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WCC Module-1 Notes-1 - printed notes of module 1 of WCC

Wireless and cellular communication (Ballari Institute of Technology and Management)

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MODULE-1
Mobile Radio Propagation
Large Scale Path Loss-Free Space Propagation Model
 The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them.
 Satellite communication systems and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically
undergo free space propagation.
 The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating
transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation

 Pt is the transmitted power

 Pr(d) is the received power which is a function of the T-R separation
 Gt is the transmitter antenna gain
 Gr is the receiver antenna gain
 d is the T-R separation distance in meters
 L is the system loss factor not related to propagation (L ≥ 1)
 λ is the wavelength in meters
 The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture, Ae by .
 The effective aperture is related to the physical size of the antenna.
 λ is related to the carrier frequency by
 f is the carrier frequency in Hertz
 ωc is the carrier frequency in radians per second
 c is the speed of light given in meters/s.
 An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all directions and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems.
 The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as .
 The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB,
is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the
received power and may or may not include the effect of the antenna gains.
 The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by

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 When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are assumed to have unity gain, and path
loss is given by

 The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region

beyond the far field distance df, which is related to the largest linear dimension of the
transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength.
 The Fraunhofer distance is given by
 D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.
 Additionally, to be in the far-field region, df must satisfy and .
 Large-scale propagation models use a close-in distance, d0, as a known received power
reference point.
 The reference distance must be chosen such that it lies in the far-field region, that is,
d0 ≥ df, and d0 is chosen to be smaller than any practical distance used in the mobile
communication system.
 The received power in free space at a distance greater than d0 is given by

 If PR is in units of dBm, the received power is given by

where PR(d0) is in units of watts.

Problem
Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1 m and operating
frequency of 900MHz.
Solution:
Given:
 Largest dimension of antenna, D = 1m
 Operating frequency = 900MHz

= 0.33m
 Far-field distance is obtained as
= 6m

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Problem
If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the transmit power in units of (a) dBm,
and (b) dBW. If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency,
find the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from the antenna. What is
Pr (10 km)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
Solution:
Given:
 Transmitter power, Pt = 50 W
 Carrier frequency, fc = 900 MHz
(a) Transmitter power, Pt (dBm) = 10 log [Pt (W) / (1mW)]
= l0 log[50 x 103] = 47.0 dBm
(b) Transmitter power, Pt (dBW) = 10 log [Pt (W) / (1W)]
= l0 log[50] = 17.0 dBW
The received power
= 3.5 x 10-6 W = 3.5 x 10-3 mW

Pr (dBm) = 10 log[ Pr (W) / (1mW) = 10 log (3.5 x 10-3 ) = -24.5dBm

Given d0 = 100 m and d = 10km
Therefore, the received power at 10 km can be expressed in terms of dBm as
= -24.5dBm -40dBm = - 64.5dBm

Relating Power to Electric Field

 Any radiating structure produces electric and magnetic fields.
 Consider a small linear radiator of length L, that is placed coincident with the z-axis and
has its center at the origin, as shown.

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 If a current flows through such an antenna, it launches electric and magnetic fields that
can be expressed as
𝑖𝑂 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝑐
𝐸𝑟 = { 2+ } 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑐(𝑡−𝑑⁄𝑐)
2𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑐 𝑑 𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑑3
𝑖𝑂 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑐 𝑐2
𝐸𝜃 = { + + } 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑐(𝑡−𝑑⁄𝑐)
4𝜋𝜀𝑂 𝑐 2 𝑑 𝑑 2 𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑑3
𝑖𝑂 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑐
𝐻𝛷 = { + 2 } 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑐(𝑡−𝑑⁄𝑐)
4𝜋𝑐 𝑑 𝑑
with Eφ= Hr = Hθ = 0.
 All 1 /d terms represent the radiation field component, all 1/d2 terms represent the
induction field component, and all 1 /d3 terms represent the electrostatic field component.
 The electrostatic and inductive fields decay much faster with distance than the radiation
field. At regions far away from the transmitter (far-field region), the electrostatic and
inductive fields become negligible and only the radiated field components of Eθ and Hφ
need to be considered.
 In free space, the power flux density Pd (expressed in W/m2) is given by

where Rfs is the intrinsic impedance of free space given by η= 12OπΩ (377Ω).
 Thus, the power flux density is
where |E| represents the magnitude of the radiating portion of the electric field in the far
field.

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 Figure (a) illustrates how the power flux density disperses in free space from an isotropic
point source.
 Pd may be thought of as the EIRP divided by the surface area of a sphere with radius d.
 The power received at distance d, Pr(d), is given by the power flux density times the
effective aperture of the receiver antenna and can be related to the electric field.
 The electric field (with units of V/m) is related to received power (with units of watts) by

 If V is the rms voltage at the input of a receiver (measured by a high impedance

voltmeter), and Rant is the resistance of the matched receiver, the received power is given
by

 Figure (b) illustrates an equivalent circuit model.

 Vant = V when there is no load.
Problem
Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W transmitter. The carrier frequency is 900
MHz, free space propagation is assumed, Gt = 1, and Gr = 2, find (a) the power at the
receiver, (b) the magnitude of the E-field at the receiver antenna (c) the rms voltage applied
to the receiver input assuming that the receiver antenna has a purely real impedance of 50 Ω
and is matched to the receiver.
Solution:
Given:
 Transmitter power, = 50 W
 Carrier frequency, = 900 MHz
 Transmitter antenna gain, Gt = 1
 Receiver antenna gain, Gr = 2
 Receiver antenna resistance = 50Ω
(a) The power received at a distance d = 10 km is
= -91.5 dBW = -61.5 dBm

(b) The magnitude of the received E-field is

= 0.0038 V/m

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(c) The open circuit rms voltage at the receiver input is

= 0.374mV

Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Scattering
 Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object
which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating
wave.
 Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.
 Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed
by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges).
 The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present throughout the
space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of waves around the obstacle,
even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and receiver.
 Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects
with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of
obstacles per unit volume is large.
 Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other irregularities
in the channel.

Ground Reflection (2-Ray Model)

 The 2-ray ground reflection model is a useful propagation model that is based on
geometric optics and considers both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation
path between transmitter and receiver.
 This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale signal
strength over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use tall towers
(heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for line-of-sight microcell channels in urban
environments.
 In most mobile communication systems, the maximum T-R separation distance is at most
only a few tens of kilometers, and the earth may be assumed to be flat.
 The total received E-field, ETOT, is then a result of the direct line-of-sight component,
ELOS, and the ground reflected component, Eg.

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 ht is the height of the transmitter and hr is the height of the receiver.

 If E0 is the free space E-field (in units of V/m) at a reference distance d0 from the
transmitter, then for d > d0, the free space propagating E-field is given by

where |E(d, t)| = E0d0 / d represents the envelope of the E-field at d meters from the
transmitter.
 Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance d’;
and the reflected wave that travels a distance d”.
 The E-field due to the line-of-sight component at the receiver can be expressed as

and the E-field for the ground reflected wave, which has a propagation distance of d", can
be expressed as

 According to laws of reflection in dielectrics

, and
where Γ is the reflection coefficient for ground.
 For small values of θi (i.e., grazing incidence), the reflected wave is equal in magnitude
and 180° out of phase with the incident wave.

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 The resultant E-field, assuming perfect ground reflection (i.e., Γ = -1 and Et = 0) is the
vector sum of ELOS and Eg, and the resultant total E-field envelope is given by
|ETOT|= |ELOS + Eg|
 The electric field ETOT(d, t) can be expressed as

Using the method of images, the path difference, Δ, between the line-of-sight and the ground
reflected paths can be expressed as

 When the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to ht +hr, the equation can be
simplified using a Taylor series approximation as
 Once the path difference is known, the phase difference θΔ between the two E-field
components and the time delay τd between the arrival of the two components can be
easily computed using the following relations
and
 It should be noted that as d becomes large, the difference between the distances d' and d”
becomes very small, and the amplitudes of ELOS and Eg are virtually identical and differ
only in phase i.e.,
 If the received E-field is evaluated at some time, say at t = d”/c,

where d is the distance over a flat earth between the bases of the transmitter and receiver
antennas.

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 The electric field (at the receiver) at a distance d from the transmitter can be written as
Or

 Using trigonometric identities,

 Whenever , which occurs when < 0.3 radian,
which implies .
 Thus, as long as d satisfies, the received electric field can be approximated as

where k is a constant related to E0, the antenna heights, and the wavelength.
 The power received at d is related to the square of the electric field. Therefore, the
received power at a distance d from the transmitter can be expressed as
 At large distances (d >> ) the received power falls off with distance raised to the
fourth power, or at a rate of 40 dB/decade.
 At large values of d, the received power and path loss become independent of frequency.
 The path loss for the 2-ray model (with antenna gains) can be expressed in dB as

 At small distances, the total Efield is computed by

 If , then is where the ground appears in the first Fresnel zone

between the transmitter and receiver.

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Problem
A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station and uses a vertical λ/4 monopole antenna
with a gain of 2.55dB to receive cellular radio signals. The E-field at 1 km from the
transmitter is measured to be 10-3 V/m. The carrier frequency used for this system is
900MHz.
(a) Find the length and the gain of the receiving antenna.
(b) Find the received power at the mobile using the 2-ray ground reflection model assuming
the height of the transmitting antenna is 50m and the receiving antenna is 1.5m above ground.
Solution:
Given
 T-R separation distance = 5 km
 E-field at a distance of 1 km = 10-3 V/m
 Frequency of operation, f = 900 MHz
 = 0.333m
 Length of the antenna, L, = λ /4 = 0.333/4 = 0.0833m = 8.33cm.
 Gain of λ /4 monopole is given by
 Therefore, with G = 2.55dB = 1.8, Ae = 0.015
 Hence, Gain of receiving antenna =1.8 = 2.55dB.
 Since (d>> ) , the electric field is given by
= 113.1 x 10-6 V/m.

 The received power at a distance d is

Pr (d = 5 km) = 5.4 x 10-13 W = -122.68 dBW or -92.68 dBm.

Diffraction
 Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth,
beyond the horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions.
 Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into the
obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient
strength to produce a useful signal.

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 The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen's principle, which states that
all points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for the production of
secondary wavelets, and that these 'wavelets combine to produce a new wavefront in the
direction of propagation.
 Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed region.
 The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region is the vector sum of the
electric field components of all the secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle.

Fresnel Zone Geometry

 Consider a transmitter and receiver separated in free space as shown.
 Let an obstructing screen of effective height h with infinite width (going into and out of
the paper) be placed between them at a distance d1 from the transmitter and d2 from the
receiver.
 It is apparent that the wave propagating from the transmitter to the receiver via the top of
the screen travels a longer distance than if a direct line-of-sight path (through the screen)
existed.
 Assuming h <<d1, d2 and h >>λ, then the difference between the direct path and the
diffracted path, called the excess path length (Δ), can be obtained from the geometry as

 The corresponding phase difference is given by

 When tanx ≈ x, then α = β + γ and
 The phase difference is often normalized using the dimensionless Fresnel-Kirchoff
diffraction parameter υ which is given by
where α has units of radians.
 Therefore, φ can be expressed as
 The phase difference between a direct line-of-sight path and diffracted path is a function
of height and position of the obstruction, as well as the transmitter and receiver location.
 Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary waves have a path length
from the transmitter to receiver which are nλ/2 greater than the total path length of a line-
of-sight path.

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 Figure demonstrates a transparent plane located between a transmitter and receiver.

 The concentric circles on the plane represent the loci of the origins of secondary wavelets
which propagate to the receiver such that the total path length increases by λ/2 for
successive circles. These circles are called Fresnel zones.
 The successive Fresnel zones have the effect of alternately providing constructive and
destructive interference to the total received signal.
 The radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by rn and can be expressed in terms of
n, λ, d1, and d2 by .
 This approximation is valid for d1, d2 >> rn .
 The excess total path length traversed by a ray passing through each circle is n λ /2, where
n is an integer.
 Thus, the path traveling through the smallest circle corresponding to n = 1 will have an
excess path lengths of λ/2 as compared to a line-of-sight path, and circles corresponding
to n = 2, 3, etc. will have an excess path length of λ, 3 λ /2, etc.
 The radii of the concentric circles depend on the location of the plane.
 The Fresnel zones will have maximum radii if the plane is midway between the
transmitter and receiver, and the radii become smaller when the plane is moved towards
either the transmitter or the receiver.
 This effect illustrates how shadowing is sensitive to the frequency as well as the location
of obstructions with relation to the transmitter or receiver.
 In mobile communication systems, diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of secondary
waves such that only a portion of the energy is diffracted around an obstacle.

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 That is, an obstruction causes a blockage of energy from some of the Fresnel zones, thus
allowing only some of the transmitted energy to reach the receiver.
 Depending on the geometry of the obstruction, the received energy will be a vector sum
of the energy contributions from all unobstructed Fresnel zones.

 As shown in Figure, an obstacle may block the transmission path, and a family of
ellipsoids can be constructed between a transmitter and receiver by joining all the points
for which the excess path delay is an integer multiple of half wavelengths.
 The ellipsoids represent Fresnel zones.
 The Fresnel zones are elliptical in shape with the transmitter and receiver antenna at their
foci.
 In general, if an obstruction does not block the volume contained within the first Fresnel
zone, then the diffraction loss will be minimal, and diffraction effects may be neglected.
 In fact, a rule of thumb used for design of line-of-sight microwave links is that as long as
55% of the first Fresnel zone is kept clear, then further Fresnel zone clearance does not
significantly alter the diffraction loss.

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Knife-edge Diffraction Model

 Generally, it is impossible to make very precise estimates of the diffraction losses, and in
practice prediction is a process of theoretical approximation modified by necessary
empirical corrections.
 As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over a knife-edge gives good insight
into the order of magnitude of diffraction loss.
 When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the attenuation
caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife
edge.
 This is the simplest of diffraction models, and the diffraction loss in this case can be
readily estimated using the classical Fresnel solution for the field behind a knife edge
(also called a half-plane).

 Consider a receiver at point R, located in the shadowed region (also called the diffraction
zone).
 The field strength at point R is a vector sum of the fields due to all of the secondary
Huygen's sources in the plane above the knife edge.
 The electric field strength, Ed of a knife-edge diffracted wave is given by

where E0 is the free space field strength in the absence of both the ground and the knife
edge, and F (v) is the complex Fresnel integral.
 The Fresnel integral, F(v), is a function of the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v,
and is commonly evaluated using tables or graphs for given values of v.
 The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge, as compared to the free space E-
field, is given by .

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 A graphical representation of Gd (dB) as a function of v is given in Figure.

 An approximate solution for equation is

Problem
Compute the diffraction loss for the three cases shown. Assume λ=1/3m, d1=1km, d2=1km,
and (a) h=25m, (b) h=0 (c) h=-25m. Compare your answers using values from Figure, as well
as the approximate solution. For each of these cases, identify the Fresnel zone within which
the tip of the obstruction lies.
Solution:
Given:
λ=1/3m, d1=1km, d2=1km
(a) h = 25m
 The Fresnel diffraction parameter is obtained as
= 2.74

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 From Figure, the diffraction loss is obtained as 22dB.

 Using the numerical approximation equation, the diffraction loss is
= 21.7dB.
 The path length difference between the direct and diffracted rays is given as
 = 0.625m

 To find the Fresnel zone in which the tip of the obstruction lies we need to compute n
which satisfies the relation Δ= nλ /2.
 For λ = I/3m, and a = 0.625 m, we obtain
= 3.75
 Therefore, the tip of the obstruction completely blocks the first three Fresnel zones.

(b) h = 0
 Therefore, the Fresnel diffraction parameter v = 0.
 From Figure, the diffraction loss is obtained as 6dB.
 Using the numerical approximation equation, the diffraction loss is
= 6dB.
 For this case, since h = 0, we have Δ = 0, and the tip of the obstruction lies in the middle
of the first Fresnel zone.

(c) h = -25
 Using equation, the Fresnel diffraction parameter is obtained as -2.74.
 From Figure, the diffraction loss is as approximately equal to 1dB.
 Using the numerical approximation equation, the diffraction loss is 0dB.
 Since the absolute value of the height h, is the same as part (a), the excess path length Δ
and hence n will also be the same.
 It should be noted that although the tip of the obstruction completely blocks the first three
Fresnel zones, the diffraction losses are negligible, since the obstruction is below the line
of sight (h is negative).

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Problem
Given the following geometry, determine
(a) the loss due to knife-edge diffraction
(b) the height of the obstacle required to induce 6dB diffraction loss.
Assume f = 900MHz.

Solution:
The wavelength = 1/3 m
Redraw the geometry by subtracting the height of the smallest structure.

= 0.2865○
= 2.15○
= 2.434○ = 0.0424rad
 The Fresnel diffraction parameter is obtained as
= 4.24

 From Figure, the diffraction loss is equal to 25.5dB.

 Using the numerical approximation equation, the diffraction loss is
= 25.5dB.

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b) From Figure, for 6 dB diffraction loss, v = 0.

 The obstruction height h may be found using similar triangles (β = -γ) as shown below.

 It follows that (h/2000) = (25/12000), thus h = 4.16 m.

Multiple Knife Edge Diffraction

 In many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist
of more than one obstruction, in which case the total diffraction loss due to all of the
obstacles must be computed.
 Bullington suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single equivalent
obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife-edge diffraction models.
 This method oversimplifies the calculations and often provides very optimistic estimates
of the received signal strength.
 In a more rigorous treatment, Millington et. al., gave a wave-theory solution for the field
behind two knife edges in series.
 This solution is very useful and can be applied easily for predicting diffraction losses due
to two knife edges.
 However, extending this to more than two knife edges become a formidable mathematical
problem.
 Many models that are mathematically less complicated have been developed to estimate
the diffraction losses due to multiple obstructions.

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Scattering
 The actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger than what is
predicted by reflection and diffraction models alone.
 This is because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is
spread out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering.
 Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to scatter energy in all directions, thereby
providing additional radio energy at a receiver.
 Flat surfaces that have much larger dimension than a wavelength may be modelled as
reflective surfaces.
 However, the roughness of such surfaces often induces propagation effects.
 Surface roughness is often tested using the Rayleigh criterion which defines a critical
height (hc) of surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence θi, given by
.
 A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less than hc
and is considered rough if the protuberance is greater than hc .
 For rough surfaces, the flat surface reflection coefficient needs to be multiplied by a
scattering loss factor, to account for the diminished reflected field.
 Ament assumed that the surface height h is a Gaussian distributed random variable with a
local mean and found ρs to be given by
where σh is the standard deviation of the surface height about the mean surface height.
 The scattering loss factor derived by Ament was modified by Boithias to give better
agreement with measured results, and is given as

where I0 is the Bessel function of the first kind and zero order.
 The reflected E-fields for h > hc can be solved for rough surfaces using a modified
reflection coefficient given as .

Radar Cross Section Model

 The radar cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power
density of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the
radio wave incident upon the scattering object and has units of square meters.
 Analysis based on the geometric theory of diffraction and physical optics may be used to
determine the scattered field strength.

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 For urban mobile radio systems, models based on the bistatic radar equation may be used
to compute the received power due to scattering in the far field.
 The bistatic radar equation describes the propagation of a wave traveling in free space
which impinges on a distant scattering object, and is then reradiated in the direction of the
receiver, given by

where dT and dR are the distance from the scattering object to the transmitter and receiver,
respectively.
 The scattering object is assumed to be in the far field (Fraunhofer region) of both the
transmitter and receiver.
 The variable RCS is given in units of dB.m2 and can be approximated by the surface area
(in square meters) of the scattering object, measured in dB with respect to a one square
meter reference.
 Equation may be applied to scatterers in the far-field of both the transmitter and receiver
and is useful for predicting receiver power which scatters off large objects, such as
buildings, which are for both the transmitter and receiver.

Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models

 Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of analytical and
empirical methods.
 The empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical expressions that recreate a
set of measured data.
 This has the advantage of implicitly taking into account all propagation factors, both
known and unknown, through actual field measurements.
 However, the validity of an empirical model at transmission frequencies or environments
other than those used to derive the model can only be established by additional measured
data in the new environment at the required transmission frequency.
 Over time, some classical propagation models have emerged, which are now used to
predict large-scale coverage for mobile communication systems design.
 By using path loss models to estimate the received signal level as a function of distance, it
becomes possible to predict the SNR for a mobile communication system.

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Log Distance path Loss Model

 Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average
received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance, whether in outdoor or
indoor radio channels.
 The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a
function of distance by using a path loss exponent, n.
or
where n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases
with distance, d0 is the close-in reference distance which is determined from
measurements close to the transmitter, and d is the T-R separation distance.
 The bars in equations denote the ensemble average of all possible path loss values for a
given value of d.
 When plotted on a log-log scale, the modeled path loss is a straight line with a slope equal
to 10n dB per decade.
 The value of n depends on the specific propagation environment.
 For example, in free space, n is equal to 2, and when obstructions are present, n will have
a larger value.
 It is important to select a free space reference distance that is appropriate for the
propagation environment.
 In large coverage cellular systems, 1 km reference distances are commonly used, whereas
in microcellular systems, much smaller distances (such as 100 m or 1 m) are used.
 The reference distance should always be in the far field of the antenna so that near-field
effects do not alter the reference path loss.
 Table lists typical path loss exponents obtained in various mobile radio environments.

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Log-normal Shadowing
 Measurements have shown that at any value of d, the path loss PL(d) at a particular
location is random and distributed log-normally (normal in dB) about the mean distance
dependent value i.e.
and (antenna gains included in PL(d))
where Xσ, is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with standard
deviation σ (also in dB).
 The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which occur over a
large number of measurement locations which have the same T-R separation but have
different levels of clutter on the propagation path. This phenomenon is referred to as
log-normal shadowing.
 Log-normal shadowing implies that measured signal levels at a specific T-R separation
have a Gaussian (normal) distribution about the distance-dependent mean, where the
measured signal levels have values in dB units.
 The standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution that describes the shadowing also has
units in dB.
 Thus, the random effects of shadowing are accounted for using the Gaussian distribution
which lends itself readily to evaluation.
 The close-in reference distance d0, the path loss exponent n, and the standard deviation σ,
statistically describe the path loss model for an arbitrary location having a specific T-R
separation, and this model may be used in computer simulation to provide received power
levels for random locations in communication system design and analysis.
 In practice, the values of n and σ are computed from measured data, using linear
regression such that the difference between the measured and estimated path losses is
minimized in a mean square error sense over a wide range of measurement locations and
T-R separations.
 Figure illustrates actual measured data in several cellular radio systems and demonstrates
the random variations about the mean path loss (in dB) due to shadowing at specific T-R
separations.
 Since PL (d) is a random variable with a normal distribution in dB about the distance-
dependent mean, so is Pr(d), and the Q-function (Q) or error function (erf) may be used to
determine the probability that the received signal level will exceed (or fall below) a
particular level.

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 The Q-function is defined as

where Q(z) = 1 – Q(-z)

 The probability that the received signal level will exceed a certain value γ can be
calculated from the Cumulative Density Function as

 Similarly, the probability that the received signal level will be below γ is given by

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Fading and Multipath

The Broadband Wireless Channel: Fading
 Fading is caused by the reception of multiple versions of same signal.
 Fading is variation of attenuation of signal.
 The multiple received versions are caused by reflections that are referred to as multipath.
 Some of the reflections arrive at nearly same time.
 Depending on the phase difference between the arriving signals, the interference can be
either constructive or destructive.

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 As either the transmitter or receiver move relative to each other, the channel response h(t)
will change.
 The channel response can be thought of as having 2 dimensions; a delay dimension ‘’
and a time dimension ‘t’.
 Since the channel changes over distance and hence time, the values of h0, h1, h2 - - - - hυ
may be totally different at time t versus time t + Δt.
 The most important and fundamental function used to statistically describe the broadband
fading channels is the 2 dimensional auto correlation function A(Δ, Δt).
 The auto correlation function is defined as

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Delay Spread and Coherence Bandwidth

 Delay Spread is the amount of time that elapses between the first arriving path and the
last arriving path.
 It can be found by inspecting A(Δτ,0).
 A(Δτ) is referred to as Multipath Intensity Profile or Power Delay Profile.
 The number of taps is given by

 The average delay spread is defined as

 The rms delay spread is defined as

 A general thumb rule is

 Coherence Bandwidth is the frequency domain dual of the channel delay spread.
 The coherence bandwidth gives a rough measure for the maximum separation between
frequency f1 and f2 where the channel frequency response is correlated.

 The coherence bandwidth is given by

Doppler Spread and Coherence Time

 The Doppler Power Spectrum is caused by motion between transmitter and receiver.
 Doppler Power Spectrum gives the statistical power distribution of the channel versus
frequency for a signal transmitted at just one exact frequency generally normalized as
f = 0.
 The Doppler Power Spectrum is the Fourier Transform of i.e.

 The Doppler Power Spectrum is non zero strictly for Δf Є (-fD, fD)
 The Doppler Spread is given by
where ν is the maximum speed between transmitter and receiver
fc is the carrier frequency and C is the speed of light

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 The Coherence Time is period of time over which channel is significantly correlated.

 The Coherence Time is given by

Angular Spread and Coherence Distance

 Angular Spread of a channel refers to the statistical distribution of the angle of the
arriving energy.
 It is denoted as .
 A large implies that channel energy is coming from many directions and this results
in more statistical diversity in channel.
 A small implies that the received channel energy is more focused and this results in
less statistical diversity.
 The dual of angular spread is Coherence Distance.
 A coherence distance of d means that any physical positions separated by d have an
essentially uncorrelated received signal amplitude and phase.
 An approximate rule of thumb is
 For Rayleigh Fading,

Modelling Broadband Fading Channels

 The Channel Models that incorporate their variations in time, frequency and space are
developed.
 The 2 major classes of Models are Statistical and Empirical.
 Statistical Models are simpler and are useful for analysis and simulations.
 Empirical Models are more complicated but usually represent a specific type of channel
more accurately.

Statistical Channel Models

 They are used to characterize the amplitude and power of r(t) when all reflections arrive
at about the same time.
 All the received energy arrives at the receiver at the same instant when symbol time is
much greater than delay spread i.e.

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1)Rayleigh Fading
 All the arriving reflections have a mean of zero since there is no Line of Sight path.
 The value of received signal r(t) at t=0 is
where rI(t) is the in-phase (cosine) component
rQ(t) is the quadrature (sine) component.
 The envelope of r(t) is envelope amplitude given by which is Rayleigh
distributed.
 The received power is exponentially distributed.
 The probability density function of amplitude and power is given by

 The Gaussian random variables rI and rQ each have zero mean and variance .
 The phase of r(t) is defined as which is uniformly distributed from 0 to 2π or
equivalently [-, ].

2) Line of Sight Channels – The Ricean Distribution

 For a Line of Sight (LOS) signal, the received envelope distribution is more accurately
modelled by Ricean Distribution given by probability density function

where 2 is the power of LOS component,

Io is the 0th order modified Bessel function of first kind.

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 When μ = 0, the Ricean distribution reduces to Rayleigh distribution in the absence of

LOS component.
 The factor K is a natural description of how strong the LOS component is relative to non
2
LOS component which is given by K  where 2 2 is the scattering power.
2 2

 For K=0, Ricean distribution reduces to Rayleigh.

 The average received power under Ricean Fading is the combination of scattering power
and the LOS power given by .
Pr
 The scattering power 2 2 is given by 2 2  .
K 1

3)Nakagami-m Fading
 The Probability Density Function (PDF) of Nakagami Fading is parameterized by m and
given as

 The dependence of x is simpler and hence it is used in tractable analysis of fading channel
performance.
 gives an approximate Ricean distribution and m=1 gives a Rayleigh.
 The power distribution for Nakagami Fading is

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The Cellular Concept

Cellular Concept
 In cellular systems, the service area is subdivided into smaller geographic areas called
cells that are each served by their own base station.
 Hexagon shape is used to represent a cell since hexagonal is the closest shape to circle in
geometry.
 Group of cells form a cluster.
 Cells which are adjacent to one another either within the cluster or in between 2 clusters
form adjacent cells.
 Cells which share the same radio channel or reuse the same frequency are called
cochannel cells.
 The distance between the 2 cochannel cells is called Frequency Reuse distance.
 Frequency Reuse Factor ‘f’ is the inverse of cluster size ‘N’ where cluster size is the
number of cells in a cluster given by N = i2 +ij + j2.
 Cochannel Reuse ratio is the ratio of distance to the centre of the nearest cochannel cell
to the radius of the cell and is denoted by ‘Z’.
D 3
 Z  3N  .
R f

 Frequency Reuse Distance is therefore given by D  R 3N .

 If the number of interfering cells is NI, the SIR of mobile station is given by

 The received SIR for the worst case is given by

wherei denotes the shadowing from the ith base station.

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 The outage probability that the received SIR falls below a threshold can be derived from
the distribution.
 If the mean and standard deviation of the Log Normal distribution are  and  in dB, the
outage probability is derived in the form of Q function as

where is the threshold SIR level in dB.

Sectoring
 By using directional antennas instead of an omnidirectional antenna at the base station,
the cells are sectored to reduce the cochannel interference.
 Each sector can reuse time and code slots, so each sector has the same nominal capacity
as an entire cell and hence no capacity is lost from sectoring.
 If each sector 1 points the same direction in each cell, then the interference cause by the
neighbouring cells will be dramatically reduced.
 Sectoring increases the number of antennas at each base station and reduces trunking
efficiency due to channel sectoring at base station.
 Even though inter sector handoff is simpler compared to inter cell handoff, sectoring also
increases the overhead due to increased number of inter sector handoffs.

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