealed ball bearing for shaft (complete)
7 Section 10
10.3.4 Penagos vertical drum pulper
An alternative is the Penagos pulper, from South America. This machine,
while much cheaper, is also much more lightly built. Its design gives it a
greatly increased throughput compared to the small conventional horizontal
drum pulper. It will pulp up to 2.5 tonnes of cherry per hour, but it does not
cope well with long hours of protracted work. It must be said however, that
despite the fact that the major castings are in light alloy, the six vertical
breasts, which is where the majority of wear occurs, are made of cast iron.
Figure 10.4: The Penagos vertical drum pulper
The flow of cherry in these machines is regulated by adjusting the large black
plastic flaps at the bottom of the cherry hopper, as well as by the rate of water
flowing through them. Any obstructions such as stones, or overloading the
machine, will cause the safety shear pin to break. This pin is located in the
hub of the fly wheel, and it is advisable to keep spare pieces of 7/64 inch
fencing wire as replacements. It is dangerous to replace the safety shear pin
with a pin of stronger material as this may cause more expensive damage.
Check for wear on the 6 pulping breasts, especially the depth of the canal at
the lip. If the depth is less than 7.5mm, the breast should be replaced with a
new one. Failure to do so will result in the loss of beans with the skins. Check
that adjustments of all 6 breasts are the same. Once again use an old hacksaw
8 Section 10
blade as a guide. Install the machine directly above the skin channel, so that
the pulp will fall straight into it.
10.3.5 Hand operated drum pulpers
This is the type of machine commonly used by smallholders. Those models

that have been tested have a throughput of 180-200kg of cherry per hour,
with by far the biggest factor being the energy of the person, or persons,
doing the turning. The same pulper, coupled to a small engine will pulp up to
600kg/hr. Even the smallest available engine, of 3hp, will easily drive two or
three such pulpers, suitably linked together with shaft couplers instead of
flywheels. This is a good way for an aspiring smallholder to gradually build up
the throughput of his factory operation, by first adding the engine, and then
an extra pulper to the lineup, as the need arises. Welded steel frames to do
this are available at some farm supply stores and/or are easy to fabricate.
In the 1990s, CIC RGSD undertook evaluation of pulpers available on the PNG
market. The recommended brand at that time was the single drum Denlab.
Figure 10.5: The drum pulper

1. Handwheel/pully 11. Washer 20mm I/Diam
2. Handle bolt assembly 12. Feed roll assembly
3. Chain assembly 13. Rear cross member
4. 36 tooth drive sprocket 14. Front cross member
5. 15 tooth drive sprocket 15. Key
6. Side member L.H. 16. Adjustment bracket L.H.
7. Side member R.H. 17. Adjustment bracket R.H.
8. Hopper end sheet 18. Breast casting
9. Hopper side sheet 19. Lower cross member
10. Bearing 20. Roll assembly, hand powered
21. Outer sleeve
9 Section 10
Plate 10.2 Hand operated drum pulper
There are many configurations of linked drum pulpers available on the market,
the most popular being a ‘linked double drum’ from Denlab.
Plate 10.3 Double drum pulper with petrol engine drive
10.3.5.1 Drum pulper adjustment

Despite the large number of different brands on the market, the adjustment
of all machines is the same. The critical measurement is the clearance
between the bottom of the breast plate and the tops of the teeth on the
drum. Once again, a piece of old hacksaw blade makes an ideal feeler gauge.
A hole, or a slot, about 15mm across, will be found low down on each side of
the machine, where one can slide in a gauge and adjust the bottom of the
plate. The top of the plate may be set out a millimetre or two further, to give
a slight taper and speed the flow of cherry through the machine. However,
the slightest bit too much and the machine will begin to nip a lot of beans.
10 Section 10
A well set-up drum pulper should only nip two or three beans in every
hundred, i.e. 2-3% of output. There are also two feeder plates at the bottom
of the feed hopper, which can be adjusted to control the flow rate of the
cherries past the feeder roller and prevent clogging. Using a lot of water to
feed in the cherries, will both speed up pulping and reduce wear on the breast
plate.
Attention should be paid to such wear, as it will cause a lot of nipping, no

matter how correctly the breast plate is set, and it will permit the loss of good
beans from the bottom of the pulper with the skins. The main weakness of
the drum type of machine, is that the knife bar is an integral part of the cast
breast plate, and cannot be easily renewed. Once the curved ridges on the
inside of the breast plate lose their sharp edges, particularly on the bottom
corners, the only way to repair them is either to grind them down thinner on
top, using a small angle grinder, weld them up higher and then angle grind
them down again, or else buy a complete new breastplate. The fact that some
machines are made from a light aluminium alloy, instead of cast iron, makes
them wear out all that much quicker, especially if dry cherries are fed into
them. Water is a very good lubricant in this situation.
10.3.6 Eco-pulpers
Previously called aquapulpers, these machines were designed to be used in
tandem behind the disc or drum pulper. This machine removes the pulp and
mechanically removes the mucilage, thereby avoiding the need for
fermentation altogether. The wet parchment can then be dried straight away,
all in the space of a few minutes from when the cherry enters the factory.
This speeds up the rate of throughput in the factory and removes the
requirement of tank space for fermentation. The mucilage removal stage of
the process also gets rid of the remaining skins that have passed through the
pulper, thus producing a cleaner parchment.
Ecopulpers are widely used in Central and South America, resulting in more
uniform green bean quality than can be achieved by the variable standards of
fermentation practiced by smallholders.
11 Section 10
Plate 10.4 Penagos ecopulper : combined drum pulper linked to
demucilager
10.3.7 Pregrading
This name is given to the grading carried out immediately after pulping. It
literally means pre-fermentation grading. The machine used may be in the
form of sieves, such as the older type shaker sieve, or the commonly used
rotary sieve. The function of the sieve is to separate the pulped beans from
smaller unpulped and imperfectly pulped cherry. The wet mucilated
parchment falls through the holes in the sieve, whilst the larger diameter
unpulped cherry and skins pass over the top and are fed into the repass
pulper.
However, a much improved machine is the Aagaard pregrader, named after

the Kenyan coffee planter, who invented the machine in the 1950’s. The
Aagaard pregrader not only separates the unpulped cherry, just as an ordinary
sieve would do, but it also floats off the lights and the seconds, because its
slowly oscillating sieve is moving under water. The raw (still mucilated)
parchment coffee, separates into heavier beans or firsts, which sink down to
the bottom of the tank, and the less dense beans, which float, or else get
worked up the face of the oscillating screen. The floaters and the skins and
unpulped cherries are then separated by size to make two streams which go
to either side of the repass pulper, which can have a different setting on each
side. A much more even fermentation results in an improved quality, when
these various streams are separated out and fermented separately.
12 Section 10
10.3.7.1 Aagaard pregrader adjustments
The efficiency of the pregrader is dependent on a proper rate of water flow,
and this is the only thing that needs to be adjusted for the clean separation of
good coffee. The major point of wear on these machines is the chain driven
elevator, which lifts the good coffee up out of the bottom of the machine. If
the factory has an adequate water supply, then this elevator, which is only
meant to conserve water, can be done away with and a simple siphon feed of
three inch pipe can be used instead. If the top of the pipe is level with the top
of the machine, then the rate of flow can be altered by just leaning the pipe
over at the appropriate angle.
10.3.8 Repass pulper
Normally a single disc model, this machine takes the overflow from the sieve.
If taken from an Aagaard rather than a sieve, it is possible to set each side of
the disc for a different size, to cope with the dual output of overflow or repass
material from the Aagaard. This overflow contains the hard under-ripe
cherries, and the smallest cherries that have come through the main pulper
untouched. The plough should be set closer than that of the main pulper
setting, in order to pulp small cherries. For maximum efficiency, the repass
pulper settings should be frequently checked and adjustments made
accordingly.
The output of the repass pulper is normally fermented separately to be

processed and either sold as a low grade coffee, or else is carefully handpicked
over before being mixed back into the main quality line.
10.4 FERMENTATION
After pulping, the wet parchment must be held for some time, usually 34-36
hours (depending on temperature/altitude) to allow the mucilage layer or
mesocarp to completely ferment and disintegrate, so that it can be washed off
the beans. In big factories, the large volume of wet parchment needs to be
held in special fermentation tanks, whereas smallholders can ferment their
small amounts in bags, wooden boxes or other perforated containers.
The best results are given by allowing the fermenting beans to drain freely.
Beans that are fermented under water, or in a water tight container, take
much longer than if some oxygen from the air is available in the small
airspaces between the drained coffee. Fermenting beans should also be kept
warm, by bulking them up as much as possible to stop the heat generated by
the fermentation from dissipating. Generally speaking, the quicker the
fermentation process is achieved, the less chance there is of taints and off-
13 Section 10
flavours developing. Sourness, which is caused by poor fermentation and
poor washing, should be avoided at all costs.
One should avoid fermenting beans in any sort of un-painted steel container.
Parchment may be washed in an old oil drum, but wet parchment or
fermenting coffee should never be left next to steel for more than a few
minutes. As well as discolouring the parchment, either with rust, or more
often with a blue-black metallic sheen, a metallic taste can be given to the
liquor.
10.4.1 The fermentation test
The best way to tell if fermentation is complete is by taking a handful of the

fermenting coffee and grasping it strongly enough to squeeze some out
through the fingers. When the beans feel gritty or rough, like stone pebbles,
then fermentation is complete. If however they still feel slippery, then more
time must be given. Under normal conditions, fermentation is completed in
about 36 hours. If temperatures are low, or the coffee was picked after heavy
rain, which washes the natural ferment off the cherries, extra time may be
required. If the process takes any longer, then expert assistance should be
asked for, because diagnosis of fermentation problems is a skilled business.
Just leaving the coffee ‘for as long as it takes’ is not good enough, and, as
mentioned previously, over-fermentation is the major factor leading to off-
flavours.
10.4.2 Use of enzymes
For large factories, where time is important, the rate of fermentation can be
speeded up if enzymes, such as Ultrazym or Pectozyme are used. For
instance, the use of 20 g of Ultrazym 100, at the start of fermentation of 6,000
kg of cherry (i.e. 1,000 kg of finished green bean), can reduce the
fermentation time from 36 hours to around 14 hours. It has also been
reported that as well as reducing fermentation time, better weights of green
bean are also produced. Enzymes are available from most commercial
plantation suppliers, but they can be expensive.
10.4.3 Making your own enzymes
It is possible to make up an enzymatic mixture for oneself, which is equally as
effective as commercial enzymes. If it is possible to separate the lights from
freshly pulped coffee, either by flooding the fermentation tank whilst the
pulpage is going into it, and skimming them off, or by use of an Aagaard
pregrader, when the process is quite simple.
14 Section 10
Simply place the freshly separated lights in a plastic bucket, or buckets, of
water, and leave them for around five days. This process of course requires
sufficient buckets or tubs to hold each day’s supply separately for the week.
On the fifth day, when all the coffee has been pulped, the lights floated off
and the tanks drained, then the first container of fermented lights, from the
previous week, is strained and the solids discarded. The liquid fraction
remaining is then diluted down with water to be mixed into the tank of
fermenting coffee.
This ‘brew’ is very effective in speeding up the natural fermentation of the
coffee, and can ensure overnight fermentation. However, it must be made
every time from freshly pulped cherries. This is because, as well as the
majority of beneficial bacteria, the natural bacteria flora of the soil and wind,
which covers the sticky surface of the ripe cherries, also carries lesser
numbers of other species of bacteria which can cause problems. If one tries to
maintain the brew by using some of a previous batch, these minor bacteria
can build up to the point where they may cause off-taints or other problems.
10.4.4 Uneven fermentation
Fermentation will be uneven if excessive skin and unripe or overripe coffee is
included in the batch. The overripe material is partially fermented already,
and fermentation is very slow on under-ripe and unripe coffee. To provide
the best conditions for even fermentation, coffee in fermenting tanks should
be rinsed with clean water at least once a day, to wash off the already
disintegrated mucilage, and also to dilute the build-up of organic acids in the
tank. If a Kivu pump is available, coffee can be pumped out of a tank and back
into it, or from one tank to another, to both mix it and even out the
fermentation, and also to wash off the mucilage. Such a practice should be
encouraged if the machinery and the water are available; the tank should then
be left open to drain, so that a certain amount of airspace is left in the
fermenting mass. Coffee ferments very slowly under water because the
bacteria enzymes appear to require some oxygen in order to work well. Only
the natural fruit ripening enzymes, present inside the cherry itself, appear to
be able to work under water.
10.4.5 Over fermentation
Prolonged contact of the beans with the solubilised mucilage and other
fermentation products, damages the quality of the coffee by discolouring the
parchment. It may also introduce ‘fruity flavour’, if the wet beans are left in
contact with skins and pulp. ‘Fruity flavour’ is the precursor of ‘sourness’,
which is due to the production of ‘longer chain’ organic acids like propionic
and/or butyric acid. The way in which this happens is that instead of bacteria
15 Section 10
doing the work, the fermentation is taken over by wild yeasts, which first of all
make alcohol and fruity flavours. Then the alcohols break down into both,
acetic acid (vinegar) which is harmless, and other deleterious acids, which
make sour coffee. Because yeasts prefer anaerobic conditions, lack of
drainage and the presence of excessive pulp and skins can push the
fermentation in their direction by restricting oxygen transfer in the fermenting
mass. Fermenting coffee should therefore be washed, at least every day, and,
as soon as the beans feel gritty, they should be given a final wash, and then
left to soak overnight in clean water.
Washed parchment should be soaked to produce a superior quality coffee
with a better liquor or cup taste (see Section 10.6).
10.4.6 Fermenting coffee in bags
Whilst it is strongly recommended that coffee should be fermented in as large
a volume as possible, i.e. in tanks, many smallholders use white plastic chicken
feed bags to ferment their parchment. It is possible to produce good coffee
from bag fermentation, but some points must be watched. White
polypropylene woven plastic sacks are virtually waterproof, and the liquified
mucilage or ‘gris blong kopi’, cannot drain freely away from the fermenting
coffee.
Bags used for fermenting coffee should be punched full of holes with a red hot
nail or piece of wire. The bags of fermenting coffee should be heaped up
together, to maintain as much heat as possible in the fermenting mass. If the
pile can be covered with other bags or banana leaves, this will also retain heat.
The bags should not, however, be buried in a pile of hot fermenting coffee
pulp, because then the air cannot get in and the parchment will be
discoloured by leachate or the dirty water from the coffee pulp. After each
fermentation, the bags must also be washed as clean as possible. Dirt in the
bags can lead to dangerous taints and off-flavours being introduced.
Wooden boxes may be used, but care needs to be taken to maintain the
hygiene of the boxes.
10.5 WASHING
During the fermentation process, coffee should be washed every morning,
until fermentation is complete. At each wash, all the decomposed and
liquified mucilage should be removed to leave only that which is still firmly
adhering to the beans. Removing the solubilized mucilage allows the air to
enter the fermenting mass and avoids all the problems of anaerobic
fermentation.
16 Section 10
Delay in washing can give problems similar to over-fermentation, with the
resultant flavour defects mentioned above. A good supply of clean water is
essential, as several rinses or changes of water may be required. Washing is
currently carried out in many ways, using:
x bags;
x small containers;
x fermenting tanks – by hand;
x separate washing tanks – by hand or with pump;
x washing channels;
x mechanical washing machines.
10.5.1 Washing coffee in Bags
Washing coffee in bags is not only hard work, but parchment may not be
thoroughly washed. It is nevertheless a practice much used by smallholders,
because they have no other practical way. Bags are easy to handle, so that
the fermenting parchment can be easily moved, kept in the house at night for
security, and taken to a nearby stream for washing.
The best way to wash coffee in a bag is to push a hose pipe down into the
bottom of the bag and, while stirring the coffee, float up as much of the skin
and the lights as possible and flush them out of the bag. However, few
smallholders have access to piped water, and there is an unfortunate
reluctance to flush out the lights or empty parchment and fragments, to leave
only clean sound heavy parchment in the bag. Nevertheless it is only sound
heavy parchment that has any value and the lights simply become part of the
coffee buyer’s ‘recovery ratio’, which he has to calculate and delete before he
offers his price to the seller.
10.5.2 Washing in a tank
Washing is done in small pulperies by adding water, stirring with wooden

paddles and draining off the liquid. In larger factories, which have electricity,
the use of a Kivu pump to circulate the fermenting coffee from one tank to
another is a much better option. Kivu pumps are specially designed with a
large smooth open impeller and they run at a slow speed. In this way they do
not cut or bruise the coffee parchment as it passes through them. Any type of
‘vortex’ or ‘non-macerating’ trash pump which is capable of pumping solids is
quite suitable. Most small petrol engine portable fire pumps are ideal, if they
are run at a slow speed for circulating and washing coffee, and at a high speed
for pumping water. Such versatility and portability makes them a very useful
piece of equipment to have in a small factory.
17 Section 10
Tanks used for washing coffee must have an efficient draining facility, as two
or three washings may be required. The use of a fermenting tank may take
the place of a separate washing tank, as long as it will hold water for long
enough to do the job in hand. The best option here is to cement a piece of
75mm or 100mm plastic or steel pipe into the drain from the tank and use a
‘test-plug’ as a stopper or tap.
10.5.3 Washing channels
A washing channel is a very useful adjunct to any wet factory because, in
addition to washing, parchment is also graded according to weight. A washing
channel is usually made of concrete, about 600mm wide, 40 metres long,
normally folded on itself, and has a gentle slope of about 1 in 200 or 0.5% on
the floor. The mode of operation is as follows. Once fermentation is
completed, the wet parchment is pumped into the top end, with lots of water.
As the mixture flows down the channel, the heavy parchment is pushed back
against the current of water with the use of wooden paddles, allowing the
skins and lights etc. to float off. With the aid of strategically placed wooden
battles or boards, that slide into slots cast in the walls of the channel, the
sound heavy parchment can be separated from the lighter coffee or ‘seconds’
to provide a top grade perfectly clean and very even sized parchment.
10.6 UNDER WATER SOAKING OR TWO STAGE FERMENTATION
Immediately after final washing is complete, it is recommended that the
‘firsts’ coffee should then be left under clean water for another 16-24 hours.
In case of emergency e.g. if drying space is limited, the coffee may be left to
soak for longer, but certainly no more than 48 hours, providing that the tank is
changed with fresh water after 24 hours. If separate tanks are not available,
then fermenting tanks can be used, if they can be made water-tight. This so
called second stage process was originally developed in Kenya, where it has
been a standard practice for many years.
Initial test results in PNG also support this recommendation. Soaking ensures
that any brown discolouration chemicals are also leached from the beans,
thereby enhancing the colour and thus the quality of the coffee. However, the
dissolving out of some of the sugars and other water soluble compounds, does
result in a slight loss in weight. Overseas research indicates that some of the
caffeine, and other bitter phenolic compounds, called chlorogenic acids, are
also reduced by soaking. Unfortunately, soaking may also cause
embrittlement and increased cracking of the parchment upon rapid drying.
Nevertheless, because of the present trends in ‘health consciousness’, there
are many overseas buyers who are specially looking for lower caffeine
contents in their coffee.
18 Section 10
10.7 DRYING
10.7.1 Drying parchment coffee
Parchment coffee is dried in two stages:
1. Skin drying
This is when the free surface water is removed, to leave the parchment
dry to the appearance but with the bean still moist and soft inside. Skin
drying reduces the overall moisture content of the parchment from
around 55%, down to about 42% moisture content dry basis (mcdb).
Once the parchment skin is surface dry, the danger of spoilage is much
reduced, but the coffee should not be left at this stage. If for any
particular reason coffee has to be kept for even just a few days before
drying is completed, it must be dried down to at least the soft black
stage as a minimum requirement.
2. Main drying
As coffee is further dried, it goes through several stages which can be
determined by simple tests and by looking at the colour of the inside of
the bean, as indicated in the following table:
Table 10.1 Bean colour as an indicator of moisture content
Mcdb (%)
45-40% Skin-dry. No water between bean and parchment.
40-35% White stage. Parchment soft.
35-32% Opaque stage.
32-25% Very soft black stage. Bean partially opaque.
25-20% Soft black. All parts of bean coloured black.
20-16% Medium black. Bean easily marked by teeth.
16-14% Hard black. Bean marked by teeth with difficulty.
14-12% Colour change. Blackness disappears.
12-10% Fully dry. Translucent jade green colour.
Only barely marked by teeth.
10-8% Over dry. Bean fractures when bitten.
The current standard for the maximum allowable moisture content is between
8% and 12.5%. However, it is believed that, because PNG coffee is grown
under high rainfall conditions, the physical structure of the green bean is more
spongy and hygroscopic (water absorbing) than coffee grown in drier climates.
It is recommended therefore that parchment should be dried down to at least
10.5% or perhaps even lower, to give a good keeping quality of green bean
that could be exported as a superior quality product. The choice of final
moisture content should allow for the effect of conditioning, i.e. the evening
19 Section 10
out of moisture between the centre and the surface of the bean. A balance
must also be struck between the loss of revenue due to loss of weight, and the
gain of revenue due to improvement of quality.
During final drying, the parchment skin should remain intact, with the
shrunken bean remaining protected from the air, completely separated from
the hull, but still inside its compartment. The best way to store coffee for any
length of time is in this dried parchment form. Once coffee is hulled, and the
surface of the green bean is polished or abraded, its protective coating is
removed and deterioration of the bean by oxidative changes will begin.
Polished green bean should never be stored for more than a month or two.
10.7.2 Cracking of parchment and case hardening
Skin drying removes a lot of moisture from the wet parchment, and brings
about a good deal of shrinking of the bean inside. This causes strains on the
husk or hull of the parchment as the silver skin layer on the bean pulls away
and separates from it. If the skin drying process happens too quickly,
especially to those beans on the top or the bottom of the layer, wherever the
heat is being applied, the parchment husk will shrink more than the bean
inside will allow it, and it will begin to split and crack. This then creates a
situation where, because those parchments which are split allow the green
bean inside them to dry at an even greater rate than before, the whole batch
dries very unevenly.
Cracking of parchment can be avoided by frequent stirring and moving of the
coffee when it is drying, so as to keep the moisture loss as even as possible.
Leaving coffee exposed to the full heat of the midday sun when it is being
sundried is also a bad practice which is sure to cause cracking. Such extreme
heat, whether by sun or machine drying, also causes what is known as case
hardening. The outer layers of the too-rapidly shrinking bean are dried,
brittle, hard and impervious, whilst the inside of the bean is still soft with
moisture trapped inside. The stresses thus created result in micro-cracking of
the surface of the green bean itself, and a subsequent definite loss of quality,
particularly when the green bean has to be stored for long periods.
10.7.3 The benefits of sun drying of coffee
Sun drying of coffee parchment improves its quality, by the bleaching effects
of the ultra-violet light in the sun’s rays. The brown discolorations are
reduced, and any chlorophyll residues in the silverskin, from under-ripe
cherries, are bleached or deactivated in some way. Furthermore, work done
in Africa indicates that a minimum of 50 hours of exposure to sunlight
emphasizes the blue-green colour of the coffee bean. That same bluish colour
20 Section 10
indicates to the coffee liquorers that the coffee will have a certain desirable
flavour and it is an intrinsic quality factor of coffee in trade, which is so often
missing from machine dried coffee.
10.7.4 Good sun drying practices
In PNG, plastic sheeting, spread out on the ground, is the method most
commonly used by those smallholders, farms and plantations involved in the
sun drying of their coffee. This method is cost effective, but not
recommended because of:
x The possible introduction of dust, stone and dirt into the parchment;
x The sweating of the coffee in the plastic sheets when they are folded
over, in wet weather, or during the heat of the day;
x The labour intensive nature of the process, particularly the amount of
hand labour required for raking and stirring, to dry the coffee evenly;
x The time consumed in the gathering and re-bagging of parchment.
The preferred method of sun drying coffee is on raised tables, built with floors
of 4mm woven wire mesh. For ease of stirring, the parchment tables should
have dimensions of 0.8m in height, 0.9m in width and 30 m long, i.e. the
length of a roll of coffee tray wire. Coffee on drying tables is aerated naturally
from underneath and can still continue to dry even when it is covered. It does
not develop musty smells and taints, like wet coffee which has been wrapped
up tightly for lengthy periods in impervious plastic sheets. The problem here
is that when beans sweat, it is not pure water that comes out. Just like the
human body, coffee beans sweat a salty/sugary solution that breeds micro-
organisms very quickly, and the bacteria, and worse still yeasts, rapidly
produce the off-odours and flavours. When coffee is dried with lots of air in
circulation, the moisture actually evaporates inside the bean, leaving all the
salts and sugars inside, where they should be for a heavier product, and only
water vapour permeates out through the surface of the bean.
In direct sunlight, wet beans can get heated to nearly 40qC and nearly dry
beans will go well up over the danger level of 50qC. This is especially so if
coffee is dried on concrete surfaces or barbecues. Care should be exercised
during the middle of the day to cover the coffee, or to shade it in some way.
10.7.5 Combination drying
The appropriate method for plantations who wish to improve the quality of
their coffee by some sun drying, is to skin dry the wet parchment to the soft or
medium black stage by machine, and then finish it off by sun drying on plastic
ground sheets or on tables. By skin drying in an Asaro drier, the cracking of
parchment is minimised or even avoided, so that the whole batch dries very
21 Section 10
evenly, and the need for a long conditioning period before hulling is much
reduced. During the main drying period in the sun, the coffee should be thinly
spread, to avoid sweating. Such a finishing process could be completed within
4 to 5 days, when there is adequate sunshine available.
The most dangerous period of drying is at the skin drying stage when, as in
sweating, bacteria, yeasts and moulds can grow on the damp surface of the
parchment. It is preferable to get through this stage as quickly and as reliably
as possible, and then the changes of the weather can be the more easily
coped with at a later stage. Once coffee gets down to the medium black stage
(20-16% mcdb), it can be bagged and kept for some time without loss of
quality. This is the turning point, when a good manager can save his entire
crop during bad weather or during peak harvest. At this stage, normal
procedures can be completely overlooked for a week or so without harm.
10.7.6 Machine drying of coffee
When coffee is dried wholly in mechanical driers, it is essential to aerate and
condition the beans at intervals, by stopping, or at least slowing, the drying
process, to allow the moisture content to even out and avoid case hardening
of the beans. Generally, coffee that is mechanically dried quickly, from 50%
moisture content down to 12%, for some reason has a very low liquor score.
Furthermore, to avoid damage in the cup quality and the bean colour, when
mechanically drying coffee, the temperature should not exceed 50qC. While it
is wet, the evaporative cooling effect is high, and it is very hard to even get
near this temperature. But, as drying proceeds the temperature can rise, and
care must be taken.
10.7.7 Types of mechanical driers
The most popular, and indeed the most versatile, kind of drier found in PNG is
the Asaro drier. Other reasonably common brands are the rotary or Guardiola
driers. They are very effective in finishing skin dry or soft black parchment
down to the hulling stage.
The major advantage of the Asaro drier, is its large plenum chamber or open
space underneath the perforated steel floor, and its effective drainage system.
This allows wet coffee from the soaking and washing tanks to be pumped
straight into it by means of a Kivu pump, and the water simply drains out the
bottom, leaving the coffee. This is a great labour saving method of moving
coffee around the factory. However, all of these driers are now becoming
expensive to run, due to the rising cost of electricity.
Regular maintenance of the drying machinery, in particular the heat
exchanger, is necessary for quality assurance.
22 Section 10
10.7.8 Future directions
With increasing costs for energy, and on the world markets that also equates
to increasing costs for chemical fertilisers, the coffee industry can no longer
afford to use energy intensive process like mechanical drying. Nor should it be
discarding or burning its own organic wastes, and then importing all the
fertiliser that it needs. The rapid escalation of popularity and demand for
organic coffee also points toward the recycling of as much of our industry’s
organic wastes as possible. Some plantation managers report that they are
getting less returns than before from their use of chemical fertilisers, because
the soil structure and organic humus levels seem to be deteriorating.
If solar drying is coupled with a program of waste treatment, which can return
all the hulls, pulp and skins, complete with their fertiliser content, back to the
soil as humus and soil improvers (see Section 7.4.4.8 ), then we may yet be
able to survive, and indeed prosper, in times of low commodity prices.
10.8 DRY FACTORY OPERATIONS
10.8.1 Registration
In accordance with the Coffee Industry Corporation (Statutory Powers and
Functions) Act, 1991, Part VI – Registration of Coffee Dealers, standard
conditions have been issued by CIC to regulate the design, construction and
operation of facilities for processing coffee so as to control the quality of the
product. The regulations may change from time to time. The currently applied
Regulations issued in 2009 set out minimum requirements for registration of
dry factories as:
Equipment requirements for Dry Factories will be standardized and for a
minimum of one [1] tonne per hour capacity shall be:
(a) Hot air dryer adequate for designed plant capacity.
(b) A De-stoner is to be installed ahead of the Huller for designed plant
capacity.
(c) Huller-polisher adequate for designed plant capacity.
(d) A Size-Grader capable of grading green bean into different grades or
sizes for designed plant capacity.
(e) A Catador adequate for designed plant capacity.
(f) A Densimetric table at the output end of the line of machines
adequate for designed plant capacity.
[h] An approved Combined Huller may be substituted for the items
specified in (b), (d) and (e) above.
23 Section 10
10.8.2 Conditioning parchment for hulling
By whatever means parchment is dried, there are sure to be small differences
in the moisture content, both from bean to bean, and also from the centre to
the outside of each individual bean. It is difficult to hull parchment when its
moisture content varies in this way, so it is always best to store dried
parchment in a bulk bin for at least a week or more, in order to even out the
moisture content.
10.8.3 Hulling and polishing
The traditional way of hulling parchment coffee is a high energy process
where a powerful motor turns a large spirally fluted shaft or auger inside a
slotted cage, and the coffee beans are forcefully screwed along the gap
between them to have all their outer hulls and the silverskin rubbed off
against each other. If the moisture content of the parchment is not between
10 and 12% mcdb, the machine is not carefully adjusted, or the parchment is
dirty, the hulls will not break up cleanly and the machine will become jammed
or impacted. It then has to be dismantled and cleaned, or else the coffee will
become badly overheated and mutilated. Hulling is one of the more skilled
operations in the processing of coffee. Once the hulls are removed, the green
bean can then be polished, by being put through another similar but more
gentle action of mechanical rubbing and abrading, to remove as much of the
silverskin as possible and give the beans a shine.
On some equipment, these two actions are combined, in two sections of the
one machine (Fig. 10.7). The hulling section is made of cast iron, and the
polishing section of bronze. In small plants, the coffee can simply be put
through the same machine twice, with less pressure applied on the second
pass.
Plate 10.5: A combination huller/polisher

24 Section 10
10.8.4 Impact hullers
Because of the large amount of heat generated in the traditional ‘screw press’
hulling process, and the damage that heat does to the eventual cup quality of
the green bean, the use of ‘cross beater’ and ‘impact’ hullers is increasing. In
these machines, the parchment is thrown at a plate or anvil, to break up the
hulls. This takes very little horsepower, but removes the majority of the hulls.
The coffee can then go through the traditional polishing process at a much
lower temperature. Impact hullers are not expensive to maintain.
10.8.5 Wear on hulling machinery
It must be emphasized that the abrasive action of coffee hulls is such that, as
well as polishing the surface of the green bean, it also wears down the inside
surfaces of the huller. This is why the internal parts of a screw type huller are
replaceable, and they should be checked every season. Processing
smallholder coffee, with a high foreign matter content, can wear out an auger
in 1,500 hours, or less. When the machine is worn and smooth, much more
pressure has to be applied to polish the green bean, by adding extra weights
on the outflow restrictor. Such excessive pressure will overheat, indeed cook,
the green bean and a serious loss of cup quality results.
10.9 GRADING, CLEANING AND SORTING
10.9.1 Green bean grades
The grading of green bean into different sizes is done immediately after
hulling. The sale of the green bean to exporters is made on the basis of cup
quality and further separated according to bean sizes.
In PNG, the machines used, (see Plate 10.6), have shaker sieves fitted with
perforated screens of different sizes. Bean size is determined by its width, but
not its length. The size of the holes in the screens are usually, for historical
reasons, measured in 64th of an inch. So, for example, a no. 18 screen, i.e.
18/64’s in diameter, will let everything pass through it, except those extra
large beans. Screens from Europe can be measured in millimetres. Table 10.2
gives the current coffee grades and the size differentiations.
In general, the better the coffee trees are cared for and the healthier they are,
the bigger are the beans, the higher their content of sugars and aromatic oil,
and the better their quality. So, a simple grading by size is a fair indication to
exporters and merchants of the overall quality of what they are buying.
25 Section 10
In addition to the specifically sized grades A and B, there are several general
categories. Most smallholder coffee, because of the poor processing methods
used, is sold as Y grade, because its taste has little relation to the size of the
beans.
10.9.2 Cleaning and densimetric sorting

Even after size grading, a lot of impurities can remain such as small stones,
fragments of dried skin and broken fragments. A Catador is therefore
required, by CIC regulations, to separate out objects lighter than coffee beans,
by an upward blast of air. An enhanced cleaning and sorting operation can be
done by means of a densimetric table. These machines move the green bean
across an oscillating screen, with a draft of air coming up from underneath.
This spreads out the beans into a range of densities, as they move across the
surface. The upper and lower grades can be removed, and the main output of
good bean sorted into 2-3 grades, depending on their individual weights as
well as their size.
Plate 10.6 A grading machine
26 Section 10
10.9.3 Hand sorting
While there are electronic sorting machines available to pick out those beans
which are discoloured or have other defects, these machines have not been
widely used in PNG. They are, however, standard equipment in Central and
South American coffee factories.
In many operations, sorting is carried out by hand. Some factories use a
conveyor belt to move a thin layer of green bean past a line of seated workers
who concentrate on picking out the defective beans.
10.10 BAGGING AND STORAGE
Coffee stores for both parchment and green bean must be dry, well ventilated,
clean and secure. A coffee store should never be used as a temporary store
for chemicals or anything else, because of the danger of the coffee picking up
bad taints. Hulled and graded green bean is bagged directly into 60kg ‘Export’
double layer jute bags, which should be stacked on pallets or wooden slats
15cm above the floor, and kept away from walls. For good storage, the most
important feature is the moisture content of the green bean. In PNG it is
recommended that this should be as close as possible to 10.5%, for reasons
mentioned in Section 10.7. Careful records must be kept of all coffee in the
store, and each consignment sold must be of uniform quality.
10.11 PURCHASING SMALLHOLDER COFFEE
Smallholder coffee can be bought either as cherry, or as parchment at varying
degrees of dryness. When buying or working with cherry weights, the main
factor to consider is the out-turn ratio. When buying parchment, it is the
recovery ratio.
10.11.1 Out-turn ratios
As a general rule, one tonne of cherry will produce around 160kg of green
bean. This represents an out-turn ratio of 6.25:1. However, practical results
can be anything from 5.8:1 up to 7:1. The major factor is the moisture content
of the cherries just before picking. Coffee picked after a heavy rain will have
an out-turn ratio of close to 7:1. Coffee picked after a dry spell will be less
than 6:1.
A major problem in buying smallholder cherry is the long delay between the
picking of the cherry and its sale and eventual processing. As already
mentioned, such delays cause over-fermentation, the production of fruity
flavour and often sourness. Factory owners should be vigilant to detect this
27 Section 10
problem and encourage the prompt marketing and processing of smallholder
cherry.
Table 10.2: Grades & Screen sizes for green bean

Grade Cup Quality Maximum Raw Bean Odour Bean Size
Defect Colour
allowed
(Equivalent
per Kg)
Full, reasonably Displayed as a Suffix.
balanced, uniform, Where a specific screen size
clean, cup; well is designated the coffee must
Bluish
A pronounced body and 10 be uniform in size above
green Fresh
acidity; rich and designated screen size. No
and
distinct fragrance and suffix means the coffee is
clean, no
aroma. mixed size.
off
Regular, uniform Screen Screen ISO
odours
clean cup; medium to Even, No. Diameter norm
allowed
high acidy and green to (mm)
B 30
pronounced body; bluish 20 7.94 8.00
rich fragrance and green 19 7.54 7.50
aroma. 18 7.14 7.10
May lack some 17 6.75 6.70
uniformity in the cup; 16 6.35 6.30
good acidity and Clean/ 15 5.95 6.00
body; some Pale fresh, PB 4.37 to 4.40
Y Fruitiness/ 70 green to some 5.55 to
wineyness; good green fruitiness (single 5.60
fragrance and aroma. . bean/
round
shape)
Y2 Irregular cup profile; Mixed No foul
fair acidity and body; light or
150 Mixed
no foul or foreign green to foreign
flavour. green odours.
Y3 No foul or foreign 30%
flavour. defects
excluding
good
nipped No foul
beans. No or
Mixed Mixed
foreign foreign
matter. odours.
Must be fit
for human
consumpti
on.
10.11.2 Recovery ratio

The ‘recovery’ or ‘return’ ratio is the difference between the weight of
parchment and its yield of dry, sound and clean green bean. A roadside
buyer has to determine both the moisture content, and the amount of light
beans, empty parchments and other rubbish in the seller’s bag before he can
work out his price. Good, sound, well washed clean and dry parchment has a
recovery ratio of around 80%, due to the weight of the hulls and silverskin. A
28 Section 10
badly under-dried smallholder sample, full of skin fragments, empty shells and
other rubbish can have a recovery ratio of only 60%.
10.11.3 Moisture content
The convention in PNG, for the roadside buying of smallholder parchment, is
to set the price in relation to the moisture content of the coffee in question.
Fully dried parchment is called ‘machine coffee’, because it can be put straight
into the huller. No. 1 coffee needs two or three hours of additional drying
before it can be machined, and No. 2 coffee 5 or 6 hours.
Further details of the classes of ‘Dry Arabica Parchment’ are given in Papua
New Guinea Standard 1626 -2016 for Green Coffee gazetted by NISIT.
10.12 SETTING UP A NEW COFFEE FACTORY

Because of the large number of possibilities, and the site specific nature of
most designs for small coffee factories, it is not proposed to give any actual
plans for coffee factories in this Handbook. However, the staff at CIC RGSD
are available to advise, on the basis of a sketch plan of the area and some
projected figures, on the amount of cherry/parchment to be processed each
year. Most machinery manufacturers will now provide a full design, to suit the
size of the planned operation.
10.12.1 Choosing a good factory site
Big or small, the first point to be considered in the setting-up of any wet
factory or pulper unit, is the need for a reliable, ample and unpolluted water
supply, with sufficient pressure or head to give a good rate of flow. A small
supply may be bulked up by storage in a large tank, which can deliver a large
flow for short periods when required.
Water is needed:
x To enable the pulper to work properly;
x For transport of coffee waste through the factory;
x For washing the coffee;
x For cleaning the factory.
The amount of water required will depend on the type of cherry feed, the
machinery used, the washing procedures and whether it is possible to recycle.
For a large factory, as much as 90,000 litres may be required per tonne of
green bean produced, although with recirculation, as detailed below, this can
be reduced to 30,000 litres or less.
Ideally, the factory should be sited on sloping ground, with an angle of about
17 degrees. This will make construction easier and assist the smooth
29 Section 10
movement of the coffee by gravity down through the various processes. This
minimizes the use of both machinery and labour. Given the choice between
sitting the factory on a slope, or close to a stream, the best long term choice
would be to choose the slope, as it is a lot easier to pump water than to move
coffee from one machine to another. The factory should be easily accessible
by good roads, to be able to receive cherry in all weathers, and for the
removal of bagged dry parchment or green bean.
10.12.2 Water use and recirculation
If plenty of water is available, it is preferable to use sufficient to dilute the
effluent or waste water flow from the factory as much as possible and
minimise the pollution problem. However, for many reasons, such as eventual
shortage of supply, storage costs, pumping costs and waste treatment, the
general aim should be to economize with water.
If the supply is limited, it is possible to reduce the use of water by recycling.
Water that is used for the pulper may be recycled by straining out the pulp
and pumping it back to use again, perhaps several times over, but only for that
day’s pulping.
The first flush of water used for washing the fermented parchment held
overnight, must be discarded immediately, because it contains all the liquefied
mucilage, the main load of effluent. The second rinsing water, and the water
used in a washing channel, can be recirculated for as long as required, the
more so if the coffee will be put to soak for another day in a further final wash
of clean water. What must not be done is to save used water from one day to
the next, because that water will go foul overnight.
A major economy can be achieved by holding the 2nd rinse or washing channel
water, used for washing coffee in the morning, for reuse in pulping another
batch of coffee in the afternoon. This is recommended practice for large
factories with good management practices, because care must be taken to
prevent a ‘feedback’ cycle in which an infection or off-fermentation may start-
up and be passed on from one day to the next, building up as it goes to create
serious problems.
All wet factories are required to have a ‘Permit to Take Water’, or a ‘Water
Use Permit’ plus a ‘Permit to Discharge Water’.
10.12.3 Factory organization
A well trained and experienced factory manager is essential to attend to the
daily running and maintenance of the factory. The manager will be
responsible for:
30 Section 10
x The efficient receipt and correct processing of cherry to parchment or
green bean;
x The daily organization and supply of labourers;
x The discipline of factory staff;
x The correct storage of parchment and green bean;
x The maintenance of machinery and equipment;
x The keeping of records for machinery running hours and maintenance;
x The maintenance of a stores ledger and a supply of fuels, lubricants and
essential spares for all machinery and equipment;
x The implementation of machinery safety and anti-pollution regulations;
x The maintenance of the factory water supply;
x The maintenance of access roads;
x The implementation of efficient security measures, watchmen, fencing
and security lights.
10.12.4 Labour requirements
The requirements given below are for a 3 disc factory handling 3,000kg
cherry/hour. The following is given as a guide, actual numbers will depend on
many factors, such as:
x Factory design;
x Reception;
x Sorting;
x Weighing;
x Methods of handling wet coffee, by pumps or by hand;
x The seasonal variation in ripe cherry inputs.
Many of the operations that are detailed below occur at different times of the
day, and so can often be performed by the same team. The size of the team
required therefore mostly depends on the largest single unit operation, plus
the volume of cherry coming in at the time. The usual practice is to have a
minimum sized team of permanent staff, and then use casual labour to meet
the short periods when seasonal peaks occur.
Reception
One factory manager/supervisor for cherry reception and recording.
Two assistants for weighing, lifting bags etc.
Pulping
One man in-charge of the pulper.
Washing
Two men for intermediate washing.
Two to four men for final washing, depending if washing channel is used.
31 Section 10
Drying
Two men, if drying is carried out mechanically.
Two men per 140 m2 of drying area, if tables or sails are used for sun drying.
This operation is labour intensive due to the frequent turning required.
Cleaning
The pulping team should also be responsible for cleaning the factory. The
cherry hopper, dry feed chute, pulper, sieve or pregrader, channels and floors
should be thoroughly cleaned at the end of each day’s pulping. Each day,
before pulping commences, all the equipment should be checked again to see
that it is clean and that the fermentation tanks to be used that day are also
clean. If cherry or pulp is left in machinery overnight, it will pass through with
the next day’s fresh cherry, causing taints which will adversely affect the
quality of the coffee. Such lack of cleaning is often the source of isolated
‘stinker’ beans which can seriously downgrade a whole batch of production.
10.12.5 Safety
All exposed belts, chains, and other moving parts should be enclosed to
protect workers from accidents, and to comply with safety regulations. Only
the authorized operator and possibly an assistant, should operate factory
machinery. All staff should be provided with, and trained with, the necessary
Workers’ Health and Safety (WHS) Standards set down by the Department of
Labour and Employment.
The operation and maintenance of the machinery should follow the
manufacturers’ instructions.
If the factory works at night, adequate lighting must be available, both for
safety, and to avoid operator fatigue.
The factory compound should be fenced, mainly for security reasons, but also
to prevent unauthorized persons having excess to the machinery.
10.13 PULP AND WASTE WATER DISPOSAL
Finding a safe and efficient method for disposing of coffee pulp and factory
waste water is essential. Pollution of rivers and minor waterways can occur
throughout all the coffee growing areas, and from both sectors of production.
Government and the CIC have legislation governing the treatment of pulp and
waste water.
10.13.1 Separation of pulp and waste water
The first and major requirement is for the coffee pulp to be separated from
any water discharged from the factory. The elimination of pulp solids will
32 Section 10
substantially reduce the pollution load of the waste water. Separation can be
done using a perforated steel plate (static screen). The stream of pulp and
water is pumped over the top to the screen, the water passes down through
the screen and the pulp builds up on top, until its weight makes it slide off.
The water passing through the screen can be piped back for recirculation, or
piped directly into seepage pits.
A series of 3 settling or seepage pits is recommended. Suitable reeds and
rushes are used to extract soluble nutrients as the water progresses from pit 1
to pit 3. If it is not possible to dig a pit because the water table is too high,
then channel the waste water into a piece of swamp or reeds before it gets
into a stream. A method that is presently acceptable is to pump the pulp
waste stream out into an open area some distance away from natural
drainage, heap up the pulp for future use, and allow the water to drain away,
preferably through a swampy area growing reeds and rushes.
CIC regulations require processors to provide (on request) written evidence of
compliance with all requirements of the Department of Environment and
Conservation as to pollution control including dust, noise and disposal of
affluent/waste, as required.
Registered wet factories must have their skin/pulp separation system
approved by the Corporation.
Certified registered processors must strictly comply with the certifying
agencies’ policy requirements on environmental issues.
The CIC RGSD can give advice on waste treatment systems and provide plans
for static screens and other equipment.
10.13.2 Use of coffee pulp
Coffee pulp is a good source of organic fertiliser and should not be wasted,
particularly if no other chemical fertilisers are being used. If raw wet pulp is
being put back out around the coffee trees, or in a vegetable garden, then it
should be spread widely and thinly, certainly no more than 5cm in depth. The
pulp has first to be stabilized, by turning black, before it is of any value to the
soil. Once pulp has gone black, then it will not go smelly, breed flies or drain
any nasty liquids. If pulp is heaped up, or spread too thickly, then the air
cannot get into it to allow the right kinds of bacteria to work, and the pile goes
red and slimy in the middle. This reddish sticky and slimy material is caused by
a ‘silage’ or ‘sauerkraut’ reaction, which manufactures large amounts of
organic acids which drain out of the pile. These acids kill the roots of plants if
heaps of red pulp silage are broken open and spread around as fertiliser. They
33 Section 10
can also kill fish and other wild life if unstabilized pulp is allowed into streams
and rivers.
Raw pulp used as a mulch, or in planting holes for young coffee, has a heavy
demand for available nitrogen, and can restrict growth quite markedly until it
is stabilised.
10.13.3 Stabilizing coffee pulp for use as fertiliser
The best way to stabilize large volumes of coffee skins and pulp waste, is to
compost it. The process of making compost, is when any sort of organic
material is given sufficient nitrogen to encourage bacteria to grow in it, and
then the material is kept open and mixed, so that these aerobic bacteria can
work on the organic matter to break it down and turn it into humus, which is a
valuable soil fertiliser and improver. A proper composting process dries out
the material and concentrates it down to about one sixth of the weight and
volume of the original pulp. Actively working compost bacteria also generate
a lot of heat, which kills off all the flies and pathogens or disease creating
bacteria. It also stops the germination of the lights, those undergrade coffee
seeds washed out of the coffee, which can germinate later on in the compost
and cause problems.
Depending on how much time, money and work area is available,

composting can be achieved in as short as a week, if machinery is
used, or three weeks by hand methods. If pulp is just heaped up and
left, it can take as long as two to three years to break down.
For smallholders with land available, the cheapest and easiest option is
probably to set-up their pulper in an area where they plan to put next year’s
garden. Then, after the season’s pulping is completed, the heaps of pulp can
be spread around with a shovel. By the next season, the previous year’s pulp
will be well rotted down forming a valuable layer of mulch, which can be raked
or dug into the soil.
For large plantations, who do have some land available, the windrowing
techniques used by the American MSW (municipal solid waste) industry
appears to be the best available option. This has, at present, only been tested
in PNG up to the pilot scale of operation. This process takes about three
weeks, and requires the windrows to be turned once a week. The lowest cost
machine readily available is an attachment that fits onto a front end loader, or
onto the hydraulics on the back of a tractor. This ‘compost auger’ would
handle windrows of pulp two metres wide and one metre high, and should
easily cater for the biggest coffee plantations in the country. Such a machine
has not yet been tested in PNG.
34 Section 10
10.13.4 The growing of organic coffee
The recent escalation of interest in organic coffee, from overseas buyers in
Europe, Japan and the USA, has excited many local growers and processors.
The higher prices that buyers are willing to pay for a product certified to be
free of herbicides, pesticides and synthetic fertiliser chemicals, has to be
weighed against the reduced outputs and increased costs of organic coffee
production. Even if all the available coffee processing wastes were recycled, it
would provide less than 20% of the presently assessed fertiliser requirements
for intensive coffee growing. However, if a non-intensive regime was planned,
by the replanting of shade trees, particularly those with a high production of
leaf litter, the slashing and mulching of weed growth and the recycling of
factory wastes, by the methods indicated above, then a reduced but fully
sustainable yield of a high value product may be envisaged.
10.14 USEFUL PROCESSING FACTS AND FIGURES
The following information has been gleaned by a succession of RGSD staff
from many places. These numbers are to be taken as a guide only. Figures
relating to ripe cherry vary significantly from place to place. In most cases
numbers have been rounded off:
1,000 kg of cherry yields 200kg of clean dry parchment.
200 kg of parchment yields 160kg of green bean.
The average ‘out-turn’ ratio is 6.25:1.
The average ‘recovery’ ratio is around 75-80%.
1,000 kg of ripe cherry needs 1.5m3 of cherry hopper space.
1,000 kg of cherry needs 0.6m3 of fermenting tank space.
1,000 kg of cherry produces 0.5m3 of clean wet parchment.
1,000 kg of cherry requires 20m2 of sun drying area.
500 cherries weigh 1kg.
4,400 dry parchments weigh 1kg.
5,000 green beans weigh 1kg.
The capacity of a disc pulper is 1,000 kg/disc/hr.
The capacity of an Aagaard pregrader is 3 pulper discs.
One bag of parchment coffee weighs 50kg.
One bag of green bean weighs 60kg.
16.5 bags of green bean weigh one tonne.
Bags of coffee close stack at 13 bags/m3.
1kg green bean gives 0.84kg of roasted bean.
35 Section 10
11.0 CERTIFICATION OF COFFEE
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Coffee Certification is the process by which coffee is guaranteed to have been

produced in compliance with a number of agreed specific standards. It is the
result of worldwide consumer demand for products that have been produced
in a sustainable, responsible and transparent way.
Coffee Certification ensures many social, environmental and economic
benefits, it also generally rewards producers with price premiums and
improved access to international markets. This in turn improves the quality
and long term sustainability of the industry.
11.2 WHAT IS COFFEE CERTIFICATION?
Coffee Certification is a voluntary initiative involving all the stakeholders along
a production chain, from the growers to the processors to the exporters. All
stakeholders agree to promote and practice a number of specified social,
environmental and economic standards in a sustainable and transparent way.
Their compliance is evaluated and monitored regularly by an independent
certifying body. If the standards are fully met, the coffee is duly certified.
Some coffee is double- or triple-certified by meeting the standards of more
than one certifying body.
Once certified, the coffee can be marketed as certified coffee, and as such it
will attract a price premium. Regular on-farm inspections, examination of
records and interviews are undertaken during annual audits by the certifying
bodies to ensure that standards continue to be met. Annual
inspection/certification fees are charged by the certifying bodies.
Certification bodies will often provide advice to growers on how to become
more professional and competitive, and/or provide access to markets and
support networks.
11.3 WHAT ARE THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF COFFEE CERTIFICATION?
Successfully negotiating the rather complex process of Certification (see
Section 11.6), maintaining the agreed social, environmental and economic
standards, and dealing with the annual audits of the certifying organisation,
are major challenges, especially in the PNG context. They require a significant
investment in time, much determination, and some costs.
Implementing the many necessary changes to the coffee production process,
whilst complying with the required social standards (such as providing training
1 Section 11
for workers), will represent additional costs for all coffee producers, at least
initially. These additional costs, however, should be off-set by improvements
in production efficiency. As the anticipated improvements in coffee quality
become apparent, and the price premiums due to Certification are realised,
there should be a net benefit to most coffee producers.
Producing coffee in a sustainable, responsible and transparent way, whilst
complying with social, environmental and economic standards, should result in
benefits for the environment, and all individuals involved in the production
chain. It also benefits the consumers, who are reassured that they are
consuming an ‘ethical’ product.
Specifically for the coffee industry in PNG, coffee certification may result in
some or all of the following:
x Improved coffee quality;
x Improved production efficiency;
x Sustainable production;
x Increased access to markets;
x Higher coffee prices
x Less environmental damage due to coffee production;
x Better conditions for those working in the industry.
11.4 COMMON STANDARDS REQUIRED FOR CERTIFICATION
Coffee certification involves all those who participate in the coffee production
chain, from grower to exporter. Standards are therefore specified for growing,
storing, processing, packaging and shipping of coffee. All certification bodies
incorporate three basic dimensions of sustainability, responsibility and
transparency, namely the:
x Social dimension (acceptable working conditions for farmers and their
families);
x Environmental dimension (conservation of forests and natural
resources);
x Economic dimension (reasonable incomes, free market access,
sustainable livelihoods).
Although the precise requirements of different certification bodies vary
somewhat, this section summarises the most common elements of these three
dimensions. These are described in terms of the baseline or core
requirements, and the standards necessary for full certification.
2 Section 11
11.4.1 Social standards
Table 11.1: General social standards for coffee certification

Requirement Baseline or core Full certification
Freedom of Begin processes to enable farmers to Farmers have the right to
association join independent organisations such belong to, found, or be
as farmer associations to protect their represented by an
interests. independent organisation of
their choice.
Discrimination Incidents of discrimination, Equal rights with respect to
harassment or abusive behaviour are gender, maternity, religion,
being addressed. ethnicity, physical conditions
and political views.
Right to Some children are not attending All children of legal age are
childhood school. Child labour only acceptable attending school.
education as part of light family work outside of
school hours.
Working A safe working environment for all Fully implemented health and
conditions family members. Provision of a health safety programme, including
and safety programme. Assessment systematic monitoring.
of risks and identification of hazards,
communicated to all workers. Farm
infrastructure and machinery is in
good condition and poses no danger
to health. Provision of safety
equipment; provision of first aid kit;
first aid training for one family
member.
Capacity and skill Farmers receive training to improve A complete training policy is
development agricultural and management implemented which includes
practices. Training available to all agricultural and management
family members working in coffee. practices, including
documentation of any training
undertaken.
11.4.2 Environmental standards
Table 11.2: General environmental standards for coffee certification

Conservation Endangered or protected species Implementation of a conservation
of biodiversity not exploited. Endangered fauna programme and this programme
not hunted and protected plants meets national law.
not removed. Natural vegetation
is conserved and sensitive areas
are protected (e.g. slopes, creeks,
wetlands). A conservation
programme is being developed.
3 Section 11
Coffee shade Only native tree species to be Only native tree species to be used
trees used as coffee shade trees (only as coffee shade trees (only some
some certification bodies) certification bodies)
Chemical use Pest, disease and weed levels are A documented Integrated Pest
and handling monitored and pesticide use is Management system based on
minimal. Less hazardous systematic monitoring and use of
pesticides are used. only lowest ranking pesticides.
Identification of health risks. Records kept of chemicals used and
Plan for safe storage, use and rates of application on all crops, not
disposal of chemicals. Farmers just coffee.
trained in safe storage, handling,
application and disposal.
Protective clothing is available.
Records kept of training. Some
bodies require avoidance of most
synthetic chemical inputs and
genetically modified organisms.
Pruning Implementation of a coffee Implementation of a coffee pruning
pruning programme to promote programme to promote the
the generation of new tissue. generation of new tissue.
Soil Soils protected from erosion by No signs of erosion.
conservation use of vegetation and/or plant
residues and other techniques.
Vegetative ground cover and
mechanical weeding are used to
reduce agrochemical use
whenever possible.
Soil fertility A fertiliser plan is defined Fertilisers only applied in accordance
and nutrient according to soil and plant needs. with crop needs, based on soil
management Organic matter is recycled. and/or plant analysis. All organic
waste is recycled and is used as
fertiliser. Soil organic matter is
maintained.
Water All water resources are identified Maximum conservation of water
and measures taken to conserve resources. Identification of different
water where possible. Processes waste waters and appropriate safe
in place to treat waste water disposal of each.
from wet processing and sewage.
Hazardous wastes are disposed
of safely.
Waste Safe disposal of hazardous Minimal waste generation, maximum
waste. recycling, and waste is disposed of
safely.
Energy Potential use of renewable Renewable energy sources are used
energy sources identified. when available. Improved energy
Energy use reduced. use efficiency.
4 Section 11
11.4.3 Economic standards
Table 11.3: General economic standards for coffee certification

Market Growers receive regular updates Growers receive regular updates
information on farm gate prices connected to on farm gate prices connected to
local markets and differentiated local markets and differentiated
for quality. for quality.
Market access The managing entity provides The producer assesses the types
growers with services such as of services required and the
market information, financial managing entity provides access
credit, and supply of inputs in to services at market rates for
order to improve their access to fertilisers, pesticides, equipment,
markets. credit, planting material and
technical assistance.
Quality Definition of quality parameters. Systematic assessment of quality
Plan is put in place to monitor from farm to managing entity.
quality from the farm to the Assessments in place for quality of
managing entity. cherry, parchment and green bean
based on moisture content and
defects present.
Record keeping Steps taken to keep records Records kept on all technical and
according to producer’s level of financial aspects of production.
education. These include Records show improvement in
technical and financial records farm’s efficiency.
such as yields, inputs, costs and
prices received. Templates for
record keeping provided by
managing entity.
Commerce Producers aware of pricing Documentation that reflects the
mechanisms attributed to coffee functionality of pricing
quality and can take advantage of mechanisms.
these.
Traceability Coffee compliant with criteria of Compliant coffee is kept separate
certifying body is kept separate and documentation on
from other sources. compliance is available.
11.5 COFFEE CERTIFYING BODIES OPERATING IN PNG
All major certifying bodies incorporate the fundamental principles described in

the previous section, although each differs in their approach. Outcomes are
shared in pursuing a sustainable livelihood for their members and
guaranteeing their buyers products produced according to agreed standards.
The main certifying bodies operating in PNG are as follows.
5 Section 11
11.5.1 UTZ
UTZ is a not-for-profit foundation for responsible farming and product

sourcing. The founding mission of UTZ was traceability, utilising their
comprehensive tracing system ‘Good Inside Portal’ (GIP). Producers can begin
in the first year fulfilling the core criteria but must demonstrate that they are
continually improving their production practices.
11.5.2 Fairtrade
Fairtrade is a non-profit movement for helping smallholders in developing

countries achieve better trading conditions and to promote sustainability. Its
members do not depend on hired workers all the time, and run their farms
mainly using family labour. It aims to provide producers with a price that
covers the cost of production as well as offering additional premiums for
producers to invest in their communities.
The Fairtrade Minimum Price acts as a safety net when prices are fluctuating.
If the market price is higher than the Fairtrade Minimum Price, producers
receive the market price.
11.5.3 Rainforest Alliance
The Rainforest Alliance is an international non-profit organisation that works to

conserve biodiversity and ensure sustainable livelihoods. Certification is
managed jointly by Rainforest Alliance and the Sustainable Agriculture
Network and their auditing division RA-Cert. Emphasis is placed on Integrated
Pest Management models.
11.5.4 4C (Common Code for the Coffee Community)
4C is a multi-stakeholder community organisation committed to promoting

sustainability. Its mission is to achieve 100% coffee sector compliance with at
least baseline sustainability standards.
The 4C structure permits baseline entry, provided certain criteria are met and
producers can demonstrate that they are continually improving their practices.
Compliance is illustrated by a traffic light system for each criterion. Ten
Unacceptable Practices must be eliminated before it is possible to join the
Association.
Small producers pay only a minimal fee, but they still have decision-making
capacity within the organisation. Trade and industry members pay a much
larger proportion of the funding.
6 Section 11
11.5.5 Organic
The umbrella organisation for organic certification is the International
Federation for Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM). In PNG its regularity
body is the National Association for Sustainable Agriculture, Australia (NASAA).
It addresses a growing worldwide demand for organic food. This does not just
mean ‘no chemicals’ but also emphasises the use of ecological management
principles. Some traditional forms of agriculture are chemical free but are not
‘organic’ because they do not follow these principles.
11.5.6 CAFE Practices
Coffee and Farmer Equity (CAFE) Practices is Starbuck Coffee’s comprehensive
coffee-buying programme. It aims to ensure the supply of quality coffee while
promoting social, environmental and economic standards. Its coffee rating
system is based on 249 indicators, and farmers with high overall scores receive
higher prices for their coffee. Thus high quality, sustainably grown, coffee is
rewarded accordingly.
11.5.7 Nespresso AAA Sustainable Quality Programme
Nespresso is the brand name of Nestle Nespresso, an operating unit of the
Nestle Group. The Nespresso AAA Sustainable Quality Programme pays
premiums for high quality coffee and the most sustainable farming practices.
It works in collaboration with Rainforest Alliance.
11.6 THE PROCESS OF COFFEE CERTIFICATION
The process of Coffee Certification is a long one, and before embarking on it,
producers should be aware of all of its requirements. The process can be
summarised as follows.
11.6.1 Selecting a certification programme
Producers need to be familiar with the requirements of each certifying body
and then make a decision on which programme to apply to. This decision is
based on:
x Their current status of strengths and weaknesses with regard to the
certification standards;
x Their production methods, and how they could be improved;
x The cost of certification;
x The potential markets.
7 Section 11
11.6.2 Gap analysis
All certifying programmes require producers to undertake a gap analysis, or a
review of current practices, to determine the disparity between the current
situation and the standards required by the programme. This will provide the
producer with an understanding of the gap, which practices are currently non-
compliant, and what is necessary to meet the specified standards. This
exercise is a self-assessment using a checklist provided by the certifying body.
11.6.3 Application and registration
Most organisations require producers to apply for registration or membership.
This may be as simple as completing an online registration form, or contacting
the organisation for a certification package. The applicant will be sent all
relevant information, including a Code of Conduct, a guide to the
implementation process, fees and requirements for supporting
documentation.
11.6.4 Evaluation
The programme evaluates the application and provides feedback and
recommendations on how to proceed to the next step of auditing.
11.6.5 Preparation for the initial audit
x The producer will be informed of the auditor, who is usually
independent.
x All programmes incorporate a comprehensive Internal Control System

(ICS). This consists of rules, policies and procedures to provide
reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of objectives relating
to operations, reporting and compliance. They are a framework for
administration and improvement, and are also a tool to monitor and
assess compliance. The ICS will be explained to the producer.
x The producer will have to prepare Documentation on such things as
technical and financial records on yields, inputs, costs and prices.
x The producer will be required to conduct a self-assessment using the
standards checklist prior to the auditing.
x The independent auditor will issue an invoice for the auditing fees, and
on payment of the fees, a schedule will be agreed for the audit.
8 Section 11
11.6.6 Auditing
The auditing process begins with an opening meeting with the producer. The
auditor will then review production systems and documents, inspect
production areas, and write a report collating all evidence of compliance. The
audit will finish with a closing meeting with the producer.
The producer may be granted permission to trade if no major non-conformities

are identified. This may be a temporary allowance to trade under certain
conditions, but does not necessarily represent full certification.
11.6.7 Certification
Certification will only be granted to applicants once all non-conformities have

been resolved. Maintaining certification requires continual adherence to the
relevant standards, which is monitored by the organisation’s auditing process.
9 Section 11
GLOSSARY
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
anion – An ion with a negative charge e.g. CI-, SO42-

apical dominance – The influence exerted by the terminal bud in suppressing the growth of
lateral buds.
auger (boring) – An instrument for boring in soil.
biuret (damage) – A compound formed during the manufacture of urea. It is toxic to some
plants and can be especially damaging when applied to plant foliage.
breather (lungbranch) – See lung branch.
butterfly stage – The stage in the development of a seedling when the two cotyledons have
expanded prior to the production of the first true leaves.
cambium – Cellular tissue from which growth of xylem and phloem occurs.
capping – The removal of the terminal portion of an orthotropic shoot.
cation – An ion with a positive charge e.g. Mg2+, Na+
CEC – Cation exchange capacity. The sum total of the exchangeable cations that a soil can
adsorb. The ability of the soil to retain cations against downward leaching.
chlorosis – Yellowing of plant tissue.
constrict – To make narrow, cause to contract.
contact pesticide – Pesticide whose action is dependent on contract with the pest.
crinkle leaf – A syndrome where leaves become bent and distorted due to environmental
factors or nutrient imbalance.
cull – To select and destroy a surplus (usually inferior) in a population.
culvert – A channel carrying water across or under a road.
defoliate – To remove the leaves from a tree.
diurnal - Daily
ECEC – Effective cation exchange capacity. The sum of the exchangeable cations (Ca 2+ +
Mg2+ + Na+ + K+) plus exchangeable acidity (H+ + Al3+).
exudates – Materials (chemicals) that ooze from plant cells.
foliar feed – Liquid fertiliser applied to the leaves by a sprayer.
friable – Easy crumbled.
gley soil – A soil developed under conditions of poor drainage, resulting in reduction of iron
and other elements and in grey colours and mottles.
halo – A circle around a body.
hull – To remove the outer skin (parchment) of a fruit.
hypocotyl – Part of a seedling between the cotyledon and radicle; its elongation brings the
cotyledons above the soil.
infills – Seedlings used to replace those that have died.
inoculum – A pathogen which can cause a disease e.g. fungal spores.
ironpan – An indurated soil horizon in which iron oxide is the principal cementing agent.
kink – A short backward twist in a root that may cause a break.
lapse rate – The rate of decline in temperature with increasing altitude.
1 Glossary
lung (branch) – A main stem possessing only one primary branch, the remaining bearing
heads having been removed during stumping.
matrix – The colour of the major part of the soil, excluding mottles.
me % - Milliequivalent percent. A measure of the concentration of the cations in the soil.
Mottle (soil) – A spot of contrasting colour. The mottled condition indicates a zone of
alternate good and poor aeration, a condition not conducive to proper plant growth.
MOU – Memorandum of Understanding.
mycelium – The mass of hyphae (threads) which make up a fungus.
necrotic – A piece of dead tissue.
orthotropic – Tending to grow upwards (stems) or downwards (roots).
parchment – Dried coffee, retaining the outer seed coat.
pathogen – An agent causing a disease.
pathenogenic – To reproduce from gametes without fertilization.
peat – unconsolidated soil material consisting largely of un-decomposed organic matter
accumulated under conditions of excessive moisture.
pedestal (soil) – A column of soil produced by erosion of the surrounding material.
petiole – The leaf stalk.
phloem – Softer portion of the plant vascular tissue that transport photosynthetic products
to the fruits. Compare with xylem.
phytotoxic – Poisonous (toxic) to plants.
plagiotropic – Tending to grow horizontally or obliquely, like branches or lateral roots.
P–retention – The transfer of phosphate ions from the soil solution into insoluble and solid
forms.
proprietary – An article or chemical, the manufacture and sale of which is restricted by
patent.
pustule – An eruptive spot containing fungal spores.
rejuvenate (coffee)– To remove old bearing heads and bring up new suckers.
rhizomorphs – Fungal threads which have aggregated to form a branched network of
cordlike strands.
rill – A small, intermittent water course with steep sides, usually only a few centimetres
deep.
shothole – The formation of a localised lesion on a leaf, frequently followed by the falling
out of the dead tissue.
soil fertility – The status of a soil with respect to the amount and availability to plants, of
elements necessary for plant growth.
soldier stage – The stage in the development of a seedling when the two cotyledons, still
contained in their seed coat, have been pushed above ground.
surrogate – A substitute for.
synergistic – A combined effect of chemicals that exceeds the sum of their individual
effects.
systemic pesticide – Pesticide which enters the plant via roots or shoots and passes through
the tissues, to control or come into contact with the pest.
2 Glossary
tilth – The depth of soil affected by cultivation.
turgid – Swollen, inflated, enlarged.
uredospores – A type of spores (reproductive structure) produced by rust fungi.
xylem – Harder portion of the plant vascular system that transports water and dissolved
minerals from roots to leaves. Compare with phloem.
CONVERSION FACTORS
______________________________________________________________
To convert Into Multiply by

Imperial units Metric units
LENGTH
Inches Centimetres 2.54

Feet Metres 0.3048
Yards Metres 0.9144
Miles Kilometres 1.609
VOLUME
(Cubic Measure)
Cubic inches Cubic centimetres 16.39

Cubic feet Cubic metres 0.02832
Cubic yards Cubic metres 0.7646
VOLUME
(Liquid Measure)
Fluid ounces Millilitres 28.35

Pints Litres 0.5683
Imperial gallons Litres 4.5460
U.S. gallons Litres 3.7854
MASS
Ounces Grams 28.35

Pounds Kilograms 0.4536
Hundred weights Kilograms 50.8020
Tons Tonnes 1.0160
3 Glossary
AREA
Square inches Square centimetres 6.4516

Square feet Square metres 0.0920
Acres Hectares 0.4047
PRESSURE
Pounds/square inch Kilograms/square centimetre 0.0703

Pounds/square inch Bars 0.0689
Pounds/square inch Atmosphere 0.068
Pounds/square inch Kilopascals 6.89
VELOCITY
Feet/second Metres/second 0.305

Feet/minute Metres/second 0.00508
Miles/hour Kilometres/hour 1.609
QUANTITIES/AREA
Pounds/acre Kilograms/hectare 1.12

Ounces/square yard Hundredweights/acre 2.7
Imperial gallons/acre Litres/hectare 11.233
Fluid ounces/imperial gallon Millilitres/litre 6.250
Fluid ounces/acre Millilitres/hectare 70.05
Ounces/acre Grams/hectare 70.05
Hundredweights/acre Kilograms/hectare 125.54
Pounds/imperial gallon Kilograms/litre 0.998
DILUTIONS
Pints/100 imperial gallons Millilitres/100 litres 125.0

Ounces/imperial gallon Grams/litre 6.24
PLANT NUTRIENTS
Oxide Elemental
P2O5 P 0.437
K2O K 0.830
CaO Ca 0.715
MgO Mg 0.602
To use the tables in reverse just divide.

i.e. to convert centimetres into inches, divide by 2.54.
4 Glossary
SLOPE
Slope ratio Percent Degrees
1:1 100 45
1:2 50 27
1:3 33 18
1:4 25 14
1:5 20 11
1:6 17 10
1:7 14.5 8
1:8 12.5 7
1:0 11 6
1:10 10 5.5
5 Glossary
APPENDIX 1
SOIL SAMPLES
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A1.1 HOW TO COLLECT SOIL SAMPLES
It has been estimated that 33% of the fine roots, which are mainly responsible for the
absorption of nutrients, occur in the top 10cm of soil, and 73% in the top 30cm. Thus it is
the nutrient content of the topsoil that is of most interest to the coffee grower.
The simplest procedure for deciding on the actual soil depths to be sampled is to always use
standard depths e.g. 0-15cm and 15-30cm. This is satisfactory if the standard depths fall
entirely within a soil horizon, however, if an abrupt soil boundary occurs at say 10cm, a
sample collected from 0-15cm would consist of a mixture of two different horizons, possibly
of quite different origin and chemical fertility. The subsequent analytical results will be
averages of the figures from each of the two horizons sampled (weighted according to the
proportion of soils collected from each horizon). Such figures may be quite different from
either horizon and would be of limited value. In this case, it would be better to collect
samples from 0-10cm and 10-20cm.
It is recommended that if the topsoil is fairly deep (! 30cm), samples be collected from 0-
15cm and also, if possible, 15-30cm. If, however, the topsoil is less than 30cm deep, a
topsoil sample may be collected from the surface to as near as possible 20cm, and also from
the upper 15cm of the subsoil. Thus, the actual depths samples are determined for each
site according to the sequence of soil horizons, but once agreed upon should be adhered to
throughout the plot and for future samples.
Soil samples may be collected from either small pits or auger borings, of which the former is
to be preferred since they facilitate the observation of soil horizons. Soil should be collected
in equal amounts from the entire range of the standard depth being samples, and not just
from the middle of the range.
Individual soil properties can vary considerably over a relatively small area. Thus, samples
collected from only one auger boring or pit can only be assumed to be representative of
that one site, which may or may not be typical of the surrounding soil. Therefore, if a
sample is required to reflect the chemical fertility of a field or block, soil should be collected
from at least ten sites representative of the area being sampled. The ten samples (for any
one standard depth) should be thoroughly mixed on a clean plastic sheet, and small portions
taken at random until a subsample of about 500g is obtained.
Areas to be sampled should contain approximately uniform soils, avoiding irregularities such
as mounds, depressions, former house or tree sites, post holes or areas where timber or
rubbish has been burnt, or subsoil deposited e.g. alongside drains. Any undecomposed
plant material should first be removed from the surface and samples collected from the
coffee inter-rows.
It is also important to record the date when a soil sample was collected. The levels of some
nutrients in the soil, particularly available nitrogen, can vary considerably from month to
month in response to factors related to climatic conditions and the cropping cycle. It is
good practice to always collect soil samples at the same time in the annual crop cycle, for
1 Appendix 1
example, just before, and/or just after, the main harvesting period, which may vary from
place to place and year to year.
The procedures for pretreatment of soil samples are also extremely important. Soil should
be air-dried for two or three days, or oven-dried overnight at 30qC, before dispatch to the
laboratory in clearly labelled plastic bags. Oven drying at higher temperatures should be
avoided since this may influence some soil properties.
A1.2 INTERPRETING SOIL ANALYTICAL DATA
Interpreting analytical results is not a simple matter. What may represent a deficiency
under one set of environmental conditions, or at one particular time in the annual crop
cycle, may not represent a deficiency under another set of conditions, or at another time in
the crop cycle. Coffee exhibiting deficiency symptoms may not have deficient levels in the
leaves. Despite high nutrient levels in the soil, coffee trees may still be deficient in certain
nutrients, for example during very dry weather.
General guidelines for interpreting analytical data can be produced based on field trials and
observations over a number of years. Such guidelines, particularly those for soil analyses,
are not infallible, but they do provide a reasonable interpretation for the majority of
samples.
To facilitate interpretation of analytical data, it is important that growers maintain accurate

records of block histories, particularly details of fertiliser inputs and yields obtained.
Table A1.1: Critical levels for interpretation of soil analytical data

ANALYSIS UNITS VERY LOW LOW MEDIUM HIGH VERY
HIGH
pH (H2O) (9) pH 4.5 4.5-5.2 5.3-6.5 6.6-7.5 ! 7.5
Total N % 0.10 0.10-0.19 0.20-0.49 0.50-1.00 ! 1.00
Organic C % 2.0 2.0-3.9 4.0-9.9 10.0-20.0 ! 20.0
Exch. K(1) me/100g 0.10 0.10-0.19 0.20-0.59 0.60-1.20 ! 1.20
Exch. Ca me/100g 2.0 2.0-4.9 5.0-9.9 10.0-20.0 ! 20.0
Exch. Mg me/100g 0.3 0.3-0.5 0.6-0.9 1.0-6.0 ! 6.0
Exch. Na me/100g 0.10 0.10-0.29 0.30-0.69 0.70-2.00 ! 2.0
CEC me/100g 5 5-10 11-25 ! 25 -
ECEC me/100g 2 2-5 6-10 11-20 ! 20
Base Satn. % 10-19 20-60 ! 60 -
10
Al Satn. % 20-39 40-59 60-80 ! 80(2)
20
Avail. P ug/ml 10-19 20-30 ! 30 -
10
P Retn. % 10-59 60-84 85-95
10 ! 95
Reserve K(5) me/100g 0.10-0.19 0.20-0.34 0.35-0.50
0.10 ! 0.50
Reserve Mg(6) me/100g 3.0-6.9 7.0-14.9 15.0-30.0
3.0 ! 30.0
Soluble B(7) ug/g 0.50-0.99 1.0-1.99 2.00-5.00
0.50 ! 5.00
Sulphate-S(8) ug/g 5-14 15-49 50-150
DTPA(3) Fe ppm 5 ! 150
DTPA(3) Mn ppm 4.5 -
DTPA(3) Cu ppm 3.0 ! 140(4)
DTPA(3) Zn ppm 0.6 ! 11(4)
0.5 ! 7(4)
2 Appendix 1
Notes: 1. Exchangeable K should also represent at least 3% of total
exchangeable bases.
2. Al saturation greater than 80% is toxic to coffee.
3. Determined in diethylene triamine pentacetic acid using the
method of Lindsay and Norvell (1978). Figures are only tentative.
4. Trace element contents in excess of these values may be
toxic.
5. Extracted in boiling nitric acid.
6. Extracted in boiling 1M hydrochloric acid.
7. Determined in hot water extract.
8. Extracted with 0.04M calcium phosphate and the sulphur
extract measured turbidimetrically following treatment with
charcoal and an acid digestion to remove organic matter.
9. Soil: water ration of 1:5 (but see also the assumption below).
In addition to Table 1, the following assumptions may also be used in interpreting analytical
data:-
x pH values obtained using soil: water ratios of 1:1 or 1:2.5 may be simply converted
for use in Table 1 by adding 0.5 or 0.3 pH units respectively. For data obtained from
0.01M CaC1, or 1N KC1 suspensions, 0.5 or 1.0 pH units should be added
respectively.
x The normal range of values for the C:N ratio is 8-14, and indicates satisfactory rates
of mineralisation of organic nitrogen.
x Ideal ranges for the ratios of bases are Ca:K 20 and Mg:K 10.
3 Appendix 1
APPENDIX 2
LEAF SAMPLES
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A2.1 HOW TO COLLECT LEAF SAMPLES
Areas to be sampled should contain uniform soils and coffee of uniform age, variety, cultural
practice and appearance. Typically, sampling sites should not exceed 3ha, although larger
sites may be possible in very uniform areas.
The leaves collected should be the third pair from the tips of primary branches midway
between the ground and the top of the tree. Two pairs of leaves should be taken from at
least ten trees randomly selected in the area, to give a total sample of at least 40 leaves.
Care should be taken to ensure that leaves are collected equally from all four quadrants
(north, south, east and west) of trees. This is particularly important in unshaded coffee,
where leaf nutrient levels have been shown to vary between quadrants.
A leaf should only be counted as such if it is over 5cm long. Branches containing large
numbers of flowers or berries should be avoided.
As with soil sample collection, leaf samples should, if possible, always be collected at the
same stage in the annual crop cycle each year. Leaf nutrient levels do vary considerably at
different times of the annual crop cycle. Just before and/or just after the main harvesting
period are appropriate times for leaf sampling, and it is good practice to collect both soil
and leaf samples at the same time. Ideally, leaf samples should be collected before 10.00
hours.
Pretreatment procedures for leaf samples consist of sun drying for one or two days, or
preferably, drying overnight in a forced convection oven at 60qC. Leaf samples should be
dispatched to the laboratory in clearly labelled, brown paper bags.
A2.2 INTERPRETING LEAF ANALYTICAL DATA
The general comments on interpreting leaf analytical data are the same as those for
interpreting soil analytical data.
1 Appendix 2
Table A2.1: Critical levels of nutrients in Arabica coffee leaves
NUTRIENT UNITS DEFICIENT SUBNORMAL NORMAL EXCESS
N % 2.00 2.00-2.60 2.61-3.50 ! 3.50

P % 0.10 0.10-0.15 0.16-0.20 ! 0.20
K % 1.50 1.50-2.10 2.11-2.60 !2.60
Ca % 0.40 0.40-0.75 0.76-1.50 ! 1.50
Mg % 0.10 0.10-0.25 0.26-0.40 ! 0.40
S % 0.10 0.10-0.15 0.16-0.25 ! 0.25
Fe ppm 40 40-70 71-200 ! 200
Mn ppm 25 25-50 51-100 ! 100
Zn ppm 10 10-15 16-30 ! 30
Cu ppm 3 3-7 8-20 ! 20
B ppm 25 25-40 41-90 ! 90
Al ppm ! 60
Mo ppm 0.5 0.5-0.8
2 Appendix 2
APPENDIX 3
ANALYTICAL METHODS
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A3.1 SOIL ANALYSES
Sample Preparation
Air dried at 30qC for 2-3 days, then ground to pass through a 2mm sieve. Results expressed
on air dried, sieved basis.
Soil pH
The pH of a 1:2.5 (v/v) soil-distilled water slurry is measured electrometrically, after sitting
for 16 hours.
Total N
Kjeldahl digestion, without recovery of nitrates. A 1:20 (w/v) soil:concentrated sulphuric
acid mixture is boiled with a selenium catalyst. The generated ammonium-N is determined
colorimetrically using indophenol-blue.
Available P
The Olsen extraction, using 0.5M sodium bicarbonate at pH 8.5. A 1:20 (v/v)
soil:bicarbonate mixture is used, with a 30 minute reciprocating shake. Extracted P is
determined using the molybdenum blue colorimetric procedure.
Exchangeable K
Neutral, molar ammonium acetate extraction, using a 1:20 (v/v) soil:solution mixture, and a
30 minute reciprocating shake. Potassium in the filtrate is measured using atomic emission
spectroscopy.
Exchangeable Mg
Neutral, molar ammonium acetate extraction, as for exchangeable K. Magnesium in filtrate
is measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Exchangeable Ca
Neutral, molar ammonium acetate extraction, as for exchangeable K. Calcium in the filtrate
is measured using atomic emission spectroscopy.
Exchangeable Na
Neutral, molar ammonium acetate extraction, as for exchangeable K. Sodium in the filtrate
is measured using atomic emission spectroscopy.
Cation Exchange Capacity

Calculated by summing exchangeable cations and titratable acidity of the ammonium
acetate extract after extraction.
A3.2 LEAF ANALYSES
Sample Preparation
Leaf samples are dried overnight at 60qC until crisp, and ground. Results are reported on a
dry matter basis.
1 Appendix 3
N
A Kjeldahl semi-micro digestion in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid, assisted by hydrogen
peroxide and a selenium catalyst. A 1:30 (w/v) dried leaf sample:concentrated sulphuric
acid mixture is boiled for 2 hours. Generated ammonium-N is determined using
indophenol-blue colorimetry.
P
0.2g of dried leaf sample is digested in a mixture of 2ml nitric acid and 1 ml perchloric acid.
The digest is made up to 20 ml with distilled water, and the phosphorus in the digest is
determined colorimetrically using Barton’s agent (vanadomolybdate).
K
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the potassium in the digest is determined by atomic
emission spectroscopy.
Mg
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the magnesium determined by atomic absorption
spectroscopy.
Ca
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the calcium determined by atomic absorption
spectroscopy.
Na
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the sodium determined by atomic emission spectroscopy.
S
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the consequent sulphate determined as barium sulphate
using turbidimetry.
Fe
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the iron determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Mn
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the manganese determined by atomic absorption
spectroscopy.
Zn
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the zinc determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Cu
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and the copper determined by atomic absorption
spectroscopy.
B
Digest prepared as for leaf P, and boron determined colorimetrically following reaction with
azomethine-H reagent.
2 Appendix 3
APPENDIX 4.
COFFEE PARCHMENT STANDARDS, FACTORY STANDARDS AND EXPORT
GRADES, 2016
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A4.1. PARCHMENT STANDARDS
A4.1.1 Introduction
Parchment Arabica Coffee is defined as dry Arabica coffee beans wrapped in the endocarp.
Coffee at the parchment stage of the processing chain is the most widely traded within the
country. While it is primarily classified according to colour, quantitative measurements are
possible, such as moisture content and number of defects.
The objective of parchment standards is to ensure that growers who take care in the
preparation of their coffee have a basis to demand the highest price available on the day of
sale. It also assists the buyer, factory manager or roadside trader, in price negotiation and
should discourage habitual presentation of poor quality coffee on the market.
A4.1.2 Standards
PNG Standard 1626 : 2015 provides for three (3) classes of Arabica parchment as described
in Table A4.1, classified on the basis of appearance and defect.
Table A4.1 Standards for Arabica Parchment
Parchment Description Maximum Defect
Class allowed (per kg)
Class 1 Clean, sound, pale, even coloured Arabica parchment 10
which is substantially free of visible defects, has no off
odours and is capable of yielding either A or B grade
green bean
Class 2 Clean, sound, pale coloured Arabica parchment, which 70
has some visible defects and is capable of yielding Y
grade green bean.
Class 3 Arabica parchment which does not have an excessive 150
amount of visible defects and is capable of yielding Y2
grade green bean
A4.1.3 Definitions relating to parchment standards
a) Defects
All defects would have the same value and are defined as follows:
“Coffee parchment beans which are not normal in physical appearance. Beans
damaged by nature or insects or during processing”.
The buyer should take as many samples as necessary and must calculate the defects
on a per kg equivalence. In these calculations all defects have a value of one (1).
b) Foreign matter
Foreign matter is defined as: Any substance not derived from the coffee cherry.
1 Appendix 4
Factories should reject all parchment with foreign matter. Any parchment containing
foreign matter is immediately downgraded to Class 3. Class 3 also allows parchment that is
substantially free from foreign matter.
A4.1.4 Moisture
Parchment is classified on the basis of appearance and number of defects. Moisture is

treated separately and will have a significant impact on the price paid to the smallholder.
Moisture of the coffee is generally determined using the standard teeth and rubbing
method. Managers should use their discretion in allocating an adjustment for moisture,
since many factories prefer to purchase parchment at slightly higher moisture contents.
Table A4.2: Moisture content of parchment

Moisture Measure
9-11% Very hard. No teeth marks.

‘Machine Coffee’
11-15% Hard only slight marks with teeth.
15-20% Soft black appearance. Easy to mark with teeth.
20-30% Very soft black. Crushes with teeth.
The appropriate price adjustments should therefore be used and the appropriate level of
price discounts should be applied.
Plastic laminated posters setting out the Classes of Parchment should be displayed near all
buying points and in all factories.
The prices for all 3 Classes of parchment should be clearly displayed at buying points and at
factory door.
A4.2. STANDARDS - EXPORT GRADES
A4.2.1 Green bean grades and standards
PNG Standard 1626 : 2015 provides specifications for Green Coffee in Papua New Guinea
(PNG): standard parameters and criteria for liquor and physical quality: criteria for sampling,
analysis, and determination of grades: specification for marking and packaging. The reader
should refer to PNG Standard 1626 : 2015 for full details.
PNG Standard 1626 : 2015 provides for five (5) grade designations : A, B, Y, Y2 and Y3. Bean
size of A, B and Y grades may be further classified with the use of a suffix. Details are shown
here in Table A4.3
2 Appendix 4
A4.2.2 Export standards and packing for export
Licensed factories are required to grade their coffee to the standard ready for export. PNG
Standard 1626 : 2015 sets out clear guidelines for packing for export whether in bags or in
bulk containers. The guidelines include details on bag labelling.
A4.2.2.1 Packing in Bags
x Green coffee for export shall be packed in clean, sound, new non-mineral oil, jute
bags free from tears, any sign of leakage or any objectionable odour. Bags for export
coffee shall be between 1020 and 1070mm long and between 535 and 610mm wide.
x Where coffee is packed in jute bags with water-resistant and hermetically sealable
liners, random sampling shall be undertaken by authorized CIC Provincial Inspectors
prior to packing and sealing the liner within clean, sound, new, non-mineral oil jute
bags free from tears, any sign of leakage or any objectionable odour. Export and
Quality assurance and certification must be undertaken and cleared in designated
ports prior to export.
x The net weight of a bag of green coffee for export shall be 60 Kg at time of shipment,
except for Y3 which may weigh less.
A4.2.2.2 Export Bag Labelling
Bags for export of green coffee shall bear the following markings in black indelible food-
grade ink in letters not less than 50mm high and 6mm thick. The marks shall be placed in
separate lines, centrally placed below the mouth or closure in the following order:
a) The words “Papua New Guinea” or the initial “PNG”,
b) “Washed Raw Robusta Coffee” according to contents;
c) The words “Clean, sound and new” denoting the condition of the bag;
d) On the reverse side of the bag, the following marks shall be displayed in separate
lines centrally placed in the following order;
i) A mark rectangle placed breadth wise below the mouth or closure of the bag
and printed in black indelible food-grade ink so as to obscure any other markings
required by this section. The rectangle to be divided into three compartments;
ii) Indelibly marked in black food-grade ink in figures not less than 50mm high
the following shall appear within the three compartments;
iii) In the left-hand compartment the number 166 being the ICO identification
mark for PNG;
iv In the centre compartment a number up to four digits long allocated by the

CIC to identify the exporter of the coffee;
v) In the right-hand compartment a number up to five digits long being the

exporter’s serial number for the particular lot of coffee.
Note: There are 10 additional instructions re labeling; the reader should refer to PNG
Standard 1626 : 2015
3 Appendix 4
A4.2.2.3 Packing in Bulk Containers
1. The green coffee shall be stuffed in a 20 foot Standard Ocean-Going Container. The
bulk containers shall be clean, sound, dry, water and air tight, and must be free of
any objectionable odour.
2. The containers shall be lined with clean and dry polythene or polypropylene liners
that are free from tears, any signs of leakage and any objectionable odour.
3. The maximum net weight of green coffee in bulk containers shall not exceed 21,600
kg or 360 x 60kg green coffee bags equivalent. All bulk weights must be indicated
clearly on every export document.
4. When bulking is completed, authorized CIC Inspectors shall issue an Inspection

Certificate and may put its seal on the bulked container. The sealing is final and shall
not be tampered with until it reaches the port of destination.
5. Unless otherwise stated, all bulk coffees should be shipped on FCL/FCL basis.
A4.2.3 Drawing of Samples for Analysis
PNG Standard 1626 : 2015 specifies that sampling for any purpose shall be carried out
according to the provisions of ISO 4072 – Green Coffee in Bags – Sampling. Refer to PNG
Standard 1626 : 2015 For details
A4.2.4 Moisture Content
PNG Standard 1626 : 2015 specifies that Green Coffee for export shall contain water at not
less than 8% nor more than 12.5% of total mass. Determination may be made according to
ISO 6673 or by another method agreed upon by the parties concerned.
A4.2.5 Olifactory and Visual Examinations
1) Examinations and Determination shall be made according to the provisions of ISO

4149
2) Allocation of Grade to sample being examined shell be made according to the
specification Table A4.3 and A4.4
A4.2.6 Sensory Analysis
1) Samples for sensory analysis shall be prepared according to the provisions of

ISO6668
2) Allocation of Grade to sample shall be made according to the specifications set out in
Table A4.3 and A4.4
A4.2.6 Size Analysis
Size analysis shall be carried out according to the provisions of ISO 4150 and made according
to the specifications set out in Table A4.3
4 Appendix 4
Table A4.3 : PNG Green Coffee Specifications for Arabica Coffee
Grade Cup Quality Maximum Raw Odour Bean Size
Defect Bean
allowed Colour
(Equivalent
per kg)
Full, reasonably Displayed as a Suffix. Where a
balanced, specific screen size is
uniform, clean, designated the coffee must be
cup; well uniform in size above
Bluish
A pronounced body 10 designated screen size. No
Green
and acidity; rich suffix means the coffee is
Fresh
and distinct mixed size.
and
fragrance and Screen Screen ISO
clean, no
aroma. No. Diameter norm
off
Regular, uniform (mm)
odours
clean cup; 20 7.94 8.00
allowed
medium to high Even, 19 7.54 7.50
acidy and green to 18 7.14 7.10
B 30
pronounced bluish 17 6.75 6.70
body; ric`h green 16 6.35 6.30
fragrance and 15 5.95 6.00
aroma. PB 4.37 to 4.40
May lack some 5.55 to
uniformity in the (single 5.60
cup; good acidity Clean/ bean/
Pale
and body; some fresh, round
Y 70 green to
fruitiness/ Some shape)
green
wineyness; good fruitiness
fragrance and
aroma.
Y2 Irregular cup
Mixed No foul
profile; fair
light or
acidity and body; 150 Mixed
green to foreign
no foul or foreign
green odours.
flavour.
Y3 No foul or foreign 30% defects
flavour. excluding
good nipped
No Foul
beans. No
or
foreign Mixed Mixed
foreign
matter.
odours.
Must be fit
for human
consumption.
5 Appendix 4
Table A4.4: Defect schedule
Description of Defect Number of Defect/ Defect Equivalent
Foreign matter
Large Stone (1 cm diameter) 1 2

Medium Stone (about 5 mm 1 1
diameter)
Small Stone (less than 5 mm 3 1
diameter)
Large Stick (3 cm length) 1 2
Medium Stick (2 cm length) 1 1
Small Stick (1 cm length) 3 1
Pod 1 1
Full Black 1 1
Partly Black 5 1
Full Sour 1 1
Partly Sour 5 1
Shells 5 1
Pulper-cut/Brokens 5 1
Floaters 5 1
White/Old 5 1
Parchment 2 1
Husk/Hull 2 1
Immature 5 1
Water Damage 5 1
NOTE: Any other foreign matter and defect not included in this schedule may
be assessed by the authority using this standard or by an arbitration panel.
6 Appendix 4

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THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA

COFFEE INDUSTRY CORPORATION

This Handbook production by the

APPENDIX 1 - SOIL SAMPLES

APPENDIX 2 – LEAF SAMPLES

APPENDIX 3 – ANALYTICAL METHODS

APPENDIX 4 – COFFEE PARCHMENT STANDARDS, FACTORY

A revision of a handbook of this scope could not have been accomplished

2.2 MAJOR COFFEE GROWING AREAS

Harding, Bleeker and Freyne (1986) combined their knowledge of the

The potential for Robusta coffee in coastal provinces is extensive but

Growers are divided into three categories depending on size of holding,

2.3.2 Coffee buyers and processors

2.3.3 Coffee Exporters

2.3.4 Coffee roasters / manufacturers

Year of Export Volume FOB Value Price –

Table 2.2 Annual Coffee production - 60 kg bags of green bean, based on

Repeatedly, CIC CEOs and Ministers for Agriculture have undertaken to

Figure 3.1: A young bearing coffee tree

3.1.1.6 Root hairs

3.1.2 The shoot system

Figure 3.3: Composite horizontal and vertical section of a coffee cherry

5.1 SITE SELECTION

5.1.3.2 Altitude (air temperature)

5.1.3.6 Accessibility and present land use

5.1.4 The overall site suitability

5.1.5 Final site selection

5.2.1.1 Reconnaissance survey/mapping

For draining large areas, a gang of workers with a supervisor should be

x When installing culverts, they should be buried at least 1Ü times their

The area per tree is determined by multiplying the distances in metres

Fig. 5.2: Rectangular planting arrangement

The tree population per hectare is thus 10,000/3.75 = 2,667 trees/ha

Fig. 5.3: Triangular planting arrangement

The tree population per hectare is thus 10,000/3.48 = 2,873 trees/ha.

Trees/hectare = 10,000m² = 2,667 trees/ha.

5.2.3.2 Practical tree densities

1.00 1.00 2 5000 4000 5750 4600

1.40 1.40 2 3247 2645 3734 3042

1.80 1.80 2 2315 1915 2662 2203

2.00 2.00 2 2000 1667 2300 1917

2.50 2.50 2 1454 1231 1763 1415

5.2.4 Planting holes

Notes: 1. Zinc foliar feed is described in Table 7.4.

Notes: 1. SOA = sulphate of ammonia.

6.3.4 Corrective fertiliser application

6.4.3.2 Characteristics of available herbicides

Absorption, translocation and response

General precautions on the use of herbicides

6.4.4 Application of herbicides

Plate 6.1: Diaphragm sprayer Plate 6.2: Compression sprayer

Plate 6.5: Motorised fogging

Plate 6.3: Piston sprayer Plate 6.4: Motorised sprayers

6.4.4.3 Essential Features of knapsack sprayers

6.4.4.4 Pressure regulators

Red - used for herbicides;

Plate 6.6: Spray management valves

Conical nozzles : used for spraying herbicides, insecticides and

Hollow Cone nozzles : used for spraying insecticides and fungicides