SENTENCE PARALLEL STRUCTURE

APPOSITIVES EXAMPLE
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION EXERCISE 9
PARTICIPLE
EXAMPLE PASSIVE VERB
EXERCISE 1 EXAMPLE
EXERCISE 2 EXERCISE 10.1
EXERCISE 10.2

COMPOUND SENTENCE WORD FORM

COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS EXAMPLE
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS (PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS) EXERCISE 11
EXAMPLE
EXERCISE 3 PREPOSITION
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
EXERCISE 12
COMPLEX SENTENCE EXERCISE 13
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
NOUN CLAUSE WORD CHOICE
ADVERB CLAUSE EXAMPLE
SENTENCES WITH REDUCED CLAUSES EXERCISE 14
EXAMPLE
EXERCISE 4
EXERCISE 5
EXERCISE 6
EXERCISE 7

INVERTED
INVERTED AFTER SOME PLACE EXPRESSION
INVERTED AFTER NEGATIVE EXPRESSION
INVERTED IN SOME CONDITION
INVERTED AFTER SOME COMPARISONS
EXAMPLE
EXERCISE 8
 The main elements of sentence are subject and verb while object and adverb are
optional. A simple sentence consists of one clause (one subject and one verb). Subject
could be noun (e.g. house, book, people), pronoun (e.g She, they, it), gerund (e.g. reading,
fishing), to infinitive (to buy, to give), noun phrase (e.g. a person, some money) and noun
clause (e.g. what you need). Verb is formed by ordinary verb (and its inflections based on
the tense, voice etc.) and be verb.

Generally, it is not difficult to find the subject and verb in a sentence. However, certain
structures, such as appositives, object of preposition and participle, often make confusion
in determining the subject and the verb.

1. APPOSITIVES

An appositive is a noun phrase that rephrases another noun phrase. It is a noun

that comes before or after another noun and has the same meaning. Appositive gives
additional information to the subject and if it is deleted, it won’t change the meaning
of the whole sentence.

2. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

An object of preposition is a noun or pronoun that comes after a preposition. It

can cause confusion because it looks like a subject of a sentence, but actually it is not.

3. PARTICIPLE

There are two kinds of participle; present (-ing form) and past participle. They
can cause confusion because they have two functions in a sentence; as part of verb
and as an adjective. When they are parts of verb, they must be preceded by verb be
(present participle in present progressive tense) and be (past participle in passive
voice) or have/has/had (for past participle in perfect tense).

Actually participles are reduced (shortened) relative clauses. Present

participles (which always end in –ing) contain active meaning while past participles
(which ends in –ed and also many irregular forms) convey passive meaning.
 All sentences consist of one clause or more clauses. Basic sentence consists of at least
one subject and one verb. There are three kinds of sentence: simple sentence, compound
sentence and complex sentence.

1) A simple sentence consists of one clause.

People need vitamins.

In the summer, Judy walks to his office.

2) A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by coordinating

conjunction.

The man took a vitamin pill and he drank a glass of orange juice.
Judy lives in northern California now but she was raised in Ohio.

3) A complex sentence consists of an independent clause (main clause) and dependent

clause (subordinate clause). Subordinate clause may be adjective clause, noun clause
and adverbial clause.

The man took a vitamin pill because he had a cold.

Tom walks to his office, which is located on Broadway, every day during the summer.

Sentence is very important to understand by TOEFL learners because every number in

TOEFL must talk about it: its parts, its variations, its kinds, and others. Whenever you
read a sentence in TOEFL make sure that the sentence has subject and verb. Your eyes
have to quickly find the verb: what kind of verb, how many verbs in the sentence and
whether it agrees to the subject. The point is that verb has to be the first discuss in your
mind, then the subject.
1. APPOSITIVES

Buffalo Bill, a famous frontiersman, operated his own Wild West.

Bill is the subject of the sentence. A famous frontiersman is an appositive. Buffalo

and a famous frontiersman are the same person. Thus, if you delete a famous
frontiersman, it does not change the meaning of the sentence. It still makes sense (Buffalo
Bill operated his own Wild West).

2. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

At the neighborhood flower shop, flowers in quantities of a dozen or a half dozen can be
delivered for free.

The neighborhood flower shop is not the subject of the sentence although it is at
the beginning of the sentence. It is an object of preposition because it is preceded by
preposition at. An object of preposition never comes to be a subject in a sentence. Thus,
the subject of the sentence is flowers.

3. PARTICIPLE

The man is standing in front of the bank.

The man standing in front of the bank looks confused.
In the first sentence, standing is part of verb. It shows that the activity is done at
present (present progressive tense). In the second sentence, standing is not part of verb but
it is an adjective that modifies a noun the (man). The verb of the sentence is looks.

This dictionary is written by John.

The dictionary written by John is very popular among students.
In the first sentence, written is past participle. It is part of verb in passive voice. In
the second sentence, written is past participle that is functioned as an adjective. It modifies
a noun (dictionary). The subject of the sentence is is.
 When participle is functioned as an adjective, it never appears with be or other
auxiliaries, it comes alone. However, when it is as verb, it must be preceded by be or other
auxiliaries. Whenever you find a participle in a sentence, either present or past participle,
determine whether that is an adjective or verb by examining if there is any auxiliary before
the participle or not. If the participle is not preceded by any auxiliary, it must be an
adjective not a verb. It means that the sentence needs a verb. Look at the example below!

Natural resources provide the raw materials… to produce finished goods.

(A) needed
(B) are needed
(C) which need
(D) Needing

Option (B) is passive verb; the sentence cannot contain two main verbs (are needed
and provide) in the same clause. Option (C) creates an adjective clause, but the verb in the
clause is active while passive verb is needed here. Therefore, adjective clause with passive
meaning (which are needed) would be a correct answer. Choice (D) is a present participle
and has an active meaning. Finally, the correct answer for the sentence is (A) needed.
EXERCISE 1: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. The art storytelling ______ almost (D) the oceans tides.

as old as humanity. 7. The Wassatch Range, ______
(A) that is extends from southeastern Idaho
(B) is into northern Utah.
(C) it is (A) which is a part of the Rocky
(D) being Mountains,
2. Before the invention of printing (B) a part of the Rocky Mountains
press, books _____. that
(A) that were very rare. (C) is a part of the Rocky
(B) were very rarely Mountains
(C) were very rare (D) a part of the Rocky Mountains,
(D) as very rare. it
3. Arizona ______ a very dry climate. 8. The major cause ______ Moon on
(A) has the Earth.
(B) being (A) the ocean tides are
(C) having (B) of ocean tides is the pull of the
(D) with (C) of the tides in the ocean
4. The tetracyclines, ______ (D) the oceans tides.
antibiotics, are used to treat 9. The Wassatch Range, ______
infections. extends from southeastern Idaho
(A) are a family of into northern Utah.
(B) being a family (A) which is a part of the Rocky
(C) a family of Mountains,
(D) their family is (B) a part of the Rocky Mountains
5. Any possible academic assistance that
from taking stimulants ______ (C) is a part of the Rocky
marginal at best. Mountains
(A) it is (D) a part of the Rocky Mountains,
(B) there is it
(C) is 10. Amber is a hard, yellowish-brown
(D) as ______ from the resin of pine trees
6. The major cause ______ Moon on that lived millions of years ago.
the Earth. (A) substance formed
(A) the ocean tides are (B) to form a substance
(B) of ocean tides is the pull of the (C) substance has formed
(C) of the tides in the ocean (D) forming a substance

11. One of the primary cause of accidents in coal mines is the accumulation of gas.
A B C D
12. Spell correctly is easy with the aid of word processing program for personal
A B C
computers.
D
EXERCISE 2: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. In the United States, ______ is 6. ______ gas tanks connected to welding

generally the responsibility of equipment, one full of oxygen and the
municipal governments. other full of acetylene.
(A) for water treatment (A) It is two
(B) water treatment (B) Of the two
(C) where water treatment (C) There are two
(D) in which water treatment (D) Two
2. Crop rotation ______ of preserving soil 7. ______ almost impossible to capture
fertility. the beauty of the aurora borealis in
(A) it is one method photographs.
(B) one method (A) Being
(C) a method is one (B) It is
(D) is one method (C) There is
3. ______ the dollar as its monetary unit (D) Is
in 1878. 8. ______ by cosmic rays.
(A) Canada adopted (A) The earth is constantly bombarded
(B) Adopted by Canada, (B) Bombarded constantly, the earth
(C) It was adopted by Canada (C) Bombarding the earth constantly
(D) The Canadian adoption of (D) The earth’s constant bombardment
4. ______ two major art museums, the 9. ______ primary colors are red, blue,
Fogg and the Sadler. and yellow.
(A) Harvard University has (A) There are three
(B) At Harvard University (B) The three
(C) Harvard University, with its (C) Three of them
(D) There at Harvard University (D) That the three
5. American actress and director Margaret 10. ______ who was elected the first
Webster ______ for her production of woman mayor of Chicago in 1979.
Shakespearean plays. (A) It was Jane Byrne
(A) who became famous (B) Jane Byrne
(B) famous as she became (C) That Jane Byrne
(C) becoming famous (D) When Jane Byrne
(D) became famous
11. On the moon, ______ air because the 14. _____ is more interested in rhythm than
moon’s gravitational field is too weak in melody is apparent from his
to retain an atmosphere. compositions.
(A) there is no (A) That Philip Glass
(B) where no (B) Philip Glass, who
(C) no (C) Philip Glass
(D) is no (D) Because Philip Glass
12. The Glass Mountains of northwestern 15. In some cases, _____ to decide if an
Oklahoma ______ with flecks of organism is a plant or an animal.
gypsum, which shine in the sunlight. (A) difficult if
(A) they are covered (B) it is difficult
(B) covered them (C) the difficulty
(C) that are covered (D) is difficul
(D) are covered
13. Every computer consists of a number of
systems _____ together.
(A) by working
(B) work
(C) they work
(D) that work
 A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. However, many
sentences in English have more than one clause. Whenever you find a sentence on the
TOEFL test with more than one clause, you need to check that the various clauses in the
sentence are correctly joined.

The connectors of compound sentence are (1) coordinate conjunctions (2)

Correlative or paired conjunctions. So, compound sentence is sentence containing more
than one clause that is combined by those connectors or conjunctions.

1. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

One way to connect two clauses is to use conjunction. One use of a conjunction is
to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. The
conjunctions used in this pattern are and, but, or, nor, so, or yet.

2. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS (PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS)

Correlative conjunction is a paired word used to indicate the relationship between

two words, phrase (phrases), or clause (clauses). The sentence element that is connected
usually parallels to the structure. This word is also called paired conjunction. The
connectors used in this kind of conjunction are both ... and, either... or, not only ... but
also, and neither ... nor.
1. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

Tom is singing and Paul is dancing.

Tom is tall but Paul is short.
Tom must write the letter or Paul will do it.
Tom told a joke so Paul laughed.
He's never taken a class in sociology, nor does he intend to.
Tom is tired yet he is not going to sleep.

In each of these examples, there are two clauses that are correctly joined with a
coordinate conjunction and, but, or, so, or, nor and yet. Besides, the two clauses that are
joined have the same grammatical function.

Coordinate
Use Example
conjunction
And addition Hereford cows are brown and white.
He washed his car and cleaned out the garage.
or choice, possibility This plant can be grown in a house or in a garden. Her
action was very brave or very foolish.
but, yet contrast, opposition He brought his wallet but forgot his checkbook.
The book discussed some interesting ideas, but it
wasn't very well written.
nor negation He's never taken a class in sociology, nor does he
intend to.
so effect It was a bright day, so she put on her sunglasses.
2. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS (PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS)
a) The research project will take both time and money.
b) Yesterday it not only rained but (also) snowed.
c) I'll take either chemistry or physics next quarter.
d) That book is neither interesting nor accurate.
Correlative conjunctions are two-part adjectives. Errors usually involve an incorrect
combination of the two parts, such as neither ...or or not only ...and. Anytime you see a
sentence containing correlative conjunctions, you should be on the lookout for this type of
error. This is an easy error to spot!

Coordinate
Use Example
conjunction
both ... and addition Both wolves and coyotes are members
of the dog family.
not only ... but also addition Dominic studied not only mathematics
but also computer science.
either ... or choice, possibility We need either a nail or a screw to
hang up this picture.
neither ... nor negation (not A and not B) Neither the television nor the stereo
had been turned off.
EXERCISE 3: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. The president of the United States 6. Trash will be collected in the morning,
appoints the cabinet members, _____ ____ put the trash cans out tonight.
appointments are subject to Senate (A) so you should
approval. (B) you should
(A) their (C) but should
(B) with their (D) Should
(C) because their 7. Case studies are the target of much
(D) but their skepticism in the scientific community,
2. The government was overthrown in a ____ used extensively by numerous
revolution, _____ not returned to his researchers.
homeland. (A) they are
(A) so the king has (B) are
(B) but the king (C) yet they
(C) and the king (D) yet they are
(D) so the king are 8. Thomas Eakins studied not only
3. Truman Capote's In Cold Blood is painting ____ anatomy when he was
neither journalistically accurate _____. training to become an artist.
(A) a piece of fiction (A) moreover
(B) nor a fictitious work (B) but also
(C) or written in a fictitious way (C) as well
(D) nor completely fictitious (D) and
4. A bankruptcy may be either ____ 9. The legal systems of most countries can
involuntary. be classified ____ common law or civil
(A) voluntary nor law.
(B) voluntary or (A) as either
(C) It is voluntary nor (B) either as
(D) It is voluntary or (C) either to
5. Specialty stores, unlike department (D) to either
stores, handle only one line of 10. In 1923 Jean Toomer wrote a book
merchandise ___ a limited number of titled Cane which combined fiction
closely related lines. poetry to describe the experience of
(A) either being black in the United States.
(B) but (A) and
(C) instead (B) to
(D) or (C) also
(D) or
11. Community theater not only provides entertainment for local audiences as well as
A B
furnishes a creative outlet for amateurs interested in drama.
C D
12. The human brain is often compared to a computer, and such an analogy can be misleading.
A B C D
13. A mosaic is a picture done from small bits of either colored glass or tile.
A B C D
14. Model airplanes can be guided both by control wires or by radio transmitters.
A B C D
15. Information in a computer can be lost because it is not longer stored or because it is
A B C D
stored but cannot be retrieved.
 Complex sentence is a sentence containing more than one clause that is combined
by complex conjunctions. Complex conjunctions used in complex sentence are: who,
which,whom, that, where, when, why, because, after, before, etc.

1. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

An adjective clause is a clause that describes a noun. An adjective clause uses

conjunction to connect the dependent clause to the independent clause. The
conjunctions are who, whom, which, that, when, where, why and whose. Adjective
clause conjunction are also called "relative pronouns."
Who = used for people as subject
Whom = used for people as object
which = used for things as subject and object
that = used for both people and things as subject and object
when, where = used for time and place
why = used for reason
whose = used for possessive

2. NOUN CLAUSE

A noun clause is a clause that functions as a noun; it could be an object or

subject. In other words, noun clause is used in the same ways as a noun phrase.
Conjunction used in noun clause are nearly the same as adjective clause’s, who, whom,
which, that, where, when, how, why, whose, whether and if.

3. ADVERB CLAUSE

Adverb clauses are dependent clauses. They cannot stand alone as a sentence in
written English. They must be connected to an independent clause. For example, When
we were in New York, we saw several plays. 'When we were in New York is an adverb
clause. Sentences withadverb clauses have two basic patterns in English.
Chart of adverb connectors
Time Cause and effect Contrast Condition
After By the time Because Even though If
Before Once Now that Although Unless
When As/so long as Since Though Only if
While Whenever While Whether or not
As Every time whereas Even if
As soon as (that) In case
Since The first time
(that)
The last time
(that)

4. SENTENCES WITH REDUCED CLAUSES

It is possible in English or a clause to appear in a complete form or in a reduced

form. The two types of clauses that can reduce in English are: (1) adjective clauses and
(2) adverb clauses. It is important to become familiar with these reduced clauses
because they appear frequently on the TOEFL test.
1) Adjective clauses
Adjective clauses can appear in a reduced form. There are two ways to make
reduced form of adjective clause, they are:
a) The adjective clause connector (pronoun) and the be-verb that directly follow
it are omitted.
b) If there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, it is still possible to have a reduced
form. When there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, the connector is omitted
and the verb is changed into the -ing form.
2) Adverb clauses
Adverb clauses can also appear in a reduced form there are two ways to
make reduced form of adverb clause, they are,
a) The adverb connector remains, but the subject and be-verb are omitted.
b) If there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, it is still possible to have a reduced
form. When there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, the subject is omitted and
the main verb is changed into the -ing form.
1. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The woman looks happy. She is wearing blue shirt.

The woman who is wearing blue shirt looks happy.
Adjective clause
The glass contains milk. She put the glass on the table.
The glass that she put on the table contains milk.
Adjective Clause

In the first example there are two clauses: woman is the subject of the verb looks, and
she is the subject of the verb is wearing. Who is the adjective clause connector that joins
these two clauses, and the adjective clause who is wearing blue shirt describes the noun
woman. In the second example there are also two clauses: glass is the subject of the verb
contains, and she is the subject of the verb put. In this sentence, that is the adjective clause
connector that joins these two clauses, and the adjective clause that she put on the table
describes the noun glass.

Example I
The gift ____ selected for the bride was rather expensive.
(A) because
(B) was
(C) since
(D) which we

In this example you should notice quickly that there are two clauses: gift is the subject
of the verb was, and the verb selected needs a subject. Because there are two clauses, a
connector is also needed. Answers (A) and (C) have connectors, but there are no subjects,
so these answers are not correct. Answer (B) changes selected into a passive verb; in this
case the sentence would have one subject and two verbs, so answer (B) is not correct. The
best answer to this question is answer (D). The correct sentence should say: The gift
which we selected for the bride was rather expensive. In this sentence gift is the subject
of the verb was, we is the subject of the verb selected, and the connector which joins these
two clauses.
 Example II
____ is on the table has four sections.
(A) The notebook
(B) The notebook which
(C) Because the notebook
(D) In the notebook

In this example you should notice immediately that the sentence has two verbs, is and
has, and each of them needs a subject. You know that table is not a subject because it
follows the preposition on; table is the object of the preposition. The only answer that has
two subjects is answer (B), so answer (B) is the correct answer. The correct sentence
should say: The notebook which is on the table has four sections. In this sentence
notebook is the subject of the verb has, and which is the subject of the verb is. Which is
also the connector that joins the two clauses.

2. NOUN CLAUSE

What he said is interesting.

Noun clause as subject

I don’t know why she is sad.

Noun clause as object

In the first example there are two clauses, but they are a little harder to recognize.
What he said is one of the clauses, and the connector what changes it into a noun clause
that functions as the subject. The other clause has the noun clause what he said as its
subject and is as its verb.
In the second example there are two clauses, I don’t know and she is sad. These
two clauses are joined with the connector why. why changes the clause she is sad into a
noun clause that functions as the object of the verb know.

Additionally, in some cases, it can be found that a noun clause connector is not just
a connector; it can also be the subject of the clause at the same time. Observe the
following sentences:
 I do not know who wrote the letter.
NOUN CLAUSE
Whoever is coming to the party must bring a gift.
NOUN CLAUSE

In the first example there are two clauses: I do not know and who wrote the letter.
These two clauses are joined by the connector who. It is important to understand that in
this sentence the word who serves two functions. It is both the subject of the verb wrote
and the connector that joins the two clauses.
In the second example there are also two clauses: whoever is the subject of the
verb is coming, and the noun clause whoever is corning to the party is the subject of must
bring. The word whoever serves two functions in the sentence: It is the subject of the verb
is coming, and it is the connector that joins the two clauses.

Example I
____was late caused many problems.
(A) That he
(B) The driver
(C) There
(D) Because

In this example there are two verbs, was and caused, and each of these verbs needs
a subject. Answer (B) is wrong because the driver is one subject, and two subjects are
needed. Answers (C) and (D) are incorrect because there and because are not subjects. The
best answer is answer (A). If you choose answer (A), the completed sentence would be:
That he was late caused many problems. In this sentence he is the subject of the verb
was, and the noun clause that he was late is the subject of the verb caused.
 Example II
____ was on television made me angry.
(A) It
(B) The story
(C) What
(D) When

In this example you should notice immediately that there are two verbs, was and
made, and each of those verbs needs a subject. Answers (A) and (B) are incorrect because
it and the story cannot be the subject for both was and made at the same time. Answer (D)
is incorrect because when is not a subject. In answer (C) what serves as both the subject of
the verb was and the connector that joins the two clauses together; the noun clause what
was on television is the subject of the verb made. Answer (C) is therefore the best answer.

3. ADVERB CLAUSE

Study the clauses and connectors in the following sentences:

I will sign the check before you leave

Independent clause dependent clause

Before you leave, I will sign the check

Dependent clause, independent clause

In each of these examples, there are two clauses: you leave and I will sign the check,
and the clause you leave is an adverb time clause because it is introduced with the
connector before. In the first example the connector before comes in the middle of the
sentence, and no comma (,) is used. In the second example the connector before comes at
the beginning of the sentence. In this pattern, when the connector comes at the beginning
of the sentence, a comma (,) is required in the middle of the sentence.
Example I
____ was late, I missed the appointment.
(A) I
(B) Because
(C) The train
(D) Since he

In this example you should recognize easily that there is a verb, was, that needs a
subject. There is also another clause, I missed the appointment. If you choose answer (A)
or answer (C), you will have a subject for the verb was, but you will not have a connector
to join the two clauses. Because you need a connector to join two clauses, answers (A) and
(C) are incorrect. Answer (B) is incorrect because there is no subject for the verb was.
Answer (D) is the best answer because there is a subject, he, for the verb was, and there is
a connector, since, to join the two clauses.

Example II
Will get a good grade on the exam provided ____
(A) studying
(B) study
(C) to study
(D) you study

In this example you should quickly notice the adverb condition connector provided.
This connector comes in the middle of the sentence; because it is a connector, it must be
followed by a subject and a verb. The best answer to this question is answer (D), which
contains the subject and verb you study.
4. SENTENCES WITH REDUCED CLAUSES
1) Adjective clauses
a) The adjective clause connector (pronoun) and the be-verb that directly follow it
are omitted. Like in following example:
The woman who is waving to us is the tour guide.
The letter which was written last week arrived today.
The pitcher that is on the table is full of iced tea.
Each of these sentences may be used in the complete form or in the reduced form.
In the reduced form the connector who, which, or that is omitted along with the be-
verb is or was.

b) If there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, it is still possible to have a reduced

form. When there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, the connector is omitted
and the verb is changed into the -ing form.

I don’t understand the article which appears in today’s paper.

In this example there is no be-verb in the adjective clause which appears in

today’s paper, so the connector which is omitted and the main verb appears is
changed to the -ing form appearing. So the reduced version is I don’t understand
the article appearing in today’s paper.

It should be noted that not all adjective clauses can appear in a reduced form. An
adjective clause can appear in a reduced form only if the adjective clause connector
is followed directly by a verb. In other words, an adjective clause can only be
reduced if the connector is also a subject.
 The woman that I just met is the tour guide. (does not reduce)
The letter which you sent me arrived yesterday. (does not reduce)

In these two examples the adjective clauses cannot be reduced because the
adjective clause connectors that and which are not directly followed by verbs; that
is directly followed by the subject I, and which is directly followed by the subject
you.

A final point to note is that some adjective clauses are set off from the rest of the
sentence with commas, and these adjective clauses can also be reduced. In
addition, when an adjective clause is set off with commas, the reduced adjective
clause can appear at the front of the sentence.

The White House, which is located in Washington, is the home of the president.
The White House, located in Washington, is the home of the president.
Located in Washington, the White House is the home of the president.

The president, who is now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors.
The president, now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors.
Now preparing to give a speech, the president is meeting with his advisors.

In these two examples, the adjective clauses are set off from the rest of the
sentence with commas, so each sentence can be structured in three different ways:
(1) with the complete clause, (2) with the reduced clause following the noun that it
describes, and (3) with the reduced clause at the beginning of the sentence.
 Example
____ on several different television programs, the witness gave conflicting
accounts of what had happened.
(A) He appeared
(B) Who appeared
(C) Appearing
(D) Appears

In this example, answer (A) is incorrect because there are two clauses, He
appeared ... and the witness gave ..., and there is no connector to join them.
Answer (B) is incorrect because an adjective clause such as who appeared ...
cannot appear at the beginning of a sentence (unless it is in a reduced form).
Answer (C) is the correct answer because it is the reduced form of the clause who
appeared, and this reduced form can appear at the front of the sentence. Answer
(D) is not the reduced form of a verb; it is merely a verb in the present tense; a verb
such as appears needs a subject and a connector to be correct.

2) Adverb clauses
a) The adverb connector remains, but the subject and be-verb are omitted.

Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
When you are ready, you can begin your speech.

These two examples may be used in either the complete or reduced form. In the
reduced form, the adverb connectors although and when remain; the subjects he
and you as well as the be-verbs is and are are omitted.
b) If there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, it is still possible to have a reduced
form. When there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, the subject is omitted and
the main verb is changed into the -ing form.

Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
When you give your speech, you should speak loudly and distinctly.

In the first example the adverb clause although he feels rather sick does not
include a beverb; to reduce this clause, the subject he is omitted and the main
verb feels is changed to feeling. In the second example the adverb clause when
you give your speech also does not include a be- verb; to reduce this clause, the
subject you is omitted and the main verb give is changed to giving.

An adverb clause can be changed to a modifying phrase only when the subject
of the adverb clause and the subject of the main clause are the same. A
modifying adverbial phrase that is the reduction of an adverb clause modifies
the subject of the main clause. No reduction is possible if the subjects of the
adverb clause and the main clause are different, as in:

Example
When_____ , you are free to leave.
(A) the finished report
(B) finished with the report
(C) the report
(D) is the report finished

In this example you should notice the adverb connector when, and you
should know that this time word could be followed by either a complete clause
or a reduced clause. Answers (A) and (C) contain the subjects the finished
report and the report and no verb, so these answers are incorrect. In answer (D)
the subject and verb are inverted, and this is not a question, so answer (D) is
incorrect. The correct answer is answer (B); this answer is the reduced form of
the clause when you are finished with the report.
EXERCISE 4: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. Most folk songs are ballads ____ have 4. Many of Louise Nevelson's sculptures
simple words and tell simple stories. consisted of a number of large wooden
(A) what structures ____ in complex patterns.
(B) although (A) which she arranged
(C) when (B) she arranged them
(D) that (C) which arranged
2. After its introduction in 1969, the float (D) arranged them
process ____ the world's principal 5. Most beans ____ are a form of kidney
method of manufacturing flat sheets of bean.
glass. (A) that are cultivated in the United
(A) by which it became States
(B) it became (B) their cultivation in the United
(C) became States
(D) which became (C) are cultivated in the United States
3. In 1850, Yale University established they
Sheffield Scientific School, ____ (D) they are cultivated in the United
(A) engineers were educated there States
(B) where engineers were educated
(C) in which were engineers educated
(D) where were engineers educated
 6. Dolphins lack vocal cords but they have a large, oil-filled organ called the “melon,”
A B
which with they can produce a variety of sounds.
C D
7. There are thousands of kinds of bacteria, many of whom are beneficial.
A B C D
8. The Ringling Brothers were five brothers which built a small group of performers
A B
into the world’s largest circus.
C D
9. William Samuel Johnson, who helped write the Constitution, become the first
A B C D
president of Columbia University in 1787.

10. Active stocks are stocks they are frequently bought and sold.
A B C D
EXERCISE 5: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. Scientists cannot agree on ____ related 4. ____ is a narrow strip of woods along a
to other orders of insects. stream in an open grassland.
(A) that fleas are (A) Ecologists use the term "gallery
(B) how fleas are forest"
(C) how are fleas (B) What do ecologists call a "gallery
(D) fleas that are forest"
2. It was in 1875 ____ joined the staff of (C) "Gallery forest" is the term
the astronomical observatory at Harvard ecologists use
University. (D) What ecologists call a "gallery
(A) that Anna Winlock forest"
(B) Anna Winlock, who 5. ____ so incredible is that these insects
(C) as Anna Winlock successfully migrate to places that they
(D) Anna Winlock then have never even seen.
3. ____ developed very rapidly in (A) That makes the monarch
Alabama primarily because of its rich butterflies' migration
natural resources. (B) The migration of the monach
(A) That heavy industry butterflies is
(B) Heavy industry (C) What makes the monarch
(C) Heavy industry that was butterflies' migration
(D) When heavy industry (D) The migration of the monarch
butterflies, which is

6. Art critics do not all agree on what are the qualities that make a painting great.
A B C D
7. Exactly when was the wheel invented is not known.
A B C D
8. Although geologists have a clearly understanding of why earthquakes occur, they
A B C
cannot reliably predict when they will take place.
D
9. A test pilot tries out new kinds of aircraft to determine if are they safe.
A B C D
10. The employee was unhappy about what added to his job description.
A B C D
 EXERCISE 6: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. ____ they are tropical birds, parrots can 4. ____ added to a liquid, antifreeze
live in temperate or even cold climates. lowers the freezing temperature of that
(A) Despite liquid.
(B) Even though (A) That
(C) Nevertheless (B) As is
(D) But (C) It is
2. ____ advertising is so widespread in the (D) When
United States, it has had an enormous 5. ____are increasingly linked over long
effect on American life. distances by electronic
(A) Why communications, but many of them still
(B) The reason prefer face-to-face encounters.
(C) On account of (A) Although people
(D) Since (B) Despite people
3. ____ towards shore, its shape is (C) Today people
changed by its collision with the (D) The fact that people
shallow sea bottom.
(A) During a wave rolls
(B) As a wave rolls
(C) wave rolls
(D) wave's rolling

6. Despite cats cannot see in complete darkness, their eyes are much more sensitive
A B C
to light than humans’ eyes.
D
7. Because of cheese is essentially a concentrated form of milk, it contains the same
A B C D
nutrients as milk.

8. In spite of their frightening appearance, the squid is shy and completely harmless.
A B C D
9. Snakebirds were not given their name because they eat snakes, but because of
A B C D
their long, slender necks resemble snakes.

10. In the sixteenth century, it was thought that a compass needle pointed north
A B C
because some mysterious influence of the stars.
D
 EXERCISE 7: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. ____ artifacts from the early Chinese 4. ____ behind government secrecy for
dynasties, numerous archeologists have nearly half a century, the Hanford plant
explored the southern Silk Road. in central Washington produced
(A) They were searching for plutonium for the nuclear weapons of
(B) It was a search for the Cold War.
(C) Searched for (A) It is hidden
(D) Searching for (B) Hidden
2. Kokanee salmon begin to deteriorate (C) Which is hidden
and die soon ____ at the age of four. (D) The plant is hiding
(A) they spawn 5. Small companies may take their goods
(B) after spawning abroad for trade shows without paying
(C) spawn foreign value added taxes by acquiring
(D) spawned the salmon an ATA carnet.
3. When ____ nests during spring nesting (A) a document calls
season, Canadian geese are fiercely (B) a document called
territorial. (C) calls a document
(A) building (D) called a document
(B) are building
(C) built
(D) are built

6. Though was surprised at the results, she was pleased with what she had done.
A B C D
7. The company president, needed a vacation, boarded a plane for the Bahamas.
A B C D
8. She looked up into the dreary sky was filled with dark thunderclouds.
A B C D
9. The application will at least be reviewed if is submitted by the fifteenth of the month.
A B C D
10. The family stopped to visit many relatives while were driving across the country.
A B C D
1. INVERTED AFTER SOME PLACE EXPRESSION

After ideas expressing place, the subject and the verb sometimes invert in English.
This can happen with single words expressing place, such as here, there, or nowhere.

2. INVERTED AFTER NEGATIVE EXPRESSION

The subject and verb can also be inverted after certain negatives and related
expressions. When negative expressions, such as no, not, or never, and certain words
such as hardly, barely, scarcely, and only, come at the beginning of a sentence, the
subject and verb are inverted.

3. INVERTED IN SOME CONDITION

In certain conditional structures, the subject and verb may also be inverted. This can
occur when the helping verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, and the
conditional connector if is omitted.

4. INVERTED AFTER SOME COMPARISONS

An inverted subject and verb may also occur after a comparison. The inversion of a
subject and verb after a comparison is optional, rather than required, and it is a rather
formal structure. There have been a number of inverted comparisons on recent TOEFL
tests, so you should be familiar with this structure.
1. INVERTED AFTER SOME PLACE EXPRESSION
Here is the book that you lent me.
There are the keys that I thought I lost.
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.

In the first example the place word here causes the subject book to come after the verb
is. In the second example the place word there causes the subject keys to come after the
verb are. In the last example the place word nowhere causes the subject I to come after the
verb have. The subject and verb can also be inverted after prepositional phrases expressing
place.

In the closet are the clothes that you want.

Around the corner is Sam's house.
Beyond the mountains lies the town where you will live.

In the first example the prepositional phrase of place in the closet causes the subject
clothes to come after the verb are. In the second example the prepositional phrase of place
around the corner causes the subject house to come after the verb is. In the last example
the prepositional phrase of place beyond the mountains causes the subject town to come
after the verb lies.

Example:
On the second level of the parking lot ____.
(A) is empty
(B) are empty
(C) some empty stalls are
(D) are some empty stalls

This example begins with the place expression on the second level of the parking lot,
which consists of two prepositional phrases, on the second level and of the parking lot.
This sentence needs a subject and a verb to be complete, and the two answers that contain
a subject, stalls, and verb, are, are answers (C) and (D). The subject and verb should be
inverted because the place expression is necessary to complete the idea some empty stalls
are.... The best answer is therefore answer (D).
2. INVERTED AFTER NEGATIVE EXPRESSION
Not once did I miss a question.
Never has Mr. Jones taken a vacation.
At no time can the woman talk on the telephone.
Hardly ever does he take time off. (This means that he almost never takes time off.)
Only once did the manager issue overtime paychecks. (This means that the
manager almost never issued overtime paychecks.)

In the first example the negative expression not once causes the subject I to come after
the helping verb did. In the second example the negative word never causes the subject
Mr. Jones to come after the helping verb has. In the third example the negative expression
at no time causes the subject woman to come after the helping verb can. In the fourth
example the “almost negative" expression hardly ever causes the subject he to come after
the helping verb does. In the last example the "almost negative" expression only once
causes the subject manager to come after the helping verb did.

Example:
Only in extremely dangerous situations ____ stopped.
(A) will be the printing presses
(B) the printing presses will be
(C) that the printing presses will be
(D) will the printing presses be

In this example you should notice that the sentence begins with the negative only, so an
inverted subject and verb are needed. Answer (D) contains a correctly inverted subject and
verb, with the helping verb will, the subject printing presses, and the main verb be, so
answer (D) is the best answer.
3. INVERTED IN SOME CONDITION
If he had taken more time, the results would have been better.
Had he taken more time, the results would have been better.
I would help you if I were in a position to help.
I would help you were I in a position to help.
If you should arrive before 6:00, just give me a call. Should you arrive before 6:00,
just give me a call.

In each of these examples you can see that when if is included, the subject and verb are
in the regular order (if he had taken, if I were, if you should arrive). It is also possible to
omit if; in this case, the subject and verb are inverted (had he taken, were I, should you
arrive).

Example:
The report would have been accepted ____ in checking its accuracy.
(A) if more care
(B) more care had been taken
(C) had taken more care
(D) had more care been taken

In this example a connector if and a subject and verb are needed, but if could be
omitted and the subject and verb inverted. Answer (A) is incorrect because it contains the
connector if and the subject care but no verb. Answer (B) is incorrect because it contains
the subject care and the verb had been taken but does not have a connector. In answers
(C) and (D), if has been omitted. Because it is correct to invert the subject more care and
the helping verb had, answer (D) is correct.
4. INVERTED AFTER SOME COMPARISONS
My sister spends more hours in the office than John.
My sister spends more hours in the office than John does.
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.

All three of these examples contain the comparison more... than, and all three are
correct in English. It is possible to have the noun John alone, as in the first example; it is
possible that the comparison is followed by the subject and verb John does, as in the
second example; it is also possible that the comparison is followed by the inverted subject
and verb does John, as in the third example.

Example:
The results of the current experiment appear to be more consistent than ____ the results of
any previous tests.
(A) them
(B) were
(C) they were
(D) were they

In this example you should notice the comparison more consistent than, and you
should also understand that the results of the current experiment is being compared with
the results of any previous tests. Because the results of any previous tests is the subject,
only a verb is needed; the best answer to this question is therefore answer (B). We know
that it is possible for a subject and a verb to be inverted after a comparison, and in this
case the subject the results of any previous tests comes after the verb were.
EXERCISE 8: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences.

1. Rarely ____ located near city lights or (A) Should milk

at lower elevations. (B) If milk
(A) observatories are (C) If milk is
(B) are (D) Milk should
(C) in the observatories 6. Nowhere ____ more skewed than in the
(D) are observatories auto industry.
2. There are geographic, economic, and (A) that retail trade figures
cultural reasons why ____ around the (B) retail trade figures are
world. (C) are retail trade figures
(A) diets differ (D) retail trade figures
(B) do diets differ 7. New York City's Central Park is nearly
(C) are diets different twice as large ____ second smallest
(D) to differ a diet country, Monaco.
3. Were ____ millions of dollars each year (A) as
replenishing eroding beaches, the (B) is the
coastline would be changing even more (C) as is
rapidly. (D) as is the
(A) the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 8. Located behind ____ the two lacrimal
not spending glands.
(B) the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (A) each eyelid
not spend (B) is each eyelid
(C) the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (C) each eyelid are
does not spend (D) each eyelid which is
(D) not spending the U.S. Army Corps 9. Potassium has a valence of positive one
of Engineers because it usually loses one electron
4. The economic background of labor when ____ with other elements.
legislation will not be mentioned in this (A) does it combine
course, be treated. (B) it combines
(A) trade unionism will not (C) in combining
(B) nor trade unionism will (D) combination
(C) nor will trade unionism 10. Only for a short period of time ____ run
(D) neither trade unionism will at top speed.
5. ____ test positive for antibiotics when (A) cheetahs
tanker trucks arrive at a milk processing (B) do cheetahs
plant, according to federal law, the (C) that a cheetah can
entire truckload must be discarded. (D) can
 Parallel structure is merging of two clauses or sentences that have the same clause
form. To merge the clauses, several conjunctions such as and, but, and or can combine
nouns (Nouns), Verbs (verbs), adjectives, phrases, clauses, or main phrases. In certain
structure items, the correct use of parallel structures is tested. Parallel structures have the
same grammatical form and function.
Look at the following sentences:

(a) Steve and his friend are coming to dinner.

(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers.
(c) He is waving his arms and, shouting at us.
(d) These shoes are old but comfortable.
(e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some music.

In example (a) the connector and merge noun Steve and friend, so the structure is noun
+ and +noun. In example (b) the connector and merge verb raised and snapped: the
structure is verb + and + verb. In example (c) the connector and merge present participle
verb waving and shouting, so the structure is verb +and +verb (The second auxiliary may
be omitted if it is the same as the first auxiliary.) In example (d) the connector but merge
adjective old and comfortable, so t he structure is adjective + but + adjective. In example
(e) the connector or merge infinitive to watch and to listen, so the structure is infinitive +
or + infinitive (The second to is usually omitted).

Notice the parallel structure in the examples. The same grammatical form should follow
each part of the paired conjunctions. The following is not parallel and must be corrected:

He wants either to go by train or by plane*.

It is not correct because to go by train is not parallel (not the same structure) to by
plane. It can be corrected in several ways.
He wants either to go by train or to go by plane.
He wants to go either by train or by plane.
He wants to go by either train or plane.

Example:
San Francisco has a pleasant climate, __ and many fascinating neighborhoods.
(A) exciting scenery,
(B) has exciting scenery
(C) that the scenery is exciting
(D) the scenery is exciting,

The correct answer is (A). This sentence contains a series of three objects after the verb
has: the first and third are noun phrases (a pleasant climate and many fascinating
neighborhoods). To be parallel, the second object must also be a noun phrase. Choices
(B), (C), and (D) are not parallel.
EXERCISE 9: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

2. Insects
1. provide many beneficial 4. Roger Williams was a clergyman, ____
services, such as ____ , breaking down the colony of Rhode Island, and an
deadwood, and pollinating plants. outspoken advocate of religious and
(A) they condition soils political freedom.
(B) to condition soil (A) Founded
(C) conditioning the soil (B) The founder of
(D) soil conditioned (C) was the founder of
3. Vitamin C is necessary for the (D) He founded
prevention and ____ of scurvy.
(A) it cures
(B) cures
(C) cure
(D) for curing

5. Computers are often used to control, adjustment, and correct complex industrial
A B C D
operations.
6. Eggs may be boiling in the shell, scrambled, fried, and cooked in countless other ways.
A B C D
7. Modern motorcycles are lighter, faster, and specialized than motorcycles of twenty-five
A B C D
years ago.
8. The bellflower is a wildflower that grows in shady fields, in marshes , and mountain
A B C D
slopes.
9. Many places of history, scientific, cultural or scenic importance have been designated
A B C
national monuments.
D
10. Many people who live near the ocean depend on it as a source of food, recreation and
A B C
to have economic opportunities.
D
11. Large commercial fishing vessels are equipped to clean, packaging, and freeze the fish that
A B C
they catch at sea.
D
 Sentences in which the error is an incorrect passive are common in written expression
questions on the TOEFL test. You therefore need to be able to recognize the correct form
of the passive and to be able to determine when a passive verb rather than an active verb is
needed in a sentence.

The difference between an active and a passive verb is that the subject in an active
sentence does the action of the verb, and the subject in a passive sentence receives the
action of the verb. To convert a sentence from active to passive, two changes must be
made.

1) The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence, while the
object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
2) The verb in the passive sentence is formed by putting the helping verb be (TOBE) in
the same form as the verb in the active sentence and then adding the past participle of
this verb (VERB III).
 Margaret wrote The letter
SUBJECT OBJECT
The letter was written by Margaret
SUBJECT OBJECT

The first example is an active sentence. To convert this active sentence to a passive
sentence, you must first make the subject of the active sentence, Margaret, the object of the
passive sentence with by. The object of the active sentence, letter, becomes the subject of the
passive sentence. Next, the passive verb can be formed. Because wrote is in the past tense in
the active sentence, the past tense of be (was) is used in the passive sentence. Then the verb
wrote in the active sentence is changed to the past participle written in the passive sentence.

THE FORM OF THE PASSIVE

BE + past participle (V3) + BY + object

The following are examples of passive errors that might appear on the TOEFL test:

The portrait was painting* by a famous artist.

The project will finished* by Tim.

In the first example, the passive is formed incorrectly because the past participle
painted should be used rather than the present participle painting. In the second example, the
verb be has not been included, and some form of be is necessary for a passive verb. The verb
in the second sentence should be will be finished.
When there is no object (with or without by) after a verb, you must look at the meaning of the
sentence to determine if the verb should be active or passive. Sentences with an incorrect
passive verb and no by + object to tell you that the verb should be passive are the most
difficult passive errors to recognize on the TOEFL test. Study the examples:

We mailed the package at the post office.

The letter was mailed by us today before noon.
The letter was mailed today before noon.'
The letter mailed* today before noon.

The first three examples above are correct. The first example has the active verb mailed used
with the object package; the second example has the passive verb was mailed used with by
us; the third sentence has the passive verb was mailed used without an object.

The fourth example is the type of passive error that appears most often on the TOEFL
test. This type of sentence has the following characteristics: (1) an incorrect passive verb that
looks like a correct active verb, and (2) no by + object to tell you that a passive is needed. To
correct the fourth example, the active verb needs to be changed to the passive was mailed.

To determine that such a sentence is incorrect, you must study the meaning of the
subject and the verb. You must ask yourself if the subject does the action of the verb (so an
active verb is needed) or if the subject receives the action of the verb (so a passive verb is
needed). In the incorrect example, you should study the meaning of the subject and verb, the
letter mailed. You should ask yourself if a letter mails itself (the letter does the action) or if
someone mails a letter (the letter receives the action of being mailed). Since a letter does not
mail itself, the passive is required in this sentence.
Practice: Each of the following sentences has a passive meaning. Indicate if the sentences
are correct (C) or incorrect (I).

1. The suits were hung in the closet when they were returned from the cleaners. ____
2. Money is lending by the credit union to those who want to buy homes. ____
3. The record had been chose by dancers near the jukebox. ____
4. The topic for your research paper should have been approved by your advisor. ____
5. That song has been playing over and over again by Steve. ____

EXERCISE 10.1: If the underlined form is correct, mark the sentence C. If the
underlined form is incorrect, mark the sentence X, and write a correction for the
underlined form in the blank after the sentence.

_____ 1. Coal, grain, steel, and other products are often shipping by barge on inland
waterways.
_____ 2. The first cotton mill in Massachusetts has built in the town of Beverly in 1787.
_____ 3. Physician Alice Hamilton is known for her research on industrial diseases.
_____ 4. When scientists search a site for fossils, they begin by examining places where the
soil has wore away from the rock.
_____ 5. The popularity of recreational vehicles has been grown over the last few decades.
_____ 6. Experts have estimated that the termites cause as much property damage every year
as fire has.
_____ 7. In music, a chord is the sound of two or more notes that are playing together.
_____ 8. The white pine is the most commercially important forest tree in North America
until the beginning of the twentieth century.
_____ 9. In 1846, the Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz come to the United States to give a
series of lectures.
_____ 10. Parrots and crows are considered the most intelligent birds.
 EXERCISE 10.2: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best
complete the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the
underlined word or group of words that is not correct.

1. _____ discussed by the board of (C) basically have given

directors when it was proposed again by (D) daily had been given
the supervisors. 3. Much of the carnage of elephants,
(A) The problem had already giraffes, and big cats _____ uncaring
(B) The problem is already hunters.
(C) The problem had already been (A) must commit by
(D) The problem has already (B) must be committed
2. The x-ray treatments _____ up to the (C) must have committed
time that he was dismissed from the (D) must have been committed by
hospital.
(A) gave daily
(B) were given daily
4. Particular issues that concern teenagers were covering in the half-hour program
A B C D
5. Electrical impulses may also picked up by the optic nerve.
A B C D
6. Workers training for a specific job have a strong possibility of being replace by
A B C D
machine
7. On June 30,1992, international timekeepers in Paris were added an extra second to
A B C
to the day.
D
8. The report could not be turned in on time because all the needed work lost.
A B C D
9. In English these questions have beformed by changing the word order of a
A B C
statement, whereas in some languages the word order remains the same.
D
10. He was not able to define the process by which the body had protected by the
A B C D
immunologic system.
 The most common type of written expression error involves word forms. Most errors of
this type involve using one part of speech in place of another. Both the incorrect word and the
correction are from the same root (for example: inform and information, health and healthy).
Thus, to solve word form problems, it is important to recognize the four parts of speech
(verb, noun, adjective and adverb) by identifying their suffixes (word ending).
Common Noun Endings

-tion information -ery recovery

-sion provision -ship scholarship
-ence independence -tude multitude
-ance acceptance -ism capitalism
-ity creativity -cracy democracy
-hood childhood -logy biology
-dom wisdom -ness happiness
-th health -ment experiment

Endings for nouns that refer to people

-er Explorer -ee employee

-or Sailor -ic comic
-ist Psychologist -ian technician
-ent Student -ant attendant

Common Verb Endings

-ize realize -ify justify

-en shorten -ate incorporate
-er recover

Common Adjective Endings

-ate moderate -y sunny

-ous dangerous -ic economic
-al normal -ical logical
-ial remedial -ory sensory
-able comfortable -less hopeless
-ible sensible -ive competitive
-ish sluggish -ly friendly
-ant resistant -ful colorful

Common Adverb Endings

-ly quickly -ally historically

 EXERCISE 11: choose the underlined word or group of words that is not correct.

1. Liberal arts colleges cultivate general intellectually abilities rather than technical or
professional skills.
2. Goats are extremely destruction to natural vegetation and are often responsible for soil
erosion.
3. Wild plants were of considerable important to early settlers, and many are still used
medically and as foods.
4. One important branch of linguistics is semantics, which analysis the meaning of
words.
5. Unlike folk dancers, which are the product of single culture, ballet is an international art
form.
6. The strong of rope is directly proportional to its cross-sectional area.
7. Black bears can move rapidly when necessary and are skillful tree climbers for their size
and weigh.
8. In an arboretum, trees are cultivated for scientific and educational purpose.
9. In most Western states, the first major industry was mining which was gradually
supplemented by ranches.
10. Peach trees are grow good in a variety of soil types, but do best in sandy loam.
11. The unit of measuring called the foot was originally based on the length of the human foot.
12. Philosopher Theodore A. Langerman was interested in the fields literary and music.
13. Chemical react that absorbs heat is called endothermic.
14. One characteristic of the poems of Emily Dickinson is the sharp of her images.
15. Science requires the careful collect and organization of data.
 Errors with preposition are among the most difficult errors to catch. Preposition use in
English is very complex. For every rule, there seems to be an exception. Although it is hard
enough to memorize them, a test-taker should familiarize the correct usage of prepositions.
Here are some examples of preposition use:

1. Adjectives/Participles + prepositions

Free of close to equipped with

Inferior to possible for famous for
Married to relevant to equal to
Afraid of native to contrary to
Perfect for aware of dependent on….etc.

2. verbs + prepositions

attach to compare with insist on

begin with believe in plan on
agree with/on deal with participate in
combine with depend on engage in
belong to cooperate with devote to…..etc.

3. Noun + prepositions

Approach to decrease in demand for

Attention to example of exception to
Experience with expert on influence on
Interest in reason for result of
Supply of influence on solution to …..etc.

4. Phrasal prepositions

According to due to together with

By means of ahead of along with
In favor of in spite of instead of
Except for prior to regardless of

Prepositions in, on and at to express time

In + century, decade, year, season, month, part of the day

On + days of the week, date.
At + time of day, night
Preposition in, on and at to express place

In + continent, country, state, city, building, room and the world

On + floor of a building, earth
At address
 EXERCISE 12: Fill in the blanks in the sentences below with the correct prepositions!

1. I was disappointed ______ the grade I received on my last essay.

2. The medical center is close ______ campus.
3. Now that she has graduated, Anne is no longer dependent her parents___ financial
support.
4. Catherine became accustomed ______ spicy foods when she was travelling.
5. Table salt is composed ______ two elements, sodium and chlorine.
6. Is your bicycle equipped ______ a light?
7. Oxygen, fuel and heat are all necessary ______ combustion.
8. Two people would find this apartment too crowded, but it is perfect ______ one.
9. This variety of seed is inferior ______ the type 1 planted last year.
10. Were you surprised ______ the grade you received?
11. The opposite ______ old fashioned is modern.
12. House cats are distantly related ______ lions and tigers.
13. Is this type of soil suitable ______ growing tomatoes?
14. A decrease ___ the supply___ a good usually results in an increase ___ the price ___ that
good.
15. Once scientists fully understand the cause ___ a disease, it becomes easier for them to find
a cue ___ it.
16. Professor Lyle noticed a distinct improvement ____ the quality her ____ students’ work.
17. It is believed that sunspots have an influence ______ the Earth’ weather patterns.
18. Have you had much experience ______ computer?
19. I’m sorry; I was not paying close attention ______ what you said.
20. The professor gave us several examples ______ that phenomenon.
21. Do you know the reason ______ the delay?
22. Do you belong any ______ campus clubs or organizations?
23. Cytology is the branch of biology that deals ______ the structure, form and life of cells.
24. Maybe you should begin your speech ______ some jokes.
25. Let’s concentrate ______ solving this problem before we discuss the other one.
 EXERCISE 13: Choose the best letter of the word or group of words that best complete
the sentences. For Error recognition questions, choose the letter of the underlined word
or group of words that is not correct.

1. ______ seed of a flowering plant is 4. ______ the United States, the general
covered by a dense protective coat. movement of air masses is from west to
(A) On each east.
(B) Each (A) Across
(C) Each of (B) To cross
(D) That each (C) They cross
2. Dynamite is ordinarily detonated (D) It’s across
______ called a blasting cap. 5. A thick layer of fat called blubber keeps
(A) a device is used whales warm even ______ coldest
(B) that a device water.
(C) with a device (A) though the
(D) the use of a device (B) in the
3. ______ 1900 there were some 300N (C) the
bicycle factories in the United States (D) of the
that produced more than a million 6. The bark of a tree thickens ______ .
bicycles. (A) with age
(A) (A )In (B) it gets older
(B) Because in (C) as older
(C) It was in (D) by age
(D) That in

7. Water polo is a game in which is played in the water by two teams, each with seven
A B C D
players.
8. Many of radio stations began broadcasting baseball games during the 1920s.
A B C D
9. The economy of Maine is based to a great extent in its forests, which cover 80 percent of
A B C D
its surface area.
10. The removal of waste materials is essentials to all forms of live.
A B C D
 Word choice errors involve the incorrect use of one word in place of another. These two
words may be related forms (other and another, for example) may be completely different (do
and make). Description of some of the most common word choice errors are given below:

a) Distinguish make or do
The verb to do is often used in place of to make, and to make in place of to do. In its
basic sense, to make means to produce, to create, and to construct, whereas to do means to
perform, to act, and to accomplish.

b) Distinguish Another and Other

Used as an adjective:
another + singular noun
other + plural noun
determiner + other + noun

Used as a pronoun:
Another
determiner + other

c) Distinguish like, alike, unlike and dislike.

These words often make confusion for learners. They seem similar but have different
uses and structures.

d) Distinguish much, many and similar expressions

Certain expressions can be used in phrases with plural nouns while others can be used
in expressions only with uncountable noun.
a) Distinguish make or do

These verbs are also used in a number of set expressions:

 Common Expressions with Make

make a comparison
make a contribution
make a decision make a
distinction make
advances in make an
offer make a plan
make a point make a
profit make a promise
make a sound/noise make
a suggestion

To make is also used in this pattern: make + someone + adjective

(The gift made her happy.)

 Common Expressions with Do

do a job (errand, chore)
do an assignment do
business with do
one’s duty
do one’s work
do research

b) Distinguish Another and Other

Used as an adjective:
Have another sandwich.
I wonder if there is life on other planets.
There may be life on some other planets.

Used as a pronoun:
Thanks. I’ll have another.
“I have one book.” “I have the other.”
 Another means “one more, an additional one.” It can be used as an adjective before a
singular noun or alone as a pronoun.
For example:
He needs another piece of paper.
I have one class in that building and another in the building across the quadrangle.

Other is used as an adjective before a plural noun. It is also used as an adjective

before a singular noun when preceded by a determiner such as the, some, any, one, no, and
so on. It can also be used alone as a pronoun when preceded by a determiner.
For example:
There are other matters I’d like to discuss with you.
One of the books was a novel; the other was a collection of essays.
There’s no other place I’d rather visit.
c) Distinguish like, alike, unlike and dislike.
o Like and alike are adjectives so they are treated as other adjectives. The difference is
Like is followed by noun while alike is not. Because alike is predicative adjective that is
never followed by noun.
John and Tom are alike.
John and tom work in a like manner.

o Like and unlike are prepositions. Unlike is opposite of like. Both of them are followed
by object of prepositions.
Tom is like Gerry
Tom is unlike Gerry
Like Tom, Gerry is funny.
Unlike Tom, Gerry is small.

o Like and dislike are verbs. Dislike is opposite of like.

Tom likes fish
Gerry dislikes fish

d) Distinguish much, many and similar expressions

Used with plural nouns used with uncountable nouns

Many much
Few, a few little, a little
Fewer, the fewest less, the least
Number amount
 EXERCISE 14: Underline the word that correctly completes each sentence below.

1. The tips of high-speed dental drills are (done/made) of tungsten steel and often contain
diamonds.
2. A cottage industry is a form of manufacturing (done/made) at home.
3. Margaret Mead (did/made) fundamental contributions to both the theory and fieldwork of
anthropology.
4. Many universities receive grants to (do/make) research for the federal government.
5. Research in genetics in the early nineteenth century (did/made) much to improve
agriculture.
6. Futurologists study current trends to (do/make) predictions about the future.
7. Filmmaker George Lucas has (done/made) many advances in the production of motion
pictures, especially in the use of special effects.
8. The distinction between wildflowers and weeds is one that is often difficult to (do/make).

Directions: Underline the word that correctly completes each of the following sentences.

1. Lightning is a rush of electrical current from a cloud to the ground or from one cloud to
(another/ other).
2. A ballet dancer’s techniques and skills are very different from those of (another/other)
dancers.
3. The commercial center of New York City, the island of Manhattan is joined to the
(another/other) boroughs by bridges and tunnels.
4. The legal surrender of a criminal suspect from one state or country to (another/other) is
called extradition.
5. Life expectancy for both males and females is higher in Hawaii than it is in any
(another/other) state.
6. Rocky Mountain spotted fever is one type of disease that is carried by ticks, and Colorado
tick fever is (another/other).
7. The art of photography has often been influenced by—and has influenced—
(another/other) fine arts.
8. (Another/Other) than the cheetah, all cats have retractable claws.
9. Few (another/other) Supreme Court justices have had as much impact on American law as
William O. Douglas did during his thirty-six years on the bench.
10. (Many/Much) industrial products can be made from soybeans.
11. (Desert plants compete fiercely for the (few/little) water.
12. The American designer Louis Comfort Tiffany took (many/much) of his inspiration from
nature.
13. A (few/little) simple precautions can prevent accident at home and on the job.
14. Bats do (few/little) damage to people, livestock, or crops.
15. Folk artists have (few/little) or no formal art.
 Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct.

1. The buffalo and the bison are like except for the size and shape of the head and shoulders.
A B C D
2. Other interesting aspect of tachistopic training in recent years has been the newfound
A B C
use by professional teams.
D
3. Only about 3 percent of oil wells actually do a profit.
A B C D
4. Dislike sumac with red berries, sumac with white berries is poisonous.
A B C D
5. Pittsburgh has reduced its smog by requiring more complete oxidation of fuel in cars
A B
and others cities can do the same thing.
C D
6. Alike all other mammals, dolphins have lungs.
A B C D
7. Up to World War II almost all important research in physics had been made in
A B
universities, with only university funds for support.
C D
8. Because the plan that was made yesterday is no longer feasible, the manager had to
A B C
choose another alternatives.
D
9. Particles with unlike charges attract each other, while particles with alike charges
A B C
repel each other.
D
10. One another surprising method of forest conservation is controlled cutting of trees.
A B C D