2 Introduction Slope stability Analysis Methods U1 Types of slope failure 1 Stabilizing methods 4 Factors Affecting Slope Stability’) Monitoring and instrumentationIntroduction: > Slopes either occur naturally or are engineered by humans * An understanding of geology, hydrology, and soil properties |s contralto applying slope stability principles properly. > Analyses must be based upon a model that accurately represents site sub surface conditions, ground behavior, and applied loads. > Timo of Analysis + Safe and economic design of excavations, embankments, earth dams, landfills, and spoil heaps - ‘Slope stability problem is greatest problem faced by the open pit mining industry. The scale of slope stability problem is divided in to two types: Gross stability problem: It refer to large volumes of materials which come down the slopes due to large rotational type of shear failure and it involves deeply weathered rock and soll. Local stability problom: This problem which refers to much smaller volume of material and these type of failure effect one or two benches at a time due to shear plane jointing, slope erosion due to surface drainage.Aim of slope stability: > To understand the development and form of natural and man made slopes and the procosses responsible for different features. > To assess the stability of slopes under short-term (often during construction) and long-term conditions, » To assess the possibility of slopo failure involving natural or existing enginoered slopes. > To analyze slope stability and to understand failure mechanisms and the influence of environmental factors. To enable the redesign of failed slopes and the planning and design of preventive and remedial measures, where necessary. + To study the effect of seismic loadings on slopes and ‘embankments. Aim of slope stability: % Safe, properly designed, scientifically engineered slopt % Profitability of open cast mine + Design engineer/ scientist Excessive steepening: % Slope failure * Loss of production, extra stripping costs to remove failed material ° DGMS may close the mineTYPES OF ROCK SLOPE FAILURES: Failure in Earth and Rock mass Plane Failure > Wedge Failure Failure in Earth, rock fill and spoil dumps and Embankmonts >Cireular 2-Non-circular semi-infinite slope ‘Multiple block plane wedge ‘Log spiral (bearing capacity of foundations) ‘Flow slides and Mud flow Figur. Simplified ilustrations of most common slope failure modes.Fig. Failure mechanisms for the sliding failure mode (After Brown.1994): 8) Single block with single plane: b) single block with stopped planes: c) planes; ) single wedge with multiple intersecting planes; f) multiple wedges with muttiple intersecting planes; and g) single block with circular slip path Plane Failure ‘Simple plane failure is the easiest form of rock slope failure to analyze. it occurs when a discontinuity striking approximately parallel to the slope face and dipping at a lower angle intersects the slope face, enabling the material above the discontinuity to slice, 2Plane Failure Goometrical Conditions for sliding on single Plane failure: + The plane on which sliding occurs must strike parallel oF nearly parallel (#20") to the slope face + The failure plane must “daylight” in the slope. ‘This means its dip must be smaller than the dip of the slope face *+ The dip of the failure plane must be greater than angle of internal frietion + Release surfaces which provide negligible resistance to sliding must be present in the ‘ockmass to dofine the lateral boundaries of the ‘lide. Alternatively, failure can occur on a failure plano passing through the convex “nose” of a slope. Wedge failure Wedge fallure can occur in rock masses with two or more sets of discontinuities whose lines of intersection are approximately perpendicular to the strike of the slope and dip toward the plane of the SBToppling Failure Toppling failures occur when columns of rock, formed by steeply dipping discontinuities in the rock structure and it involves overturning oF rotation of rock layers: Circular Failure > Circular failures are generally occur in weak rock or soll slopes. > Failures of this typo do not necessarily occur along a purely circular ‘some form of curved failure surface is normally apparent. > Circular shear failures aro influenced by the size and mechanical properties of the particles in the soil or rock mass. Fig: Circular Failure typesTypes of circular failure Circular failure is classified in three types depending on the area that is, affected by the failure surface. They are:- 1 Stope failure: in this type of failure, the arc of the rupture surface ‘meats the slope above the toe of the slope. This happens when the slope angle is very high and the soil close to the toe posses the high strength. Tee failure: In this type of failure, the arc of the rupture surface ‘meets the slope at the toe. 1 Base failure: In this type of falure, the arc of the failure passes below the toe and in to base of the slope. This happens when the slope angle is low and the soll below the base is softer and more plastic than the soil above the base. Rock Fall In rock falls, a mass of any size Is detached from a steep slope or cliff, along a surface on which litle oF no shear displacement takes place, and descends mostly through the air by free fall,Cracking > It is due to differential settlement of the mine waste and suction level, exceeding the tensile strength, is reached. Due to further drying, or in Subsequent dry periods, cracks can grow until finally, the complete thickness of the sealing layer is penetrated Gulling > The guiling was observed in many dumps and it is quite dominant erosion mechanism. > Gullies involve incision to depths often well in excess of a metre, and remove large quantities of soilGully formation Formation of gullies due heavy rain water flow = O \ ee ol os > Shallow failures involving slumping of saturated or partally saturated dump materials. Concentrated surface flows discharging over the dump crest. > Slides, either in rock or soll, will have rotational or translational movement. > The sliding of material along a curved surtace called a rotational slide or slump. Acommon cause of slumping is erosion at the base of a slopeLong term impacts of riverWeathering‘A First Incident Begins. URC eC etdThere is no escape from this slide of the coal benches FACTORS AFFECTING SLOPE STABILITY > Geological discontinuities of Rock Mass > Geotechnical Properties of slope > Groundwater and Rainfall (Force Due To Seepage of Water ) > Geometry of slope (Gravitational Force ) > State of stress > Erosion of the Surface of the Slopes due To Flowing Water * Seismic effect (Forces Due To Earthquakes ) > Dynamic Forces due to Blasting and HEMM Movement > Slope modification, Under cutting > Temperature and Spontaneous Heating > Presence of UG galleriesGeological discontinuities of Rock Mass Joints r Bedding Joints Intact rock Joint spacing Joint direction and dipping Sr9/e int set Faults & "wo fut seis a Fig: Idealized —dlagram MY Fonts, showing transition from fH lntact tock to jointed rock Zi ‘mass with increasing sample “tod rocky? / size Factors Affecting Slope Stability Geological Structure: ‘The main geological structure which affect the stability of the slopes in the open pit mines are: ‘and direction of dip > intra-formational shear zones > joints and discontinuities ‘Reduce shear strength = provides a probable plane of failureGeotechnical Properties of slope Shear strength of rock mass Cohesion (€) Angle of Internal friction (0) Density Permeability Moisture Content Particle size distribution Angle of Repose “Angle of repose” is the angle of steepest slope at which ‘material will remain stable when loosely piled; 16Factors Affecting Slope Stability Cohesion : It is the characteristic property of a rock or soil that measures how wall it resists being deformed or broken by forcos Such as. gravity. In ‘sollsirocks. true cohesion is caused by electrostatic forces in stiff over consolidated clays, cementing by Fe203, CaCO3, NaCl, etc and root cohesion. However the apparent cohesion is caused by nogative capillary Pressure and pore pressure response during undrained loading. Slopes having rocks/soils with less cohesion tend to be less stable Angle of Internal Friction: Angle of internal friction is the angle (0), measured botween the normal force (N) and resultant force (R), that is attained when failure just occurs in response to a shearing stress (8). Its tangent (SIN) Is the coefficient of sliding friction. It is a measure of the ability of a unit of rock or soll to withstand a shear stress. This is affected by particle roundness and particle size. Lower roundness or larger median particle size results in larger friction angle. itis also affected by quartz content. Factors Affecting Slope Stability Lithotogy + Tho rock materiais forming a pit slope determines the rock mass strength modified by discontinuities, faulting, folding, old workings and wweathoring + Low rock mass strength Is characterized by circular reveling and rock aad like the formation of slope in massive sandstone restrict stably. + Pit slopes having alluvium or weathered rocks atthe surface have low Shearing strength and the stvengih. gets further reduced If water oer takes place through them, These types of slopes must be ter. Ground Water It causes the following: alters the cohesion and fictional parameters and reduce the normal etfectiv stross Ground water causes increased up thrust and driving water forces and fas adverse offct on the stablly of th slopes. Physical and chemical tifct of pore water pressure in joints filing material can thus ater the Cohesion and friction ofthe discontinuity surface, + Physical and the chomieal affect of the water prossure inthe pores of the rock cause a decrease in the compressive strength particularly tihare confining stress has been reduced, 17Groundwater and Rainfall Water in Crack Ground water occupying the frechres within a rock mass can sip ete sty oak spe, er prs achgwitin a dsc ees be eee roma tess ating on hn, ts eg te sear stengh ag tat Teceonem plate der press win snes tl a ry patna sep xe dozen te ing ots agen ‘efoknass. Wore 70) Presence of water ~ Flow of water - Not a big » Water flow checked ~ water storage- hydro. pressure Groundwater and Rainfall : Water in pores 18Slope Geometry: > The basie geometrical stope design parameters are height, overall slope angle and area of failure surface. > With increase in height the slope stabilty decreases. > The overall angle increases the possible extent of the development ofthe any fallure tothe rear of the crests inereases and It should be considered ‘0° that the ground. deformation at the mine. peripheral area can be avoided. > Gonerally overall slope angle of 45° is considered to be safe by Directorate General of Mines Safety (OGMS). > Stoeper and higher the height of slope less isthe stability, Fig: Typical Pit slope Geometry Figure: Typical slope failure and rolationships critical slope heights and slope angles 19Figure: Typical slope failure and relationships between Critical slope heights and slope at Factors Affecting Slope Stability 1g Method and Equipment Generally there are four methods of advance in open cast mines. They are: > strike eut- advancing down the dip strike cut- advancing up the dip ip cut- along the strike ‘open pit working ‘The use of dip cuts with advance on the strike reduces the length and time that a face is exposed during excavation. Dip cuts with advance ‘oblique to strike may often used to reduce the strata + Dip cut generally offer the most stable method of working but sutfer from restricted production potential. + Open pit mothod are used in steeply dipping seams, due to the + Mining equipment which piles on the bonches of the open pit mine Gives rise to the increase in surcharge which in turn incroases the force which tends to pull the slope face downward and thus instability ‘occurs. Cases of circular failure in spoil dumps are more pronounced. 20State of stress {In some locations, high in-situ stresses may be present within the rock mass. High horizontal stresses acting roughly perpendicular to a cut slope may cause blocks to move outward due to the stress relief provided by the cut. High horizontal stresses may also cause spalling of the surface of a cut slope. Erosion ‘Two aspects of erosion need to be considered. The first is large ‘scale erosion, such as river erosion at the base of a cliff. The second is relatively localized erosion caused by groundwater or surface runott,Seismic effect > Solsmic waves passing through rock adds stress which could causo fracturing. > Friction is reduced in unconsolidated masses as they are jarred apart, > Liquofection may be induced. > One of the major hazards of earthquakes is the threat of landslides, > This is particularly so because the most unstable parts of the earth are lat the plate boundaries and It Is also here that young fold mountain bbolts are formed and thare are high relief and stoop slopes > Most open pit operators are familiar back break form blast, but most ‘people only consider the visible breakage behind the row of holes of the blast. Dynamic Forces * Blasting has a significant influence upon stability of slopes. Uncontrolied blasting: > over breaks, overhangs and extension of tension cracks. > Opening & loss of cohesion between weak planes. shattering of slope mass and allowing easier infiltration of surface water unfavourable ground-water pressures. @ Due to effect of blasting and vibration, shear stresses are ‘momentarily increased and as result dynamic acceleration of material ‘and thus increases the stability problem in the slope face. It causes the ground motion and fracturing of rocks. 22‘Slope Modification - Modification of a slope either by humans or by natural causes can result in changing the slope angle so that it bs no longer at the angle of repose. A mass+ wasting event can then restore the slope to its angle of repose, Restored stable slope} Modified Slope Undercutting - steams eroding their banks or surf action along a coast can ‘undercut a slope making t unstable. ‘Slide, stump, or flow daposts Undereut elit ‘or steam bank 23What do you do with a burning Coal face? Coal Face on fire Fi oh a on 24Dynamite was used to loosen the Coal for collection by a powerful electric Shovels. But heat from the xplosion & an exposed Coal seam can sometimes be a bad combination. Fire erupts from the Coal face! Fig. Plot of slope displacement versus time for prediction of failure. ‘A. Plot of fastest moving point in the slope. . Plot of slowest moving point in the slope. . Prediction of slope failure date based on existing data (extrapolation). D. Predicted and actual date of fllure.DGMS Guidelines for Benches or slopes design ‘Manual or Conventional Opencast Mines {In aluval sol morum, gravel, clay. debris or other similar ground ~ > the sides shall be sloped at an angle of safety not exceeding 45 degrees from the! horizontal or such other angle as permitted by Ragional Inspoctor of mines. > the sides shall be kept bonched and the haight of any bench shall not excoed 1.5} ‘m and the breadth thereof shall not be fess than the height > In coal, the sides shall ether be kept sloped at an angle of safety not exceeding 45 degree from the horizontal, or the sides shall be kept benched and the height] of any bench shall not exceed 3m and the width thereof shall not be less than the height. = In an excavation in any hard and compact ground or in prospecting trenches or pits, the sides shall be adequately benched, slopad or secured so as to pravent| ‘danger from fal of sides, However the height of the bench shall not exceed 6 m, No person shail undercut any face or side or cause or permit such undercutting at {o.cause any overhanging. DGMS Guidelines for Benches or slopes design ‘Mechanized opencast working ~ > Betore starting a mechanized opencast working, design of the pit, including ‘meviod of working and ultimate pit slope shall Be planned and designed as {datermined by a scientific study. height of tha benches in overburden consisting of alluvium or other soft soll shall not exceed 5 m and the width thereof shall not be less than three times the height of the bench > The height of the benchos in overburden of other rack formation shall not be more than the dasigned reach of the excavation machine in use for digging, excavation or removal, > The width of any bench shall not be fess than — (2) the width of the widest machine plying on the bench plus 2m, oF {0} dumpers ply on the bench, three times the with ofthe dumper, or {) the height of the bench, whichever is more. 26Parameters affecting the Overburden Dump stabili GMS Guidelines for Formation of Spoil Banks and Dumps (1) White removing overburden, the top soll shall be stacked at a separate place, £0 tha, the same is used to cover the reclaimed area. (2) The slope of a spoil bank shall be detarmined by the natural angle of repose of the material being deposited, but shall in no case exceed 37.5 degrees from the hhorzontal. The spoil bank shall not be retained by artfial means at an angle in ‘0x£088 of natural angle of ropose or 37.5 degrees whichover is loss, (@) Loose overburden and other such material trom opencast workings or other rejects from washeries or from other source shall be dumped ia such a manner that there is no possibilty of dumped material sting, (4) Any spoil bank exceeding 30m in height shall be benched so that no bench ‘exceeds 30m in height and the overal slope shall nat exceed 1 vertical to 1.5 horizontal. (8) The toe of a spolLbank shall not be extended to any point within 45m of a mine ‘opening. raiway or other pubic works. public road or bulding or other permanant structure nat belonging to the owner. 27© Limit equilibrium ~ > Analytical (software), Chart methods Kinematic analysis, To determine the types of above ‘mentioned failure. + Sensitivity analysis “Classification method -SMR “Probabilistic method, and Numerical modelling method. Stability Analysis of Mine Slopes Limit equilibrium method, » is the most widely accepted and commonly performed design too! in slope enginaering > Sliding occurs when a limit equibrium condition is reached, Le., when the resisting forces balance the driving forces. These methods are the most widely accepted and commonly used design methods and they permit a quantification of slope performance with the variations in all the parameters involved in the slope design. > The basic dea behind the limit equilibrium approach isto find a state of stress along the critical surface so that the free body, within the slip surface and the {roe ground surface, isin static equilibrium. > This state of stress is known 3s the mobilized stress, which may not be necessarily the actual state along this surface. > This state of stress is then compared with the available strength, ie, the stress necessary to cause failure along the slip surface.% To represent the slope performance other than the equilibrium condition, it is necessary to have an index and the widely used index used to be factor of safety. > Factor of safety is calculated as the ratio of shear strength to the available shear stress required for equilibrium, integrated through the whole slide. > tis constant throughout the potentially sliding mass. Due to scatter of test results and the uncertainty of these input parameters, a factor of ‘safety greater than one is necessary to ensure an acceptably low chance of failure. Guidelines for the Equilibrium of a Slope Plane Sliding ~ Stability Analysis,Planar failure Analysis With no tension crack and no water pressure ‘Tension crack present in upper slope surface ee 40) pretiaten etn, I=UTonsect 30wom, co AL NO cls ween une se win wsind Me Fleas, +, cosa, sn] 32Software based on Limit equilibrium Method SLIDE (rocscience group) GALENA GEO-SLOPE GEOS GGU SOILVISION Overview of GALENA GALENA is «staple, wer enly yet ery power slope sally soo stem 40 you ea samibate coupler prolypel, grountiater ant exer force confsions witout wreting wah Aeoiraing computer sinatom. GALENA has teen developed by geotechacal egies for ‘practical we the eld was teed on a wae vay of eat an ock sop, dans ad cts GALENA tocorports thee mend: of dope aay ami 0 you can siesta wae ange of roel tables problem m ho so at rch 1» The BISHOP Sampled smthed deersines the sublty of cecular Sule setae The SPENCERWRIGHT method for ether crsuler or mon-cecular fue atten 1» The SARMA method for probleas where soa-vetial ices are required oe for moce compen stabi probes ‘Wath all taverns avaate one package you can tack any problem a 2 vanety of ways vethou opp 1 oad a ve prog 33Software for water pressure simulation HYDRUAS GEOSLOPE/ SEEP (GEOSTUDIO) SOILVISION /Water GMS FEFLOW Software based on Numerical modeling PHASES2 PLAXIS FLAC-SLOPE / UDEC / PPF ANSYS FEFLOW GEOSLOPE/SIGMA SOIL-VISION 34Kinematic Analysis The average orientations of the discontinuity sets determined from the ‘geotechnical mapping were analysed to assess kinematically possible failure modes involving structural discontinuities. Kinematic Analysis to know Type of Failure 35> The sensitivity analysis was done wath an en to know the Infuence of water on the factor of satay. > This study is highly beneficial to choose the ‘best mathod of remedial measure for any ential slope. > Tha influence of groundwater on factor of ‘salely is remarkable > The stabilty analyses of highwall slope have ‘been conducted in undeained gee-mining condition also > tis evident that tho highwall slopes are ‘stable in rained cond.tion with eu safety factor of 1.3 i= unsiabe, i the slopes aro ‘subjected to undrained cancion with safety factor loss than 1.3. > In order to aveld undeained condiion, ‘attention must be paid to avoid enty of rant ‘sutace water in the slope by providing ‘suitable drainage in and around tho quary, {aling which the slope can become unstable, It should be taken up well bofore tho onset of ‘mankoon. ‘Slope Mass Rating (SMR) Thee slope mass rating (SMR) i an extension of the RMR system applied to rock slope engineering. SMR valve is obtained by adjust RMR value with orientation and excavation] adjustments for slopes. i, SMR =RMR+(F Fy Fi) +E where Fy = (1 sin A)? and A angle between the strikes ofthe slope andthe joint = jy - a For topping. F:= 1.0 36Adjustment rating of F1, F2, F3 and Fé for joints Joist Oventiion gy NEY. Fovcunble Fair Unfmcuratle gS, Piao, 30 aed 3 T faj-a)-18) 350 30-3081 “ Ty GeP&T) os 070 ass Lee Py =20 3-17 asa F2 (for?) ous a70 oss 106 2 aD 1.00 1.00 14010 P iB >10 o e900 T Hee <0 a0 ce : F3_ GoD eT) ° 2s 0 0. [Medied — anaal ope Preqiiting Swood Waning re aS 79 5 Classification of Rock Slope according to SMT SR Cas Deeaphon San Fae od 81-100 ‘Very good Completely stable None ‘Nene jo-so mood Ste Somebiocls Sper Some ou ot json Fae Parallysatle SERIES sytemae , Pate ot ' Per Umble a v ‘Very Poor Completely Largs meds Re-excaration 37‘Surface Drainage Systems: Surface drains an landscape design are use 9 dinect Water away from the head and toe of cut slopes and potential landslides, and 19 reduce {inflation and erosion i and along a potcatialy unstable mass ‘Sub-Surface: The main functions of subiains are to remove subsurface water directly form at unstable slope, to rediteet adjacent groundwater sources away froa the subject, Property and to reduce hydronttie pressures beneath and aljacent 10 engineered structures #Objective Decrease water pressure ‘Elective garland dean, directed away from excavated pit ‘=Proper and effective drainage » 5 to 10 deg. increase in slope angle 95% slide triggered by poor water management. 38‘Stabilization through Support * Ground Inclusions Ground anchor Soil Nails Rock Bolt Ground inclusion: Ics. 2 metal bar that is driven or lle into competent bedrock (rock which snot highly actured or broken up) toa provide stable {foundation for structures such as retaining walls and piles o to hold together highly Factured o joie tock ‘Stabilization through Support Piles *+ Piles are long, relatively slender columns positioned vertically in the ground or at an angie (battered) used to transfer load to a more stable substratum, ‘+ Piles are often used to support or stabilize structures built in geologically unstable areas, ‘+ Piles used as foundation for structures constructed on compressible sol oF weak sol. ‘+ Grouped piles used as a retaining wall: Anchors are generally used to increase the effectiveness of pile walls 39‘Stabilization through Support + Retaining Walls LY Engineered structures constructed th resist lateral forces Imposed by soil movement and water pressure Retaining walls are commonty used in combination with fil slopes to reduce the extent of a slope to allow 2 road to be widened and to create adcitional ‘space around buildings 40‘Rock Mass Improvement and Stabilization Methods Geosynthetics are porous, flexible, man-made fabrics which act to reinforce and Increave the stability of structures such as canh fills, and thereby allow sleeper cut slopes and less. grading in hillside terrain. Geosynthetics of various tensile strengths are used fora variety of stability problems, with a common use being ‘reinforcement of unpaved roads constructed on weak soils Grout is cement oF silicate based slury, uid enough to be poured or injected fino soll and thereby Bll, seal, oF compact the surrounding soil Geouting isthe Pressure injstion of this slury shrough drilled holes into fissured, jointed, permeable rocks and compressible soils to reduce their permeability and increase theie strength ‘Rock Mass Improvement and Stabilization Methods (Chemical stbitintion is 2 soil improvement method that increases the load bearing capability by mixing the soil with powders, slurry, or chemicals. Stability is developed in a number of ways; for example, the admiatures ean fil oil voids, ‘bond togther individual grains, change the permeability of the sil Biological Stabilization a1Controlled placement of spoil + Impermeable material increases water pressure. ‘weak top layer ~ swelling minerals, ‘base of the dump ~ permeable material. Improving drainage at the base of the dumps, *Blasting/ ripping of the floor, * Garland drain/ bund near toe of dump, ‘all along the periphery of dump edges, +5 m away from the toe of the dump ~ toc cutting. ‘Proper spoil levelling To check rainwater ponding at top, ‘ Dumping in depressed zone, + Liquefaction of dump toe, 2 Planting of self-sustaining grass and plants — tocheck the soll erosion, » —__ toavoid the formation of deep guilies, form terraces, 1 m wide at the height of each about 6m. * Rejection dump — near crest of slope — dead wi. on slope ‘#No.unplanned dump — Near the crest,Factor of safety 1.25 Stability analysis of active mine slope without overtying dump ‘Stability analysis of active mine slope with overlying dump 43|SObjective & why desired | 21f detected in the early stage and later stage, ‘Techniques ‘SLOPE MONITORING INSTRUMENTS Extensometers ‘Time domain reflectometry (TDR) Inclinometers Piezometers Crack Meters Fig: slope with Extensometer Extensometers: Borehole extensometers consists of tensioned rods anchored at lfferent ‘points in a borehole Changes in the distance between the anchor and the ‘od head provides the displacement information for the rock‘Time domain reflectometry Peinciple of TOR * lower installation costs seeceta sin * no kits on hole depth * immediate determination of movernent * remote dota acquistion capabilty was In TDR, a cable tester sends voltage pulse waveform down a cable grouted in a borchole, Ifthe pulse encounters a change in the characteristic impedance of the cable, itis reflected. This ean be caused by a erimp, a kink, the presence of ‘water, ora break inthe eable, The cable tester compares the returned pulse with the emitted pulse, and determines the reflection coefficient of the cable at that point. The change in impedance with time corresponds qualitatively to the rate of ground movement Inclinometers inclinometers is important to slope stability studies for the following reasons (Kliche, 1999) # to locate shear zone(s) sae to determine whether the shear along Soe the zone(s) is planar or rotational; - # tomeasure the movement along the shear zone(s) and determine whether } the movement is constant, accelerating, or decelerating. ‘Monitoring slopes and landslides to detect zones of movernent ‘Monitoring dams, dam abutments, and upstream slopes. ‘Monitoring the effects of tunneling eperabons 45Plezomotors 1+ Mentoring pote water peessures to determine safe rtes of ior excestion 1 Montorng pore water pressures to evaluate sope stably, 1 Montorng dewsterng systems used for exavabons. 1+ Montorng ground wnprovement systems, such as verbal dramns and sand ans + Montorng pote pressures to check the prtormence of ert da mn erbackeents. + Mentoring pote pressures ts check content systems tanks ene tatngs dams ‘= Vibrating wire = Preumatic + Standpipe plezometers (Crack meters can be very useful tools in the early detection of deforming ‘mass movements, These devices measure the Gisplacement between two points on the surface that are exhibiting signs of separation, 46Prism Monitoring based on survey techniques Prisms are installed on the highwalls at a regular spacing, 0m horizontally and 45m vertically, and on eriteal areas throughout the open pis. Surveyors collect and store data, while the rock engineers then analyse the data, looking for significant movement, and report any potential areas of slope failure to the mining personnel. Laser Monitoring Mounted laser scanners wil scan the entire pit walls by dividing them into zones. ‘A-camera is attached to the side of the laser and takes photographs ot the start of scanning. The data transmitted by laser scannat was downloaded to a computer and analysed using software. Radar Monitoring ‘The GroundProbe slope stability Radar (SSR) usos differential interferometry to ‘measure sub-milimetre movements on a rough rock face Digital photogrammetry ‘SioVision is a digital photogrammetry software program that enables safe and comprehensive mapping of dangerous and inaccessible highwalls, which are ‘boing captured in photographs with the use of high resolution digital camera. ‘Seismic Monitoring Seismic monitoring aims to predict slope deformation by measuring micro seismic events caused by britlo movements within a rock slope. Analysis of ‘micro seismic events using muliple th axial geophones enables the toca of ‘Soureo and therefore the discontinully on which movement i occuring. 47Monitoring by Observational Techniques : Total Station otal station instruments consist of a device to measure horizontal and vertical angles, and some form of Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM) capability to measure distances, These Instruments allow the surveyor to measure 3D coordinates of points remotely GxSlope Stability Radar Technology » The Ground Probe SSR is a technique for monitoring open pit mine walls, bbasod on differential interferometry using radar waves. The system scans a region ofthe wall and compares the phase measurement {each region withthe previous scan to determine the amount of movement of the slope. > An advantage of radar over other slope monitoring techniques is that it provides full area coverage of a rock slope without the need for reflectors ‘mounted on the rock face. > The systom offers sub-milimotre precision of wall movements without boing ‘adversely affected by rain, fog, dust, smoke, and haze. > The system is housed in a self contained trailer that can be easily and quickly ‘moved around the st, > It can be placed in the excavation, or on top of @ wall or on a bench to ‘maximize slope coverage whilst not interfering with operations. > The scan aroa is sat using a digital camera image and can scan 320 degrees, horizontally and 120 degroes vertically, > The system provides immediate monitoring of slope movement without calibration and prior history. Scan times are typically every 1-10 minutes. Slope Stability Radar Technology > Datais uploadod to the office via a dedicated radio link. Custom software anablas the user to set movement thresholds to war ‘of unstable conditions. Data from the SSR is usually presented in two formats. Firstly, a colour “rainbow plot ofthe slope representing total movement ‘Quickly enables the user to determine the extent of the falure and the ‘area whee the groatest movoment is occuring. > Secondly, ime/gisplacement graphs can be selected at any locations to ‘evaluate displacement rates. > Additional software can also be Installed to allow the data to be viewed live at locations remote to the SSR site such as corporate offices and at the offices of geotechnical consultants. 49methods of analysis: and acceptability criteria for slopes. Typical problems, critical parameters, i i i Hit Hy i I tie Hi [dail te | Uf WA Hal | atl HI | Ui | fli ti 1 It 50