Optimization:(the action of making the best or most effective use of a situation or resource)

simply it means that choosing inputs which will result in the best possible outputs.
Optimum value means best value and it depends on which thing you are going to optimize based
on the thing the optimization will be either maximization or minimization.
For ex: Profit(maximize) and Cost(minimize).

 Maximizing or minimizing some function relative to some set, often representing a range
of choices available in a certain situation. The function allows comparison of the different
choices for determining which might be “best.”
Common applications: Minimal cost, maximal profit, minimal error, optimal design, optimal
management, variational principles.
There are three ways to find the slopes and slope is relates with the maxima and minima:
1) If we have given two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) then with the help of formula we can find
∆Y Y 2−Y 1
the slope and it is given as : =
∆ X X 2−X 1
dy
2) If we have given the equation then we take its derivative we can find the slope
dx
3) If we have given the graph then by drawing the tangent to its we can find the slope.
If tangent is stepper then slope will be max and if tangent is flatter then slope is min.
Our objective is to find the value of X at which we should have the max or min value of y that
point is called optimal Point. For that purpose we take the derivative of the function then we will
have the values of x at which the slope is zero and for knowing that the value at which the slope
is zero the value of y is max or min we take the second derivative of the function again and then
we will observe that at point x at which the slope is zero and its second derivative is greater than
zero then the Y will have minimum value and if the second derivative is less than zero the Y will
have the Maximum value .
Value of X at which dy d y
2
d y
2
=0 >0 <0
Slope = 0 dx dx
2
dx
2

(x1,x2…xn) Slope is zero Y is Minimum Y is Maximum

Optimization technique is a powerful tool to obtain the desired design parameters and best set
of operating conditions. This would guide the experimental work and reduce the risk and cost of
design and operating.
 Optimization refers to finding the values of decision variables, which correspond to and
provide the maximum or minimum of one or more desired objectives.
 Reliability of optimum solutions depends on formulation of objective functions and
selected optimization technique.
  Optimization requires a mathematical model that describes and predicts the process
behavior.
 In complex non-linear processes, optimization search could help to estimate unknown
parameters.
 Without optimization of design and operations, manufacturing and engineering activities
will not be as efficient as they are now.
 The primary focus of using optimization techniques is to measure the Maximum or
Minimum value of a function depending on the circumstance.
 Any engineering or research discipline involving design, maintenance and manufacturing
requires certain technical decisions to be taken at different stages. The outcome of taking
these decisions is to maximize the profit with minimum utilization of resources.
Objectives to be minimized: cost, energy, loss, waste, processing time, raw material
consumption…etc.
Objectives to be maximized: profit, conversion, yield, utility, efficiency, capacity…etc.
Finite-dimensional optimization: The case where a choice corresponds to selecting the values
of a finite number of real variables, called decision variables. For general purposes the decision
variables may be denoted by x 1, . . ., xn and each possible choice therefore identified with a point
x = (x1, . . ., xn) in the space ℝn.
Feasible set: The subset C of ℝn representing the allowable choices x = (x1, . . . , xn).
Objective function: The function f0(x) = f0(x1, . . . , xn) that is to be maximized or minimized
over C.

Constrained optimization: In mathematical optimization, constrained optimization (in

some contexts called constraint optimization) is the process of optimizing an objective function
with respect to some variables in the presence of constraints on those variables. The objective
function is either a cost function or energy function, which is to be minimized, or a reward
function or utility function, which is to be maximized.
 Constraints can be either hard constraints, which set conditions for the variables that are
required to be satisfied, or soft constraints, which have some variable values that are
penalized in the objective function if, and based on the extent that, the conditions on the
variables are not satisfied.
 Power Control System:
 The objective of control strategy is that to generate and deliver the power in an
interconnected system as economically and reliably as possible while maintaining the
voltage and frequency within permissible limits.
 Changes in real power mainly affect the system frequency and while the reactive power is
dependent on the magnitude of voltages.
 Load Frequency Control(LFC) loop controls the real power and frequency While
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) loop regulates the reactive power and voltage
magnitude.

Transfer Function:
1. Definition:
 The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the system
output to the Laplace transform of the system input, assuming all initial
conditions are zero.
 In the frequency domain, the transfer function provides a clear picture of how a
system responds to sinusoidal inputs at different frequencies.
2. Mathematical Representation:
 For a linear time-invariant system, the transfer function H(s) is expressed as the
Y ( s)
ratio of the output Y(s) to the input X(s) in the Laplace domain: H(s)=
X (s)
3. Frequency Domain Analysis:
 Power system engineers use the transfer function to analyze the system's response
to various frequencies of input signals.
 The transfer function helps in understanding the dynamic behavior of components
such as generators, transformers, and loads.
Importance and Use in Power System Analysis:
1. Stability Analysis:
 Transfer functions play a crucial role in determining the stability of power
systems. Engineers analyze the poles and zeros of the transfer function to assess
the system's stability.
 Poles in the left half-plane indicate stable behavior, while poles in the right half-
plane may lead to instability.
2. Control System Design:
 Transfer functions are essential for designing control systems that regulate the
behavior of power systems.
 Engineers design controllers by manipulating the transfer functions to achieve
desired performance and stability.
3. Transient and Steady-State Analysis:
 Transfer functions help in studying the transient and steady-state response of a
power system to disturbances.
 Engineers can assess how the system behaves during sudden changes or
disturbances, aiding in the design of protective and control systems.
4. Frequency Response Analysis:
 By analyzing the frequency response of the transfer function, engineers can
identify resonant frequencies and potential issues related to harmonics.
 This is crucial for preventing oscillations and ensuring the smooth operation of
the power system.
5. Modeling and Simulation:
 Transfer functions are used to create mathematical models of power system
components, allowing engineers to simulate and analyze the system's behavior
under different conditions.
6. Interconnected System Analysis:
 In large power systems with interconnected components, transfer functions help
in understanding the interactions between different parts of the system.
In summary, transfer functions are fundamental in power system analysis, providing a
powerful tool for engineers to understand, design, and optimize the dynamic behavior of
complex electrical networks. They are essential for stability analysis, control system design,
and overall system performance evaluation.

1. Transfer Function of Basic Generator & Load Model Control Loops:

For generator the transfer function is the ratio of Laplace transform of change in frequency to
change in the mechanical power :
∆ Ω(s) 1
T. F= =
∆ Pm (s) 2 H (s)
 When load is added to the generator we add the D block is a feedback block that is change in
load divided by the change in frequency and its always given in percentage. Then the whole
transfer function for generator and load will be given as :
∆ Ω(s) 1
T. F= =
∆ Pm (s) 2 H ( s ) + D

2. Transfer Function for the Prime Mover Model:

Model of turbine relates changes in mechanical power ∆ P m to change in the steam valve
position ∆ PV . Simplest prime mover model for no reheat steam steam turbine can be
approximated with a single time constant τ T in T.F
∆ Pm(s) 1
T.F = =
∆ Pv (s) 1+ τ T (s)

Time constant ranges from 0.2 to 2 sec.

3. Transfer Function for the Governor Model:

Generator load increases there will be reduction in the K.E of turbine it causes speed drop in
Turbine and generator frequency to fall. Change in speed sensed by turbine governor by
changing the turbine valve input to change the mechanical power output to bring the speed to
its new steady state. For stable operation the governor are designed to permit the speed to
drop as the load increases.

P
Slope of governor shows the speed regulation R ranges from(5-6%) from zero to full
load.
Speed Governor act as comparator whose output ∆ P gis the difference between reference set
power ∆ Pref and power 1/R ∆ ω as given from governor speed characteristics.
∆ P g= ∆ Pref - 1/R ∆ ω

Take laplace transform with s-domain

∆ P g (s)= ∆ Pref (s) - 1/R ∆ Ω (s )
The command ∆ P g is transformed through hydraulic amplifier to steam valve position command
∆ PV with time constant τ g

∆ P v (s) 1
T.F = =
∆ Pg (s) 1+ τ g (s)

Fig: Load frequency control block diagram of an isolated power system

Constraints in Optimization:
In the context of optimization, constraints refer to limitations or conditions that must be
satisfied during the optimization process. These constraints define the allowable solutions
within the problem space.
Let's explore the concept of constraints in the context of optimizing voltage and frequency in a
two-area power system:
1. Voltage Constraints:
Upper and Lower Voltage Limits: Power systems have predefined voltage limits
to ensure the stability and reliability of the system. Optimizing voltage must take
into account these limits to prevent over-voltage or under-voltage conditions.
2. Frequency Constraints:
Nominal Frequency: Power systems typically operate at a nominal frequency
(e.g., 60 Hz in the United States). Constraints on frequency ensure that the
optimized solution does not deviate significantly from the nominal frequency, as
this can affect the performance of connected equipment.
3. Operational Constraints:
Generator and Load Limits: Each generator and load in the system has
operational limits. Generators have maximum and minimum power output limits,
and loads have their own power consumption constraints. The optimization must
respect these limits to ensure the stability and reliability of the power system.
4. Transmission Line Constraints:
Line Flow Limits: The capacity of transmission lines is limited. Constraints on
power flow through these lines must be considered to prevent overloading, which
can lead to voltage instability and line failures.
5. Control System Constraints:
Governor and Exciter Constraints: The control systems of generators have
limitations in how quickly they can respond to changes in frequency and voltage.
These constraints must be considered to ensure that the optimization does not lead
to control system instability.
6. Economic Constraints:
Cost Constraints: In an optimization problem, economic factors play a crucial
role. There might be constraints related to the cost of generation, transmission, or
other associated costs. These constraints ensure that the optimized solution is
cost-effective.
7. Environmental Constraints:
Emission Limits: With a growing emphasis on environmental sustainability, there
may be constraints related to emissions from power generation. Optimizations
need to consider these constraints to meet environmental regulations.
When optimizing the voltage and frequency of a two-area power system, the goal is often to find
a set of control settings for generators and other devices that minimize costs, maximize
efficiency, and meet all the specified constraints.

Decision Variables and Objective Function In Two Area System:

In the context of a two-area power system optimization, decision variables are the parameters
that the optimization algorithm can adjust to find the optimal solution, while the objective
function is the metric that the algorithm seeks to either maximize or minimize. Let's outline
typical decision variables and objective functions for optimizing voltage and frequency in a two-
area power system:
Decision Variables:
1. Generator Setpoints:
 Generator Power Output: The power output of each generator in both areas is a
key decision variable. These setpoints determine how much power each generator
contributes to the overall system.
2. Control Parameters:
 Governor Control Settings: Parameters related to the governor control system,
such as proportional and integral gains, time constants, etc.
 Exciter Control Settings: Parameters related to the excitation control system,
which influences the generator's terminal voltage.
3. Load Shedding or Load Restoration Strategies:
 Load Shedding: In emergency situations, decision variables may include the
amount of load to shed to maintain system stability.
 Load Restoration: If load shedding occurs, the decision variables may include
strategies for restoring load in a controlled manner.
4. Transmission Line Parameters:
 Power Flow Distribution: The power flow allocation among transmission lines
connecting the two areas can be a decision variable.
Objective Function:
The objective function represents the goal of the optimization. In a power system optimization,
objectives often involve a trade-off between various factors, such as cost, system stability, and
efficiency. The specific objective function may vary based on the goals of the optimization, but
some common objectives include:
1. Minimization of Generation Cost:
  Fuel costs, operation, and maintenance costs: Minimize the total cost of
generating power in both areas.

2. Voltage and Frequency Stability:

 Minimize Voltage Deviations: Ensure that the voltage levels at all nodes in the
system are within acceptable limits.
 Minimize Frequency Deviations: Keep the frequency close to the nominal value
to ensure stable operation.
3. System Reliability:
 Maximize Reliability: Minimize the risk of power outages or system failures by
optimizing the system configuration and control settings.
4. Environmental Impact:
 Minimize Emissions: In the context of environmental concerns, the objective may
include minimizing emissions of pollutants from power generation.
5. Load Shedding Minimization:
 Minimize Load Shedding: In emergency scenarios, the objective may involve
minimizing the amount of load that needs to be shed to maintain system stability.
6. Optimal Power Flow:
 Maximize Power Transfer: Ensure that power flows through the transmission
lines are within acceptable limits while maximizing the overall power transfer
capability.
The choice of decision variables and the form of the objective function depend on the specific
goals and constraints of the power system optimization problem at hand. The optimization
algorithm aims to find the values of decision variables that result in an optimal solution
according to the specified objective function while satisfying all constraints.
Genetic Algorithm For Optimization:
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a type of optimization algorithm inspired by the process of natural
selection. It belongs to the broader class of evolutionary algorithms and is used for finding
approximate solutions to optimization and search problems.
GA is inspired by the Charles Darwin’s theory of Evolution which states that “it is not the
strongest of species that survives, nor the most intelligent but the one most responsive to change
”
Genetic Algorithm Process:
1. Initialization:
 A population of individuals is randomly generated.
 Each individual's chromosome is created using a random initialization process.
2. Selection:
 Individuals are selected from the current population to serve as parents for the
next generation.
 Selection is typically based on the fitness of individuals, giving better-performing
solutions a higher chance of being selected.
3. Crossover (Recombination):
 Pairs of selected parents exchange genetic information to create new offspring.
 This mimics the process of genetic recombination in biological evolution.
4. Mutation:
 Random changes are applied to some individuals' chromosomes to introduce
diversity.
 Mutation helps prevent premature convergence and explores new areas of the
solution space.
5. Evaluation:
 The fitness of the new offspring is evaluated using the fitness function.
6. Replacement:
  The new generation is formed by replacing the old population with the combined
set of parents and offspring.
7. Termination:
 The process continues for a fixed number of generations or until a stopping
criterion is met (e.g., a satisfactory solution is found).

Parameters:
1. Population Size:
 The number of individuals in each generation.
2. Crossover Rate:
 The probability that crossover (recombination) will occur for a pair of parents.
3. Mutation Rate:
 The probability that mutation will occur for each gene in an individual.
4. Selection Mechanism:
  The method used to select individuals for reproduction, such as roulette wheel
selection or tournament selection.
5. Termination Criteria:
 Conditions under which the algorithm should stop (e.g., a maximum number of
generations, reaching a target fitness, etc.).
The choice of these parameters depends on the specific problem being solved, and tuning them
appropriately is crucial for the success of the algorithm in finding high-quality solutions.