THEORY OF MACHINE

UNIT-1
SIMPLE MECHANISM
 THEORY OF MACHINE
Theory of Machine is that branch of engineering science which
deals with

 the study of relative motion between various elements of a

machine, and

 the forces which act on them.

MACHINE:
 A machine is a device which received energy in some available form and
utilizes it to do some particular type of work

 A machine may be regarded as an agent for transmitting or modifying

energy.

 A machine is a combination of components which can transmit power in

a controlled manner and which is capable of performing useful work.

 A machine consists of a number of kinematically related links.

 A machine is a combination of resistant bodies (links or elements) with

successfully constrained relative motions, which is used for
transmitting other forms of energy into mechanical energy or
transmitting and modifying available energy to do some particular kind
of work.
MACHINE ARRANGEMENT:
 Every machine will be found to consist of a system of parts
(links or elements) connected together in such a manner
that, if one be made to move, they all receive a motion, the
relation of which to that of the first depends upon the
nature of connections (i.e. joints)

 The links may be rigid, rigid-hydraulic, or rigid-pneumatic.

 The power input may be mechanical, electrical, hydraulic,
chemical, or nuclear.
 The power output may be mechanical, electrical hydraulic
or thermal.
MACHINE vs MECHANISM:
 In kinematics, a mechanism is a mean of transmitting, controlling, or
constraining relative movement.

 The central theme for mechanisms is rigid bodies connected together by

joints.

 It can also be defined as a combination of resistant bodies that are shaped

and connected in such a way that they move with definite relative motion
with respect to each other.

 A machine is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies, formed and

connected in such a way that they move with definite relative motions with
each other and transmit force also.

 A machine has two functions: transmitting definite relative motion and

transmitting force.

 The term mechanism is applied to the combination of geometrical bodies

which constitute a machine or part of a machine.
PLANER MECHANISM:
 A link is defined as a single part which can be a resistant body or
a combination of resistant bodies having inflexible connections
and having a relative motion with respect to other parts of the
machine.

 A link is also known as kinematic link or element.

 Links should not be confused with the parts of the mechanism.

 Different parts of the mechanism can be considered as single link

if there

 The frame of any machine is considered as single link as there is

no relative motion between the various parts of the frame. is no
relative motion between them.
TYPES OF LINKS:
 Based upon its ends on which revolute or turning pairs can be placed:
Binary, Ternary, and Quaternary etc.

 Based on its nature such as

Rigid link is the link which do not deform while transmitting the
motion
Flexible link is the link which deform while transmitting the motion
but does not affect its function of transmitting motion such as belts,
chains etc.
Fluid link is the link which uses the fluid pressure to transmit the
motion such as hydraulics jack, brakes and lifts.
RIGID BODY
 A rigid body is a body in which the distance between the two
points on the body remains constant or it does not deform under
the action of applied force.
 In actual practice no body is perfectly rigid but we assume it to
be rigid to simplify our analysis.

RESISITANT BODY
 A Resistant body is a body which is not a rigid body but acts like
a rigid body whiles its functioning in the machine.
 In actual practice, no body is the rigid body as there is always
some kind of deformation while transmitting motion or force.
 So, the body should be resistant one to transmit motion or force.
 Examples: The cycle chain is the resistant body as it acts like
rigid body while transmitting motion to the rear wheel of the
cycle, Belt in belt and pulley arrangement.
 KINEMATIC PAIR
 A kinematic pair is a connection between rigid bodies, which permits
relative motion between them.

 CLASSIFICATION OF PAIRS :
 Type of contact between elements
Lower Pairs: A pair of links having surface or area contact between the
members is known as a lower pair. The surfaces in contact of the two links
are similar.
Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, universal joint,
etc.

Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line joint contact between the
links, it is known as a higher pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are
dissimilar.
Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface, cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball
and roller bearings, etc.
 KINEMATIC PAIR
 Type of relative motion:
Sliding Pair: When two pairs have sliding motion relative to each other.
Examples: piston and cylinder, rectangular rod in rectangular hole.
Turning Pair: When one element revolves around another element it
forms a turning pair.
Examples: shaft in bearing, rotating crank at crank pin.
Screw Pair: This is also known as helical pair. In this type of pair two
mating elements have threads on it or its relative motion takes place along
a helical curve.
Examples: Nut and screw pair as shown in figure 2.4, Screw jack
Rolling Pair: When one element is free to roll over the other one.
Examples: Ball and rolling as shown in figure 2.5, motion of wheel on flat
surface
Spherical pair: When one element move relative to the other along a
spherical surface.
Examples: Ball and socket joint
 KINEMATIC PAIR
 Nature of Constraint:
Closed pair: One element is completely surrounded by the other.
Examples: Nut and screw pair
Open Pair: When there is some external mean has been applied to prevent
them from separation.
Examples: cam and follower pair
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
 An object in space has six degrees of freedom.
Translatory motion along X, Y, and Z axis (3 D.O.F.)
Rotary motion about X, Y, and Z axis (3 D.O.F.)

 The rigid body has 6 DOF in space but due to formation of

linkage one or more DOF is lost due to the presence of constraint
on the body.

 The total number of constraints cannot be zero as the body has

to be fixed at some place to make the linkage possible. Thus the
degree of freedom is given by
DOF= 6- (Numbers of Restraints)
KINEMATIC CHAIN
 When the kinematics pairs are coupled in such a way that the last
links is joined to the first link to transmit definite motion (i.e.
completely or successfully constrained motion), it is called a
kinematics chain.

 In other words, a kinematics chain may be defined as a

combination of kinematics pairs, joined in such a way that each
link forms a part of two pairs and the relative motion between
the links or elements is completely or successfully constrained.

 For example, the crankshaft of an engine forms a kinematics pair

with the bearing which are fixed in a pair, the connecting rod
with the crank forms a second kinematics pair, the piston with
the connecting rod forms a third pair and the piston with the
cylinder forms a fourth pair.
 The total combination of these links is a kinematics chain.
 If each link is assumed to form two pairs with two adjacent
links, then the relation between the number of pairs (p)
forming a kinematic chain and the number of links (l) May
be expressed in the form of an equation: l = 2p – 4

 Since in a kinematic chain each link forms a part of two

pairs, therefore there will be as many links as the number
of pairs.

 Another relation between the number of links (l) and the

number of joints (j) which constitute a kinematic chain is
given by the expression:
 GRUBLER’S RULE
Degrees of freedom/mobility of a mechanism: It is the number of
inputs (number of independent coordinates) required to describe the
configuration or position of all the links of the mechanism, with respect
to the fixed link at any given instant.

Grubler’s equation: Number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is

given by
F = 3(l-1)-2j-h where,
F = Degrees of freedom
n = Number of links
j = Number of lower pairs,
h = Number of higher pairs

 Substituting F=1 and h=0 in Grubler’s equation, we have,

1=3(l−1)−2j-0=
3(l−1)−2j or
3l−2j−4=0

 This equation is known as the Kutzbach Equation for mechanisms

with constrained motion.
INVERSION OF MECHANISM:
 When one of the links is fixed in a kinematic chain, it is called a
mechanism. The method of obtaining different mechanisms by
fixing different links in a kinematics chain is known as inversion
of the mechanism.

 It may be noted that the relative motion between the various

links is not changed in any manner through the process of
inversion, but their absolute motion (those measured w.r.t. the
fixed link) may be changed drastically.

TYPES OF KINEMATICS CHAINS

 Four bar chain or quadric cycle chain,
 Single slider crank chain, and
 Double slider crank chain.
1. Four Bar Chain Mechanism:
 The simplest and the basic kinematic chain is a four bar
chain or quadric cycle chain.
 It consists of four links; each of them forms a turning pair A,
B, C and D.
 The four links may be of different lengths.
 According to Grashof’s law for a four bar mechanism,
“the sum of the shortest and the longest link lengths
should not be greater than the sum of the remaining two
links lengths if there is to be continuous relative motion
between the two links.”
 In a four bar chain, one of the links, in particular the shortest
link, will make a complete revolution relative to the other links, if
it satisfies the Grashof’s law. Such a link is known as crank or
driver.

 The link BC (link2) which makes a partial rotation or oscillates is

known as lever or rocker or follower and the link CD (link3)
which connects the crank and lever is called connecting rod or
coupler.

 The fixed AB (link 1) is known as frame of the mechanism.

 When the crank (link 4) is the driver, the mechanism is

transforming rotary motion into oscillating motion.
1. Beam Engine (Crank and Lever Mechanism):
 In this mechanism, when the crank rotates about the fixed
center A, the lever oscillates about a fixed center D.
 The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston rod,
which reciprocates due to the rotation of the crank.
 In other words, the purpose of this mechanism is to convert
rotary motion into reciprocating motion.
2. Coupling Rod of a Locomotive
(Double crank mechanism) :
 The mechanism of a coupling rod of a locomotive (also known as
double crank mechanism), which consists of four links.
 In this mechanism, the links AD and BC (having equal length) act
as cranks and are connected to the respective wheels.
 The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link AB is fixed in
order to maintain a constant center-to-center distance between
them.
 This mechanism is meant for transmitting rotary motion from
wheel to the other wheel.
3. Watt’s indicator mechanism (Double lever mechanism):
 The four links are: fixed link at A, link AC, link CE and link
BFD.
 It may be noted that BF and FD forms one links because
these two parts have no relative motion between them.
 The links CE and BFD act as levers.
3. Watt’s indicator mechanism (Double lever mechanism):
 The displacement of the link BFD is directly proportional to
the pressure of gas or steam which acts on the indicator
plunger.
 On any small displacement of the mechanism, the tracing
point E at the end of the link CE traces out approximately a
straight line.
1. Single Slider Crank Mechanism:
 A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bar
chain.
 It consists of one sliding pair and three turning pairs.
 It is usually, found in reciprocating steam engine mechanism.
 This type of mechanism conserves rotary motion into
reciprocating motion and vice versa.
 In a single slider crank chain, the link 1 and 2 and 3, and links 3
and 4 form three turning pairs while the links 4 and 1 form a
sliding pair.
 The link 1 corresponds to the frame of the engine, which is fixed.
 The link 2 corresponds to the crank; link 3 corresponds to the
connecting rod and link 4 corresponds to cross head.
 As the crank rotates, the crosshead reciprocates in the guides
and thus the piston reciprocates.
1. Pendulum pump or Bull engine:
 In this mechanism, the inversion is obtained by fixing the
cylinder or link 4. (i. e. sliding pair).
 In this case, when the crank (link2) rotates, the connecting
rod (link3) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link4
at A and the piston attached to the piston rod (link 1)
reciprocates.
 The duplex pump which is used to supply of feed water to
boilers has two pistons attached to link 1.
2. Oscillating Cylinder Engine :
 The arrangement of oscillating cylinder engine mechanism
is used to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
 In this mechanism, the link3 forming the turning pair is
fixed.
 The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a
reciprocating steam engine mechanism.
 When the crank (link2) rotates, the piston attached to
piston rod (link1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link4.)
oscillated about a pin pivoted to the fixed link at A.
3. Rotary internal combustion engines or Gnome engine:
 Sometimes back, rotary internal combustion engines were
used in aviation.
 But now day’s gas turbines are used in its place.
 It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and all revolves
about fixed center D, while the crank (link2) is fixed.
 In this mechanism, when the connecting rod (link4) rotates,
the piston (link3) reciprocates inside the cylinders forming
link 1.
4. Crank and slotted lever quick return
motion mechanism:
 The mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines, slotting machines
and in rotary internal combustion engines.
 In this mechanism, the link AC (i.e. link3) forming the turning pair is
fixed.
 The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating steam
engine.
 The driving crank CB revolves with uniform angular speed about the
fixed center C.
 A sliding block attached to the crank pin at B slides along the slotted bar
AP to the ram which carries the tool and reciprocates along the line of
stroke R1R2.
 The line of stroke of the ram (i.e.R1R2) is perpendicular to AC
produced.
 In the extreme positions, AP1 AND AP2 is tangential to the circle and
the cutting tool is at the end of the stroke.
 The forward or cutting stroke occurs when the crank rotates from the
position CB1 to CB2 (or through an angle β) in the clockwise direction.
 The return stroke occurs when the crank rotates from the position CB2
to CB1 (or through angle α) in the clockwise directions.
5. Whitworth quick return motion mechanism :
 This mechanism is mostly used in shaping and slotting machines.
 In this mechanism, the link CD (link 2) forming the turning pair is fixed.
 The link 2 corresponds to a crank in a reciprocating steam engine.
 The driver crank CA (link3) rotates at a uniform angular speed.
 The slider (link4) attached to the rank pin at A slides along the slotted
bar PA (link 1) which oscillates at a pivoted point D.
 The connecting rod PR carries the ram at R to which a cutting tool is
fixed.
 The motion of the tool is constrained along the line RD produced, i.e.
along a line passing through D and perpendicular to CD.
 When the driving crank CA moves from the position CA1 to CA2 (or the link DP from the
position DP1 to DP2) through an angle α in the clockwise direction, the tool moves from the left
hand end of its stroke to the right hand end through a distance 2 PD.
 Now when the driving crank moves from the position CA2 to CA1 (or the link DP from DP2 to
DP1) through angle β in the clockwise direction, the tool moves back from right hand end of its
stroke to the left hand end.
 A little consideration will show that the time taken for left to right movement of the ram (i.e.
during forward or cutting stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the driven crank to move
from CA1 to CA2.
 Similarly, the time taken during the right to left movement of the ram (or during the idle or
return stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the driving crank to move from CA2 to CA1.
 Since the crank link CA rotates at uniform angular velocity therefore time taken during the
cutting stroke (or forward stroke) is more than the time taken during the return stroke.
 In other words, the mean speed of the ram during cutting stroke is less than the mean speed
during the return stroke.
 The ratio between the time taken during the cutting and return strokes is given by.
Ques 1. A crank and slotted lever mechanism used in a shaper has a centre
distance of 300 mm between the centre of oscillation of the slotted lever
and the centre of rotation of the crank. The radius of the crank is 120 mm.
Find the ratio of the time of cutting to the time of return stroke.
Ques 2. In a crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism, the
distance between the fixed centres is 240 mm and the length of the driving
crank is 120 mm. Find the inclination of the slotted bar with the vertical in the
extreme position and the time ratio of cutting stroke to the return stroke.
If the length of the slotted bar is 450 mm, find the length of the stroke if the line
of stroke passes through the extreme positions of the free end of the lever.
Ques. 3. Fig. shows the layout of a quick return mechanism of the oscillating link
type, for a special purpose machine. The driving crank BC is 30 mm long and
time ratio of the working stroke to the return stroke is to be 1.7. If the length of
the working stroke of R is 120 mm, determine the dimensions of AC and AP.
Ques. 3. Fig. shows the layout of a quick return mechanism of the oscillating link
type, for a special purpose machine. The driving crank BC is 30 mm long and
time ratio of the working stroke to the return stroke is to be 1.7. If the length of
the working stroke of R is 120 mm, determine the dimensions of AC and AP.
Ques. 4. In a Whitworth quick return motion mechanism, as shown in Fig. 5.32,
the distance between the fixed centers is 50 mm and the length of the driving
crank is 75 mm. The length of the slotted lever is 150 mm and the length of the
connecting rod is 135 mm. Find the ratio of the time of cutting stroke to the time
of return stroke and also the effective stroke.
Double Slider Crank Mechanism:
 A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and
two sliding pairs is known as double slider chain.
 The link2 and link1 form one turning pair and link2 and
link3 form the second turning pair.
 The link 3 and link4 form one sliding pair and link 1 and
link 4 form the second sliding pair.
1. Elliptical trammels:
 It is an instrument used for drawing ellipse.
 This inversion is obtained by fixing the slotted plate (link 4).
 The fixed plate or link 4 has two straight grooves cut in it, at right angles
to each other.
 The link 1 and link 3, are known as sliders and form sliding pairs with
link4.
 The link AB (link 2) is a bar, which forms turning pair with links 1 and 3.
 When the links 1and 3 slide along their respective grooves, any point on
the link 2 such as P traces out an ellipse on the surfaces an ellipse on the
surface of link4.
 AP and BP are the semi-major axis and semi-minor axis of the ellipse
respectively.
2. Scotch yoke mechanism:
 This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion into a
reciprocating motion.
 The inversion is obtained by the fixing either the link1 or
link3. Link 1 is fixed.
 In this mechanism, when the link2 (which corresponds to
crank) rotates about B as center, the link 4 (which
corresponds to a frame) reciprocates.
 The fixed link 1 guides the frame.
3. Oldham’s coupling :
 An Oldham’s coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts whose axes at a
small distance apart.
 The shafts are coupled in such a way that if one shaft rotates, the other shaft also
rotates at the same speed.
 The inversion is obtained by the fixing the link2.
 The shafts to be connected have two flanges (link 1 and link 3) rigidly fastened at
their ends by forging.
 The link1 and link3 form turning pairs with link2.
 These flanges have diametrical slots cut in their inner faces.
 The intermediate piece (link4), which is a circular disc, has two tongues (i.e.
diametrical projections) T1 and T2 on each face at right angles to each other.
 The tongues on the link4 closely fit into the slots in the two flanges (link1 and
link3).
 The link4 can slide or reciprocate in the slots in the flanges.
 When the driving shaft A is rotated, the flange C (link1) causes the intermediate
piece (link4) to rotate at the same angle through which the flange has rotated, and
it further rotates the flange D (link3) at the same angle and thus the shafts B
rotates.
 Hence link 1, 3 and 4 have the same angular velocity at every instant.
 A little consideration will show, that there is a sliding motion between the link4
and each of the other link 1 and 3.
 If the distance between the axes of the shafts is constant, the center of
intermediate piece will describe a circle of radius equal to the distance between
the axes of the two shafts.
 Therefore, the maximum sliding speed of each tongue along its slot is equal to the
peripheral velocity of the center of the disc along its circular path.
 Let ω = Angular velocity of each shaft in rad/s, and
ґ = Distance between the axes of the shafts in metres.
So, Maximum sliding speed of each tongue (in m/s), V= ω r