7 Practices For Effective Learning McTighe 2005

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 9

Seven Practices for

E ffe ctive Teachers in all content


areas can use these
seven assessment
and gradingpractices

Learnig to enhance learning


and teaching.
Jay McTighe
and Ken O'Connor
Classroom the potential not only to measure and report
learning but also to promote
assessment
research has documented the
it. Indeed,
and grading recent
practices
benefits of
use of diagnostic and formative assessments as
have
regular
assessments include tests, performance tasks, final exams,
culminating projects, and work portfolios. Evaluative assess-
ments command the attention of students and parents
because their results typically "count" and appear on report
cards and transcripts. But by themselves, summative assess-
ments are insufficient tools for maximizing learning, Waiting
feedback for learning (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, &
Wiliam, 2004). Like successful athletic coaches, the best until the end of a teaching period to find out how well
teachers recognize the importance of students have learned is simply too late.
ongoing assessments and continual adjust- Two other classroom assessment cate-
ments on the part of both teacher and Teachers hould S gories---diagnostic and formative-
student as the means to achieve maximum provide fuel for the teaching and learning
performance. Unlike the external stan- set up auttlientic engine by offering descriptive feedback
dardized tests that feature so prominently along the way Diagnostic assessments-
on the school landscape these days, well- contexts fi Or sometimes known as pre-assessments-
designed classroom assessment and typically precede instruction. Teachers use
grading practices can provide the kind of assessm ?r tt.•them to check students' prior knowledge
specific, personalized, and timely informa- and skill levels, identify student miscon-
tion needed to guide both learning and teaching. ceptions, profile learners' interests, and reveal learning-style
Classroom assessments fall into three categories, each preferences. Diagnostic assessments provide information to
serving a different purpose. Summative assessments summa- assist teacher planning and guide differentiated instruction.
rize what students have learned at the conclusion of an Examples of diagnostic assessments include prior knowledge
instructional segment. These assessments tend to be evalua- and skill checks and interest or learning preference surveys.
tive, and teachers typically encapsulate and report assessment Because pre-assessments serve diagnostic purposes, teachers
results as a score or a grade. Familiar examples of summative normally don't grade the results.
Formative assessments
occur concurrently with
instruction. These ongoing
assessments provide specific
feedback to teachers and
students for the purpose of
guiding teaching to improve
leaming. Formative assess-
ments include both formal
and informal methods, such
as ungraded quizzes, oral
questioning, teacher observa-
tions, draft work, think-
alouds, student-constructed
concept maps, learning logs,
and portfolio reviews.
Although teachers may record
the results of formative
assessments, we shouldn't
factor these results into
summative evaluation and
grading.
Keeping these three cate-
gories of classroom assess- §
ment in mind, let us consider
seven specific assessment and grading standards and benchmarks in terms of application, we do not mean recall of
practices that can enhance teaching and desired performances and ensure that basic facts or mechanical plug-ins of a
leaming. the performances are as authentic as memorized formula. Rather, we want
possible. Teachers should then present students to transfer knowledge-to use
Practice 1: Use summative the summative performance assessment what they know in a new situation.
assessments to frame tasks to students at the beginning of a Teachers should set up realistic,
meaningful performance goals. new unit or course. authentic contexts for assessment that
On the first day of a three-week unit on This practice has three virtues. First, enable students to apply their leaming
nutrition, a middle school teacher the summative assessments clarify the thoughtfully and flexibly, thereby
describes to students the two summative targeted standards and benchmarks for demonstrating their understanding of
assessments that she will use. One assess- teachers and learners. In standards- the content standards.
ment is a multiple-choice test examining based education, the rubber meets the Third, presenting the authentic
student knowledge of various nutrition road with assessments because they performance tasks at the beginning of a
facts and such basic skills as analyzing define the evidence that will determine new unit or course provides a mean-
nutrition labels. The second assessment is whether or not students have learned ingful leaming goal for students.
an authentic performance task in which the content standards and benchmarks. Consider a sports analogy. Coaches
each student designs a menu plan for an The nutrition vignette is illustrative: By routinely conduct practice drills that
upcoming two-day trip to an outdoor knowing what the culminating assess- both develop basic skills and purpose-
educationfacility. The menu plan must ments will be, students are better able fully point toward performance in the
provide well-balanced and nutritious to focus on what the teachers expect game. Too often, classroom instruction
meals and snacks. them to learn (information about and assessment overemphasize decon-
The current emphasis on established healthy eating) and on what they will textualized drills and provide too few
content standards has focused teaching be expected to do with that knowledge opportunities for students to actually
on designated knowledge and skills. To (develop a nutritious meal plan). "play the game." How many soccer
avoid the danger of viewing the stan- Second, the performance assessment players would practice comer kicks or
dards and benchmarks as inert content tasks yield evidence that reveals under- run exhausting wind sprints if they
to "cover," educators should frame the standing. When we call for authentic weren't preparing for the upcoming

12 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP/NOVEMBER 2005


FIUE1 Anayi Ruri fo Grpi Disla of Data

Title Labels Accuracy Neatness

3 The graph contains a title All parts of the graph (units All data are accurately The graph is very neat
that clearly tells what the of measurement, rows, represented on the graph. and easy to read.
-1 data show. [---/ etc.) are correctly labeled. -- ••r

Some parts of the graph Data representation The graph is generally


2 The graph contains a title
2 that suggests what the are inaccurately labeled. contains minor errors. neat and readable.

data show. ED V ED 7r
1 The title does not reflect The graph is incorrectly The data are inaccurately The graph is sloppy and
what the data show OR labeled OR labels are represented, contain difficult to read.
the title is missing. missing. major errors, OR are
missing.

Comments:
Goals/Actions:
Source: From The Understandingby Design ProfessionalDevelopment Workbook (p. 183), by J. McTighe and G. Wiggins, 2004, Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

game? How many competitive swim-


mers would log endless laps if there
The best teachers recognize the importance
were no future swim meets? Authentic
performance tasks provide a worthy
of ongoing assessments as the means to
goal and help learners see a reason for
their learning.
achieve maximum performance.
Practice 2: Show criteria
and models in advance. assessments are typically open-ended consistent because the performance
A high school language arts teacher and do not yield a single, correct criteria don't vary from teacher to
distributes a summary of the summative answer or solution process. Conse- teacher or from school to school.
performance task that students will quently, teachers cannot score student Rubrics also benefit students. When
complete during the unit on research, responses using an answer key or a students know the criteria in advance
including the rubricfor judging the perfor- Scantron machine. They need to eval- of their performance, they have clear
mance's quality. In addition, she shows uate products and performances on the goals for their work. Because well-
examples of student work products basis of explicitly defined performance defined criteria provide a clear descrip-
collected from previous years (with student criteria. tion of quality performance, students
names removed) to illustrate criteria and A rubric is a widely used evaluation don't need to guess what is most
performance levels. Throughout the unit, tool consisting of criteria, a measure- important or how teachers will judge
the teacher uses the student examples and ment scale (a 4-point scale, for their work.
example), and descriptions of the char- Providing a rubric to students in
the criteria in the rubric to help students
better understand the natureof high- acteristics for each score point. Well- advance of the assessment is a neces-
quality work and to support her teaching developed rubrics communicate the sary, but often insufficient, condition to
of research skills and report writing. important dimensions, or elements of support their learning. Although expe-
A second assessment practice that quality, in a product or performance rienced teachers have a clear concep-
supports learning involves presenting and guide educators in evaluating tion of what they mean by "quality
evaluative criteria and models of work student work. When a department or work," students don't necessarily have
that illustrate different levels of quality grade-level team--or better yet, an the same understanding. Learners are
Unlike selected-response or short- entire school or district-uses common more likely to understand feedback and
answer tests, authentic performance rubrics, evaluation results are more evaluations when teachers show several

ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 13


examples that display both excellent or by skipping material previously
and weak work. These models help "With performance mastered; into how to teach, by using
translate the rubric's abstract language grouping options and initiating activi-
into more specific, concrete, and assessments, the ties based on preferred learning styles
understandable terms. and interests; and into how to connect
Some teachers express concern that juice must be worth the content to students' interests and
students will simply copy or imitate the talents.
example. A related worry is that the squeeze." Teachers can use a variety of practical
showing an excellent model (sometimes pre-assessment strategies, including
known as an exemplar) will stultify evidence of their learning. pre-tests of content knowledge, skills
student creativity We have found that Diagnostic assessment is as impor- checks, concept maps, drawings, and
providing multiple models helps avoid tant to teaching as a physical exam is to K-W-L (Know-Want to learn-Learn)
these potential problems. When prescribing an appropriate medical charts. Powerful pre-assessment has the
students see several exemplars showing regimen. At the outset of any unit of potential to address a worrisome
how different students achieved high- study, certain students are likely to have phenomenon reported in a growing
level performance in unique ways, they already mastered some of the skills that body of literature (Bransford, Brown, &
are less likely to follow a cookie-cutter the teacher is about to introduce, and Cocking, 1999; Gardner, 1991): A size-
approach. In addition, when students others may already understand key able number of students come into
study and compare examples ranging concepts. Some students are likely to school with misconceptions about
in quality-from very strong to very be deficient in prerequisite skills or subject matter (thinking that a heavier
weak-they are better able to inter- harbor misconceptions. Armed with object will drop faster than a lighter
nalize the differences. The models this diagnostic information, a teacher one, for example) and about themselves
enable students to more accurately self- gains greater insight into what to teach, as learners (assuming that they can't
assess and improve their work before by knowing what skill gaps to address and never will be able to draw, for
turning it in to the teacher.

Practice 3: Assess
E example). If teachers don't
identify and confront these
misconceptions, they will
before teaching. persist even in the face of
Before beginning instruction on good teaching. To uncover
the five senses, a kindergarten existing misconceptions,
teacher asks each student to teachers can use a short,
draw a picture of the body parts nongraded true-false diag-
related to the various senses and nostic quiz that includes
show what each part does. She several potential misconcep-
models the process by drawing tions related to the targeted
an eye on the chalkboard. "The "2 learning. Student responses
eye helps us see things around () will signal any prevailing
_J
us," she points out. As students ,4_ misconceptions, which the
draw, the teacher circulates teacher can then address
around the room, stopping to through instruction. In the
ask clarifying questions (7"see E future, the growing avail-
you've drawn a nose. What does ability of portable, electronic
the nose help us do?"). On the student-response systems
basis of what she learns about will enable educators to
her students from this diagnostic obtain this information
pre-test, she divides the class instantaneously
into two groups for differenti- Duration
ated instruction. At the conclu- : Represents several (2 or 3) pieces of evicJence. Practice 4: Offer
sion of the unit, the teacher asks appropriate choices.
ght © Ken O'Connor. Reprinted with permission.
students to do another drawing, CopyrI As part of a culminating assess-
which she collects and compares Four stuudents master a given learning goal by the end of ain ment for a major unit on their
with their original pre-test as instruct ional segment but have vastly different learning ct irves. state's history and geography,a

14 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP/NOVEMBER 2005


when given such a variety of choices.
The teacher will judge these products
using a three-trait rubric that focuses
on accuracy of content, clarity and
thoroughness of explanation, and
overall product quality
We offer three cautions. First,
teachers need to collect appropriate
evidence of learning on the basis of
goals rather than simply offer a "cool"
menu of assessment choices. If a
content standard calls for proficiency in
written or oral presentations, it would
be inappropriate to provide perfor-
mance options other than those
involving writing or speaking, except in
the case of students for whom such
goals are clearly inappropriate (a newly
arrived English language learner, for
example). Second, the options must be
worth the time and energy required. It
would be inefficient to have students
class of 4th graders must contribute to a not fair because any chosen format will develop an elaborate three-dimensional
classroom museum display. The displays favor some students and penalize display or an animated PowerPoint
are designed to provide answers to the others. presentation for content that a
unit's essential question: How do geog- Assessment becomes responsive multiple-choice quiz could easily
raphy, climate, and natural resources when students are given appropriate assess. In the folksy words of a teacher
influence lifestyle, economy, and culture? options for demonstrating knowledge, friend, "With performance assessments,
Parents and students from other class- skills, and understanding. Allow the juice must be worth the squeeze."
rooms will view the display. Students have Third, teachers have only so much time
some choice about the specific products and energy, so they must be judicious
they will develop, which enables them to Teachers need to allow in determining when it is important to
offer product and performance options.
work to their strengths. Regardless of
students' chosen products, the teacheruses students to work to They need to strike a healthy balance
between a single assessment path and a
a common rubric to evaluate every project.
The resulting class museum contains a their strengths. plethora of choices.
wide variety of unique and informative
products that demonstrate learning. Practice 5: Provide
Responsiveness in assessment is as choices-but always with the intent feedback early and often.
important as it is in teaching. Students of collecting needed and appropriate Middle school students are learning water-
differ not only in how they prefer to evidence based on goals. In the color painting techniques. The art teacher
take in and process information but example of the 4th grade museum models proper techniquefor mixing and
also in how they best demonstrate their display project, the teacher wants applying the colors, and the students begin
learning. Some students need to "do"; students to demonstrate their under- working. As they paint, the teacher
standing of the relationship between providesfeedback both to individual
others thrive on oral explanations.
Some students excel at creating visual geography and economy. This could be students and to the class as a whole. She
representations; others are adept at accomplished through a newspaper targets common mistakes, such as using
writing. To make valid inferences about article, a concept web, a PowerPoint too much paint and not enough water, a
learning, teachers need to allow presentation, a comparison chart, or a practicethat reduces the desired trans-
students to work to their strengths. A simulated radio interview with an parency effect. Benefiting from continual
standardized approach to classroom expert. Learners often put forth greater feedbackfrom the teacher,students experi-
assessment may be efficient, but it is effort and produce higher-quality work ment with the medium on small sheets of

ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 15


paper The next class provides additional Practice 6: Encourage self-
opportunitiesto apply various watercolor assessment and goal setting.
techniques to achieve such effects as color Before turning in their science lab reports,
blending and soft edges. The class culmi- students review their work against a list of
nates in an informal peerfeedback session. explicit criteria.On the basis of theirself-
Skill development and refinement result assessments, a number of students make
from the combined effects of direct instruc- revisions to improve their reports before
tion, modeling, and opportunities to prac- handing them in. Their teacher observes
tice guided by ongoingfeedback. that the overall quality of the lab reports
It is often said that feedback is the has improved.
breakfast of champions. All kinds of The most effective learners set
learning, whether on the practice field personal learning goals, employ proven
or in the classroom, require feedback strategies, and self-assess their work.
based on formative assessments. Ironi- Teachers help cultivate such habits of
cally, the quality feedback necessary to mind by modeling self-assessment and
enhance learning is limited or nonexis- goal setting and by expecting students
tent in many classrooms. to apply these habits regularly.
To serve learning, feedback must Rubrics can help students become
meet four criteria: It must be timely, more effective at honest self-appraisal
specific, understandable to the receiver, and productive self-improvement. In
and formed to allow for self-adjustment the rubric in Figure 1 (p. 13), students
on the student's part (Wiggins, 1998). verify that they have met a specific
First, feedback on strengths and weak- rubrics can make feedback clearer and criterion-for a title, for example-by
nesses needs to be prompt for the more comprehensible. For instance, placing a check in the lower left-hand
learner to improve. Waiting three instead of saying, "Document your square of the applicable box. The
weeks to find out how you did on a test reasoning process," a teacher might teacher then uses the square on the
will not help your learning. say, "Show your work in a step-by- right side for his or her evaluation.
In addition, specificity is key to step manner so the reader can see Ideally, the two judgments should
helping students understand both their what you were thinking." match. If not, the discrepancy raises an
strengths and the areas in which they Here's a simple, straightforward test opportunity to discuss the criteria,
can improve. Too many educators for a feedback system: Can learners expectations, and performance stan-
consider grades and scores as feedback tell specifically from the given feed- dards. Over time, teacher and student
when, in fact, they fail the specificity back what they have done well and judgments tend to align. In fact, it is
test. Pinning a letter (B-) or a number what they could do next time to not unusual for students to be harder
(82%) on a student's work is no more improve? If not, then the feedback is on themselves than the teacher is.
helpful than such comments as "Nice not specific or understandable enough The rubric also includes space for
job" or "You can do better." Although for the learner. feedback comments and student goals
good grades and positive remarks may Finally, the learner needs opportuni- and action steps. Consequently, the
feel good, they do not advance learning. ties to act on the feedback-to refine, rubric moves from being simply an
Specific feedback sounds different, as revise, practice, and retry. Writers evaluation tool for "pinning a number"
in this example: rarely compose a perfect manuscript on students to a practical and robust
Your research paper is generally well on the first try, which is why the vehicle for feedback, self-assessment,
organized and contains a great deal of writing process stresses cycles of and goal setting.
information on your topic. You used drafting, feedback, and revision as the Initially, the teacher models how to
multiple sources and documented them route to excellence. Not surprisingly, self-assess, set goals, and plan improve-
correctly. However, your paper lacks a the best feedback often surfaces in the ments by asking such prompting ques-
clear conclusion, and you never really
answered your basic research question. performance-based subjects-such as tions as,
art, music, and physical education- mWhat aspect of your work was
Sometimes the language in a rubric and in extracurricular activities, such most effective?
is lost on a student. Exactly what does as band and athletics. Indeed, the mWhat aspect of your work was least
"well organized" or "sophisticated essence of coaching involves ongoing effective?
reasoning" mean? "Kid language" assessment and feedback. mWhat specific action or actions will

16 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP/NOVEMBER 2005


improve your performance? this particular goal. Gwen arrives with of study or their initial attempts at skill
mWhat will you do differently next substantial knowledge and skill but has mastery. Allowing new evidence to
time? room to improve. Roger and Pam are replace old conveys an important
Questions like these help focus true novices who demonstrate a high message to students-that teachers care
student reflection and planning. Over level of achievement by the end of the about their successful learning, not
time, students assume greater responsi- instructional segment as a result of merely their grades.
bility for enacting these processes inde- effective teaching and diligent learning.
pendently. If their school's grading system truly Motivated to Learn
Educators who provide regular documented learning, all these students The assessment strategies that we have
opportunities for learners to self-assess would receive the same grade because described address three factors that
and set goals often report a change in they all achieved the desired results influence student motivation to learn
the classroom culture. As one teacher over time. Roger and Pam would (Marzano, 1992). Students are more
put it, receive lower grades than Bob and likely to put forth the required effort
My students have shifted from asking, Gwen, however, if the teacher factored when there is
"What did I get?" or "What are you their earlier performances into the final mTask clarity-when they clearly
going to give me?" to becoming increas- evaluation. This practice, which is understand the learning goal and know
ingly capable of knowing how they are typical of the grading approach used in how teachers will evaluate their
doing and what they need to do to many classrooms, would misrepresent learning (Practices 1 and 2).
improve.
Roger and Pam's ultimate success mRelevance-when they think the
learning goals and assessments are
meaningful and worth learning (Prac-
Authentic performance tasks help learners tice 1).
m Potentialfor success-when they
believe they can successfully learn and
see a reason for their learning. meet the evaluative expectations (Prac-
tices 3-7).
Practice 7: Allow new because it does not give appropriate By using these seven assessment and
evidence of achievement recognition to the real--or most grading practices, all teachers can
to replace old evidence. current-level of achievement. enhance learning in their classrooms. Ml
A driver education student fails his driving Two concerns may arise when
test the first time, but he immediately teachers provide students with multiple References
books an appointment to retake the test opportunities to demonstrate their Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B.,
one week later. He passes on his second learning. Students may not take the & Wiliam, D. (2004). Working inside the
black box: Assessment for learning in the
attempt because he successfully demon- first attempt seriously once they realize
classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 86(1), 8-21.
strates the requisiteknowledge and skills. they'll have a second chance. In addi- Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking,
The driving examiner does not average the tion, teachers often become over- R. R. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn:
first performance with the second, nor does whelmed by the logistical challenges of Brain, mind, experience, and school. Wash-
the new license indicate that the driver providing multiple opportunities. To ington, DC: National Research Council.
"passedon the second attempt." make this approach effective, teachers Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind.
New York: BasicBooks.
This vignette reveals an important need to require their students to Marzano, R. (1992). A different kind of class-
principle in classroom assessment, provide some evidence of the corrective room: Teaching with dimensions of learning.
grading, and reporting: New evidence action they will take-such as engaging Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
of achievement should replace old in peer coaching, revising their report, Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment:
evidence. Classroom assessments and Designing assessments to inform and
or practicing the needed skill in a given
improve student performance. San Fran-
grading should focus on how well-not way-before embarking on their cisco: Jossey-Bass.
on when-the student mastered the "second chance."
designated knowledge and skill. As students work to achieve clearly
Consider the learning curves of four defined learning goals and produce Jay McTighe ([email protected]) is
coauthor of The Understandingby
students in terms of a specified learning evidence of their achievement, they Design series (ASCD, 1998, 1999, 2000,
goal (see fig. 2, p. 14). Bob already need to know that teachers will not 2004, 2005). Ken O'Connor is author of
possesses the targeted knowledge and penalize them for either their lack of How to Grade for Learning: Linking
skill and doesn't need instruction for knowledge at the beginning of a course Grades to Standards(Corwin, 2002).

ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 17


COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: Seven Practices for Effective Learning


SOURCE: Educ Leadership 63 no3 N 2005
WN: 0530503461002

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it


is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in
violation of the copyright is prohibited.

Copyright 1982-2005 The H.W. Wilson Company. All rights reserved.

You might also like