VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI

A
PROJECT REPORT ON

"AUTOMATIC SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM"

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF 5TH SEMESTER B.E COURSE DURING THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-24.

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY:
SHIVSHANKAR 3GN21EE034
SYED RIYAN 3GN21EE038
SYED SHOAIB 3GN21EE040
VINAYAK 3GN21EE041
SHAIK MUDASSIR 3GN22EE416

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Prof. SHUBHA.S

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BIDAR

MAILOOR ROAD, BIDAR, KARNATAKA-585403

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-24
 Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College Bidar-585403, Karnataka

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “ Automatic solar tracking System ” is a bonafide
work carried out by SHIVSHANKAR 3GN21EE034, SYED RIYAN 3GN21EE038, SYED
SHOAIB UMER ALI 3GN21EE040, VINAYAK 3GN21EE041, SHAIK MUDASSIR
3GN22EE416 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree in the course of Bachelor of
Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering by the Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
during the year 2023- 24. It is certified that all the corrections/suggestions indicated for the internal assessment
have been incorporated in the report deposited in the department library. The project Report has been approved as
it satisfies the academic requirement in respect of project course prescribed for the Bachelor of Engineering Degree.

……………………………………….. …………………………………………... ………………………………………..

Signature of Guide Signature of HOD Signature of Principal

Prof. Shubha.S Prof. Deepak Ghode Dr.Dhananjay.M

Name of the Examiners Signature

1. ............................................. .....................

2. ............................................. ......................
 DECLARATION

I, SHIVSHANKAR 3GN21EE034, SYED RIYAN 3GN21EE038, SYED SHOAIB UMER ALI

3GN21EE040, VINAYAK 3GN21EE041, SHAIK MUDASSIR 3GN22EE416 student of the 5th
semester B.E in Electrical and Electronics engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Bidar, hereby
declare that the project work entitled ”Automatic solar tracking System” submitted to the Visvesvaraya
Technological University during the academic year 2022-23, is a record of an original work done by me under
the guidance of Prof. Shubha.S, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev
Engineering College, Bidar. This mini project work is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. The results
embodied in this project have not been submitted to any other university or institute for the award of any
degree.

SHIVSHANKAR 3GN21EE034
SYED RIYAN 3GN21EE038
SYED SHOAIB 3GN21EE040
VINAYAK 3GN21EE041
SHAIK MUDASSIR 3GN22EE416

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any work would be incomplete without
mentioning the people who have made it possible, because success is the epitome of hard work. So, with
gratitude, I acknowledge all those whose guidance and encouragement have made my efforts successful.

A special debt of gratitude is owned to my guide Prof.Shubha.S, for his gracious efforts and keen pursuit,
which remains as a valuable assert for the successful completion of my project her dynamism and diligent
enthusiasm have been highly suggestive, blended with an innate intelligent application have crowned my
task with success.

I am highly indebted to our project coordinator Prof.Shubha.S for guiding and giving timely advices and
suggestions in the successful completion of the project.

It gives me immense pleasure in expressing my heartfelt gratitude to Prof.Deepak Ghode, Head of

Department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering for giving me the guidance and encouragement to
complete my project successfully.

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my principal Dr.Dhananjay. M for his continuous
effort in inculcating a competitive environment in my mind and motivate me to bring out the best in me.

I am also thankful to all the staff members of the Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department for their
support and co-operation. I thank every individual who have directly or indirectly influenced me to propel
the project to its completion.

SHIVSHANKAR 3GN21EE034
SYED RIYAN 3GN21EE038
SYED SHOAIB 3GN21EE040
VINAYAK 3GN21EE041
SHAIK MUDASSIR 3GN22EE416

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENT PAGE NO.

LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES vii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS viii
ABSTRACT 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Background 2
1.2 Literature Review 3
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1 Implementation 8
2.2 Theory of using Two LDR 10
2.3 Research Design 10
CHAPTER 3: THEORITICAL BACKGROUND OF SOLAR TRACKER
3.1 The Earth: Rotation and Revolution 11
3.2 Types of Tracker 14
3.3 Fixed Collector 16
3.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking 17
3.5 Advantages & Pitfalls of Solar Energy 20
3.5.1 Advantages 20
3.5.2 Pitfalls 20
CHAPTER 4: HARDWARE PROTOTYPE
4.1 Hardware Prototype 21
4.1.1 The Solar Input 21
4.1.2 The Controlling Circuit 22
4.1.3 Servo Motor 23
4.2 Prototype 23

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION, FUTURE SCOPE 25

5.1 Conclusion 25
5.2 Future Scope

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure Name Page No.

Figure 2.11 Pin Diagram of Arduino UNO 9

Figure 2.12 Block Diagram of Automatic Solar tracking system 9

Figure 2.13 Circuit diagram of Automatic solar tracking system 9

Figure 2.2 Concept of Using Two LDR 10

Figure 3.11 Earth Rotation 11

Figure 3.12 Earth Rotation and Revolution 12

Figure 3.13 Angle of elevation and zenith angle 13

Figure 3.21 Single Axis Tracker 15

Figure 3.22 Dual Axis Tracker 15

Figure 3.31 Fixed collector 16

Figure 3.32 Sun path diagram for Calcutta 16

Figure 3.41 Conversions taking place inside the Solar charge controller 18

Figure 4.1.1 Solar Cell 21

Figure 4.1.2 Symbol of LDR 22

Figure 4.1.3 Pin diagram of Arduino 22

Figure 4.1.4 Servo motor 23

Figure 4.1.4 Prototype 23

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Table Name Page No.

Table 1.1 Types of Solar cell based upon material 4

Table 3.1 Types of Solar Tracker 14

vii
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

CdTe - Cadmium Telluride

CIGS - Copper Indium Gallium (di)Selenide
CSP - Concentrated Solar Power
DC - Direct Current
EMF - Electromotive Force
I - Current
I/O - Input/Output
ICSP - In-Circuit Serial Programming
IDE - Integrated Development Environment
LCD - Liquid Crystal Display
LDR - Light Dependent Resistor
LUX - Luminous Flux
MCU - Microcontroller
MPPT - Maximum Power Point Tracking
PV - Photovoltaic
R - Resistor
RPM - Rotations per Minute
USB - Universal Serial Bus
V - Voltage

viii
 ABSTRACT

Of all the renewable energies, solar energy is the only energy gained its popularity and importance
quickly. Through the solar tracking system, we can produce an abundant amount of energy which makes the
solar panel’s workability much more efficient. Perpendicular proportionality of the solar panel with the sun
rays is the reason lying behind its efficiency. Pecuniary, its installation charge is high provided cheaper
options are also available. This project is dis- cussed all about the design and construction mechanism of the
prototype for the solar tracking system having a single axis of freedom.
The main control circuit is based upon Arduino UNO. Programming of this device is done in the manner
that the LDR sensor, in accordance with the detection of the sun rays, will provide direction to the DC Motor
that in which way the solar panel is going to revolve. Through this, the solar panel is positioned in such a
manner that the maximum amount of sun rays could be received. In comparison with the other motors, DC
motor is the simplest and the suave one, the torque of which is high and speed of which is slow enough. We
can program it for changing the direction notwithstanding the fact that it rotates only in one direction subject
to exception as far as programming is concerned. 1985, first time ever it was witnessed for production of the
silicon solar cells with an efficiency of 20 percent. Though a hike in the efficiency of the solar panel had a
handsome increase still perfection was a far-fetched goal for it. Below 40 percent, most of the panels still
hover to operate. Consequently, peoples are compelled to purchase a number of panels in order to meet their
energy demands or purchase single systems with large outputs. Availability of the solar cells types with higher
efficiencies is on provided they are too costly to purchase. Ways to be accessed for increasing solar panel
efficiencies are a plethora in number still one of the ways to be availed for accomplishing the said purpose
while reducing costs, is tracking. Tracking helps in the wider projection of the panel to the Sun with increased
power output. It could be dual or single axis tracker.
Duality ragged up with better compatibility as far as tracking of the sunlight from both the axis is concerned.
Commercially single tracker is cheaper to use through booming of power is considerable and therefore a minuscule
increase in the price is worthy and acceptable, provided maintenance cost should float around on an average
level.

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Background

Bustling civilization is the vein through which modern civilization is operated. Energy day by day is put to use at
its best to fulfil the desires and ambition of the peoples at large. Each and every corner of our life is caged with
various layers of impediment and in this response, energy is becoming an indispensable factor. Therefore, the
source of energy needs to be endless/ perpetual in order to carry this colossal population ahead. Human beings
being evolutionary in nature are perhaps the best ever creation of nature is always in the race of envisaging the
probable and available comforts and benefits in every possible angle in this perilous world. The evidential matrix
manifests that in a dichotomy of various opinions what options best expedite the scarcity of energy in an immensely
heterogeneous society like ours. Our motto is to endeavour in forwarding such noble goal of energy conservation.

Taking a look at the present scenario it is evident that conventional sources of energy such as coal, natural gas, oil,
etc. are at the edge of extinction. Being in mortal combat with time itself to fulfil every demand for energy the
demand for these resources for energy has escalated to its zenith. The conventional use of energies due to the
burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas, the whole environment is getting polluted. The present project,
therefore, is orchestrated with components like LDR module, DC Motor, Photovoltaic array etc. according to which
while the functioning of, unlike other use of the conventional energies, would not emit any pollution and in turn
act as a reservoir of energy taken from the Sun itself. As adumbrated no other energy is more abundant than solar
energy as per as its availability and freeness are concerned, utilization of which, compounded with rest of the fact
of its conversion into electrical energy. Historically if counted, in the year 1881 for the first time ever solar panel
was invented. Later on, all through the hands of Russell Ohl in the year, 1941 concept of the solar cell was
conceived and subsequently workability of a solar panel has also advanced in comparison with the earlier span.
Though it is improbable still it is not impossible as per as tracking of the mother energy is concerned in furtherance
to which attempt has been taken through this project to confine every drop of energy from being left out.
The DC Motor

adjacent with the system with the help of LDR module by measuring the intensity of the sun rays fixed on the
upper edge of the solar panel will help the solar panel to revolve around proportionately with the movement of the
Sun itself in order to grab and store the maximum amount of energy as it can. In pursuance of such objectivity, this
project comes forth into existence.
When heat is the source of every creation, Sun produces the biggest ever energy in this solar system to produce

2
and transcend life from one organism to the other. In this response, the project called "Automatic Solar Tracking
System" serves the purpose of utilizing the maximum amount of energy taken from the Sun and to convert such
energy into some other production. The basic endeavour is crooned to scoop out from this project in making this
system an economically convenient subject, accessibility of which is easy and functioning of which is optimum in
the end. In the wake of technological advancement when the pace of time is at its best to pass by, this system is a
time worthy production, produced to create the best of its kind. In a stretch, it could be signified that this project
which is an extension of solar energy, is a renewable source of energy, never-ending phenomena. It's only 10 to 20
per cent of the solar cells that are being used commercially out of which the best potential of the cells gets reflected
and therefore scope for better use of the solar cells exist.
In the world of pollution, this system is an eco-friendly alternative, hence a valuable asset. When the ocean of
pollution is encumbering every corner of life, this system would be able to create ripples of hope in the midst of
this bustling civilization. The survivability of this system lies upon its workability. In the trend of comparison with
other mind-boggling systems, it could be a trailblazer.

1.2 Literature Review

The paucity of available resources has forced contemporary society to look for measures to consummate the
demands of the latter. With the nurturing civilization, the depletion of conventional fuels, due to human practices
has been an alarm to sustainable development issues. The scarcity of energy and its source guided us towards the
optimistic approach of using the alternative resources bestowed to humankind–Solar, tidal etc.

The Sun has been looked upon as an imperative source of energy. Solar energy is an eco- friendly resource as
compared to its counterparts. The advancement of technology has out-turn foster techniques to utilize this energy
into its own good use. Be it as thermal energy, electricity, fuel production and many more. Photovoltaic or
concentrated solar power (CSP) systems are operated to transfigure the solar power expropriated by the earth into
electricity. Solar tracking device utilizes this expropriated solar power through the channel of photovoltaic arrays,
an oriented scaffolding of photovoltaic/solar cells.

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells are used to convert light energy into electricity. Photovoltaic cells
work on the principle of the photovoltaic effect, which is similar to the photoelectric effect. Differences being that
the electrons in photovoltaic are not emitted instead contained in the material around the surface, creating a voltage
difference. Solar cells are forged with crystalline silicon. It is the most commonly used material in a solar cell. The
use of silicon in the solar cell has been very efficient and low cost. Two forms of crystalline silicon can be used to
make solar cells. Other than silicon, solar cells can be fabricated with cadmium telluride (CdTe), Copper indium
gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) etc. the fabrication of solar cells with materials other silicon is slightly expensive, thus
3
making silicon the best material to be used in solar tracking systems.

One of the finest and extensively used material, monocrystalline silicon has an efficiency of about15-20%. While
under high temperature the performance of the cell material drops by 10- 15% of the initial.

Polycrystalline silicon is another form, cheaper than the latter but has the same band gap as that of monocrystalline
silicon. Though it has the same band gap energy, it lags in efficiency, hence this material is used in low-cost
products.
Amorphous silicon cells can work under extremely high temperatures, but the efficiency of these cells is
comparatively lower than the other silicon forms.
The technologies which use CdTe, CIGS, Amorphous Thin-Film Silicon (a-Si, TF-Si) in the fabrication of solar
cells are known as thin film photovoltaic modules. These thin-film solar cells are relatively cost-effective than the
solar cells of crystalline silicon.

Table 1.1: Types of Solar cell based upon the material

Cell Technology Crystalline Silicon Thin Film Silicon

1. Mono-crystalline silicon (c- 1 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)

Types Si) 2 Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
2. Poly-crystalline silicon (pc- 3 Copper indium gallium
Si/ mc-Si) (di)selenide (CIG/CIGS)

Temperature resistivity
Lower Higher

Module Efficiency 13-19% 4-12%

There are several other factors on which the efficiency of a solar cell depends.
1. Cell temperature
2. Energy Conversion Efficiency
3. Maximum power point tracking

Solar panels are a cumulative orientation of photovoltaic cells. The PV cells are arranged in a solar panel or a PV
array such that is serves the purpose of exciting the electron of the material consisting inside the solar cells using
photons. The average amount of sunlight received by solar panels particular depends on the position of the sun.
4
Being a repository of energies, Sun witnessed to be the eminent and ever continuing source of emitting radiation
from it. A part of this source of natural energy is received by the solar panel. Certain ways have been developed to
utilize this energy source as an alternative to other non- renewable sources. Considering its multitudinous
flourishing ways in which it can be applied to bring about the change in conserving other resources, the
manipulation of the energy source is encouraged.
Solar panels are hence used to utilize solar power in electrical means. They are aligned different arenas to collect
maximum solar power. Though, solar panels can be used to absorb or collect solar power, there work is bounded
to certain hours of the day and the sunlight pouring directly on them ,i.e. the angle between the sunrays and the
panel is orthogonal. While at other hours of the day, the angle of the sunrays is different, hence the amount of the
solar power captured is very less. To overcome such pitfalls, and encapsulate the maximum available of solar
energy the solar tracking systems were introduced. A solar tracking system is designed with the intention of
keeping the angle between the sunrays and the solar array 90°.

The solar tracking system have three different modules-

1. The mechanism
2. Driving motors
3. The tracking controller.

The mechanism is accountable to furnish with accurate movements, in the sake of following the footsteps of the
sun throughout the day. The prototype of the device is made durable enough to withstand unfavorable weather
condition. This mechanism of the solar tracking systems classifies themselves into two segments single axis
tracker, dual axis tracker.

Single axis tracking can be considered as one of the handy systems or prime solution in terms of small-scale
photovoltaic power plants. Single axis tracking can be done using three different arrangements, which are based
on the different axes of tracking-
1. Inclined shaft installation
2. South-North axis horizontal installation
3. East-West axis horizontal installation.

Single axis tracker tracks in a single cardinal direction. The tracker has a single row tracking configuration. The
above maintained methods are the different arrangements in which single axis tracker can be implemented. The

5
working mechanism of all the maintained methods is at par with each other. The angle of the sun with the surface
of the collector is computed and examined, the collectors are thus charged to track down the movement of the sun
to meet the expectations of captivating a greater percentage of solar radiance.

There are numerable other imposition of single axis tracking tracker, including
1. Horizontal Single Axis Tracker (HSAT)
2. Horizontal Single Axis Tracker with Tilted Module (HTSAT)
3. Vertical Single Axis Tracker (VSAT)
4. Tilted Single Axis Tracker (TSAT)
5. Polar Aligned Single Axis Tracker (PSAT)

The rotational axis in the dual axis tracker are orthogonal to each other. One of the axes is fixed in accordance with
the ground level. This axis is known as the primary axis and the other axis is hence called the secondary axis. Dual
axis trackers moved along two cardinal directions, horizontal and vertical. There are many applications of the dual
axis tracker, the two most common being
1. Tip-Tilt Dual Axis Tracker
2. Azimuthal Altitude Dual Axis Tracker.

The efficiency of these tracker is much more than any single axis tracker. It conventionally follows the movement
of the un and hence captivates maximum solar energy. On the basis of the driving mechanism solar trackers can
again be of two kinds active solar trackers and passive solar trackers. The mechanism which makes use of electric
motors such as DC motor, can be termed as active driving mechanism. The passive ones are simply controlled by
the movement of the earth that is the gravitational forces.

Solar tracking controller can also categories solar trackers into two different module
1. Open loop control- The approach followed requires microprocessor. This method has a inbuild prototype
which is based upon the records of the movement of sun throughout the day. Hence, the microcontroller
computes the time and determines the position of the sun at that particular hour. The control system is not
affected by any geographical conditions.
2. Closed loop control/Feedback controllers- This control system utilizes photo sensor to compare the light
intensity. These sensors are fixtures at the side of panel and helps in detection of the position of the sun.

The prototype used in this research, is that of a horizontal single axis tracker. The tracking system utilizes
photosensitive sensors to track down the movement or the path of the sun. This type of tracking technique is
classified as active solar tracking. It is based on feedback control system or closed loop controlling. The intensities
6
of light in our system are compared and the solar panel is charged to move in the direction of maximum available
intensity. Thus, the system works on the feedback of the weather condition.

Effect of light intensity

Variation in the intensities of light plays a significant role in depicting the amount of power output. This change in
intensities monitors all the technical criterions such as voltage, circuit current, efficiency, shunt resistance etc. As
a result, higher the intensities of light, greater is the power output.

The efficiency of solar panel

The efficiency is one of the most significant criteria which defines the quality of the output of a certain device.
There are many factors which alter the efficiency of a solar panel. Efficiency can be described as the ration of the
input energy through the solar cell to the energy of the sun. The efficiency of the solar panel is monitored by the
light intensity, material of the solar cell, temperature etc.
For the calculation of the energy, we calculate the maximum power, which is defined as the productof open-circuit
voltage (VOC), short-circuit current (ISC) and fill factor (FF).

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑆𝐶𝐹𝐹……………………………………(1)

The efficiency (𝜂) is then calculated as: -

𝜂 =𝑉𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑆𝐶𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑖𝑛 …………………………………(2)
Where, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is the total input power

7
CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY

2.1 Implementation

The use of solar energy as a renewable source has gained significant attention in recent years. One of the
challenges in harnessing solar power efficiently is maximizing the amount of sunlight that reaches the solar panels
throughout the day. This is where an Automatic Solar Tracking System comes into play. By utilizing an Arduino
Uno microcontroller and a Servo Motor, this system can automatically adjust the position of solar panels to track
the movement of the sun and optimize their energy.
The Arduino Uno serves as the brain of this project, providing an easy-to-use platform for programming and
interfacing with external components. It allows us to read data from light sensors and calculate precise
angles for positioning the solar panels. The Servo Motor plays a crucial role by physically
adjusting the position of the solar panels. It can rotate within a specific range, making it ideal for tracking
movements such as following the sun's path across the sky. By connecting it to the Arduino Uno, we can control
its movement based on sensor inputs.

This technology has immense potential for both present and future applications. In today's world, optimizing solar
panel efficiency is vital for maximizing renewable energy generation, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, and
combating climate change. Implementing Automatic Solar Tracking Systems using Arduino Uno can
significantly increase energy output from photovoltaic installations. Furthermore, ongoing research aims to
improve tracking algorithms to make them more accurate and efficient at following celestial movements like
sunrise/sunset times or even accounting for factors like weather conditions or shading caused by nearby structures.
These advancements will further enhances our ability to harness solar power effectively.

In conclusion, Automatic Solar Tracking Systems using Arduino Uno provide an innovative solution to improve
solar panel efficiency by tracking sunlight automatically throughout its daily trajectory across the sky. This
technology not only optimizes renewable energy generation in current applications but also holds promise for
future advancements in this field. Before being consolidated into one system, three independent stages are
engineered independently. This approach, similar to stepwise refinement in modular programming, has been
employed as it ensures an accurate and logical approach which is straight forward and easy to understand. This
also ensures that if there are any errors, they are independently considered and corrected.

8
 Figure 2.11 Pin Diagram of Arduino UNO

Figure 2.12 Block Diagram of Automatic Solar Tracking System

Figure 2.13 Circuit diagram of Automatic solar tracking system

9
 2.2 THEORY OF USING TWO LDR

Figure 2.2: Concept of using Two LDR

The system uses two light-dependent resistors (LDRs) to track the movement of the Sun. A microcontroller
compares the light intensity detected by each LDR and adjusts a motor to align a solar panel with the Sun's path,
ensuring optimal solar energy capture throughout the day.

2.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

Contemplating the idea of building the said project, the idea that has been conceived primarily is to make the best
use of solar energy. The next path that unravels is firstly the method to be adopted in storing the solar energy at its
maximum level which further ends up with hatching of the project called “AUTOMATIC SOLAR TRACKING
SYSTEM’’. Culminating towards making the said project caviar in its utilization several components have been
unleashed, some of which are mentioned so-
1. Solar Panel,

2. DC Motor,

3. LDR sensor module,

4. Resistors

The project orchestrates LDR sensors on the edges of a solar panel to maximize sun exposure. A DC
motor adjusts the panel's position in line with the Sun's movement. This aims to enhance solar energy utilization,
addressing societal needs and combating pollution.

10
CHAPTER 3

THEORITICAL BACKGROUND OF SOLARTRACKER

3.1 The Earth: Rotation and Revolution

The position of the sun changes continuously throughout the day. It is due to the motion of earth that we experience
sun at different angles in the sky. Earth exhibit two types of motion. One is themotion of earth along its own axis,
and the other is the earth revolving around the sun. the motionof the earth along its own axis, known as rotation,
results in the phenomenon of days and nights. One rotation of the earth takes 23 hours and 56 minutes. On its own
axis, the motion of the earth is west to east.

Figure 3.11 Earth Rotation

Revolution, that is the motion of the earth around the sun is responsible for the different seasons in the year. The
earth takes 365 days to revolve around the sun. Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and the plane
covered by the earth during the revolution is known as an ellipsis. The axis of rotation and ellipsis makes an angle
of 66.5 degrees between themselves. This is the explanation behind the summer/winter solaces and spring autumn
equinoxes. Due to these motions of the earth, the amount of sunlight received throughout the year varies.
Sunlight is the electromagnetic radiation from the sun expropriated by the earth. The total power given off by the
sun into space is much more than that intercepted by the earth.

Within a given period of time, the emission of solar radiation is somewhat constant and the intensity this radiation
hitting a unit area of the earth’s crust is also constant, known as solar constant. The value of this solar constant can
be expressed as: -

GSC = σ. T4. (4πR 2)= 1367 W⁄m24πD …………………….(3)

11
 Figure 3.12: Earth Rotation and Revolution

In the expression, σ is termed as Stefan Boltzmann Constant with a value of 5.67×10-8 W⁄m2. K4, R is known as
the radius of the Sun, 696·106 m and D is 150 ·109 m, the average distance between the Sun and the earth.
The absorption of solar radiation on the surface of the earth also varies with different parameters. Latitude and
longitude are one of the prescribed parameters. Latitude the horizontal imaginary line, parallel to the equator, is
the angle suspended by the arc linearly join a person’s position and the equator, at the center of the earth. On the
contrary longitudes are the vertical imaginary lines, where longitude is the angle suspended by the arc joining the
north-pole and south-pole as well as passing through the given location, linearly with the Greenwich meridian, at
the center of the earth. The latitude and longitude express north-south and east-west directions respectively on the
earth.
The sunlight is observed at different angles depending on the place on the earth and the angles ofthe sun. The sun’s
angle can be classified into the following: -

1. Zenith Angle
2. Elevation Angle
3. Azimuth Angle

The elevation angle is the angle made by the sun with the horizon. The elevation angle is 0 degree at sunrise and
90 degrees around noontime, at the equator. The elevation angle is different at a different time of the day and
different for different latitudes. The depicted formula can be used todetermine the elevation angle.
𝛼 = 90 + 𝜑 – 𝛿………………………..(4)
When the equation above gives a number greater than 90° then subtract the result from 180°. It means the sun at
solar noon is coming from the south as is typical the northern hemisphere.
φ is the latitude of the location of interest (+ve for the northern hemisphere and −ve for the southern hemisphere).
δ is the declination angle, which depends on the day of the year.
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 Figure 3.13: Angle of elevation and zenith angle

Zenith angle is akin with elevation angle. The only difference being it is measured along the vertical. Therefore,
it’s the angle between the sun and the vertical i.e. Zenith Angle = 90° – 𝛼

Azimuthal Angle, this is the compass direction from which the sunlight is coming. At solar noon, the sun is directly
south in the northern hemisphere and directly north in the southern hemisphere. The azimuth angle varies
throughout the day. At the equinoxes, the sun rises directly east and setsdirectly west regardless of the latitude.
Therefore, the azimuth angles are 90 degrees at sunrise and 270 degrees at sunset.

Sunrise and Sunset time can be formulated by the following formulas

𝑇𝐶 ……………………………(5)
Sunrise= 12 − cos−1(− tan 𝜑 tan 𝛿) −
𝑇𝐶 …………………………(6)
Sunset= 12 +cos−1(− tan 𝜑 tan 𝛿) –

Where φ being the latitude of the place, δ being the declination angle and TC is the Time Correction.

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3.2 Types of Solar Tracker
Table 3.2: Types of Solar Tracker

Types Specification

Active Solar Tracker a. It uses motors and gear trains or direct drive actuators, to follow the
movement of the sun.
b. Directed by a controller.
c. Deactivates during darkness based on the design of the system.
d. It uses a light sensor to locate the angle at which maximum sunlight
can be absorbed.
Passive Solar Tracker a. It uses a liquid, easily compressible and boiled.
b. It is driven by the solar heat.
c. The fluid moves when heated, like a teeter-totter and hence the solar
panel moves.
Chronological Solar a. Works with the rotation of the earth.
Tracker
b. Have no sensors.
c. Depends on the geographical location.
d. Uses a controller to calculate the moment and position of the earth
with respect to the sun at a given time and location.
Single Axis Tracker a. Tracks in a single cardinal direction.
b. It has a single row tracking configuration.
c. More reliable.
d. It has a longer lifespan.

e. The common categories in which single axis trackers can be classified

holds:
f. Horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT).
g. Horizontal single axis tracker with tilted modules (HTSAT).
h. Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT).
i. Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT).
Polar aligned single axis tracker (PSAT).

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Dual Axis Tracker a. It moves along two cardinal directions (Horizontal & Vertical).
b. The axes are traditionally orthogonal.
c. Its efficiency is much more than any single Axis Tracker.
It conventionally follows the movement of the sun and hence
captivates maximum solar radiations.

Figure 3.21: Single Axis Tracker

Figure 3.22: Dual Axis Tracker

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3.3 Fixed Collectors

Figure 3.31: Fixed Collectors

The fixed collectors are secured at a place where the gross solar energy obtained is comparatively higher than most
of the predefined places and is the inclination is kept in accordance with the defined context. The motive is to
install collected places which are subjected to receive the maximum amount of sunlight and collect solar energy
over a long period of time hence the demand for tracking devices can be overcome. This creates a substantial
diminution in the expenses and the preservation of the collectors. The knowledge of the movement of the sun
throughout a season and different hours of the year is essential to enable maximum captivation of solar energy.

The Sun chart for Calcutta is shown below

Figure 3.32: Sun path diagram for Calcutta

Through the use of the chart, it is possible to ascertain the position of the sun at different times and seasons so that
the panel can be fixed for maximum output. Fixed trackers are cheaper in tropical countries like Kenya. For
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countries beyond +10 degrees North and -10 degrees South of the equator, there is need for serious tracking. This
is because the position of the midday sun varies significantly.
The chart shows that the position of the sun is highest between 1200h and 1400h.

For the periods outside this range, the collectors are obliquely oriented to the sun and therefore only a fraction
reaches the surface of absorption.

3.4 Maximum power point tracking

Photovoltaic cell shares a composite bond with the surroundings they work and the maximal power generated. The
non-linear electrical tendencies of a solar cell is indicated by a ratio of solar cell’s maximum power to the product
of open-circuit voltage and short circuit current, also known as fill factor. Based on the three parameters, which are
the fill factor (FF), open-circuit voltage (VOC) and short-circuit Current (ISC) the electrical tendencies of a
photovoltaic cell can be determined undersituational environments.
Under working environment, as derived by Ohm’s Law, a certain voltage (V) and current (I) values which
correlated to that single point at which the power obtained is maximum, corresponds to a certain load, resistance.
The I-V curve of photovoltaic cells behaves as a current constant source for most of the region. Once the maximum
power point region is reached, there are changes in the curve as the curve now describes a relationship of current
and voltage as inversely exponential. So the elementary circuit theory describes that the power obtained from the
device where the magnitude of the gradient of the curve is at par and opposite to the current voltage ratio, can be
termed as maximum power point.
Therefore, in the exposition of photovoltaic modules, among the given space and time, there lies a point from
which the power dragged is maximum. This point in the PV module is known as maximum power point and the
methodology of tracking down this point to ensure that our controlling point always stays around this maximum
power point tracking.
The proposition of maximum power point tracking is to collect the maximum power, by setting the most effective
voltage in PV module. The juxtaposition is done between the output voltages with the battery voltage. They extract
the high voltage power from the PV modules and modify them to fulfill the requirement of charging lower voltage
batteries. The power is henceforth converted to the best voltage to obtain maximum current in the battery.

MPPT solar charge controller

There have been such charge controllers created and inscribed with maximum power point tracking algorithm to
considerably increase the quantity of current supplied to the batteries from the photovoltaic modules

The alteration done in the process or the conversions taking place are shown in the figure below:

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 Figure 3.41: Conversions taking place inside the Solar charge controller

The work is to optimize the photovoltaic modules with the batteries. Some more examples of DC-DC converters:
1. Boost controllers
2. Buck converters

The implementation of the MPPT solar charge controller can be done in off-grid solar power system like
1. Stand-alone solar power system,
2. Solar home system,
3. Solar water pump system, etc.

Features of MPPT solar charge controllers

1. MPPT solar charge controllers are used to sense the alterations in the characteristics of a solar cell depicted
by I-V curve for any applications which has PV module as energy source.
2. MPPT solar charge controllers are devised to withdraw maximum power from photovoltaic modules, they
push the photovoltaic modules to work on voltage surrounding maximum power point to enable the
extraction of maximum power.
3. MPPT solar charge controllers provides access to the user to operate PV module of voltage output greater
than the driving voltage of battery system.
4. The complications of a highly efficient system’s output is negotiated by MPPT solar charge controller.
Moreover, since the output of photovoltaic power is utilized to charge DC-DC converter, the MPPT solar
charge controller can be made to operate with more energy sources.
5. MPPT solar charge controller can not only be utilize with PV modules but can also be subjected to the other
various renewable energy sources. For example, smaller water turbines, wind turbines etc.

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Classification of power controllers on their different kinds of approach towards the optimization of power
output of the photovoltaic cells.
There are certain kinds of algorithms which are utilized from time to time based on several conditions. The
classification is done on the basis of above criterions: -
Perturb and observe – One of the most popular maximum power point tracking method among the others, also
known as hill climbing method, is one of the most often utilized method as the execution of this algorithm is quite
elementary. In this method the voltage source is monitored by the controller and the magnitude is increased slowly
and the power is observed for every small change of voltage. With the increase in voltage, there is an increase in
the power as well and this change is voltage is brought till there is no alteration in the magnitude of power. This
method can be a very fruitful method provided other parameters and techniques are taken care of Incremental
Conductance - Unlike, perturb and observe method, this method senses the alteration in the situations more
abruptly. The consequent output voltage is calculated by observing the increasing voltage and current of the
photovoltaic array. This method involves a little more calculative algorithm.

The algorithm of this method is designed to compare the changing conductance (I/V) with the conductance of the
photo voltaic array. When there two parameters are at par with each other the output voltage becomes responsible
for maximum power generation.

Current Sweep- in this method, an upgradation of an I-V characteristic of photovoltaic module at certain time
intervals i.e. a sweep waveform, is done and ten the maximum power is calculated from this curve.
Temperature Method –The algorithm for this method works of the equation: -

𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝(𝑇) = 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝(𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓) + 𝑢𝑣𝑚𝑝𝑝(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓)……………( 7 )

In the above equation, 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝 stands for the maximum power point voltage and 𝑢𝑣𝑚𝑝𝑝 is the temperature coefficient
of 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝. 𝑇 and 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 are temperatures, calculated and taken from references respectively. So, in this method the
maximum power point is calculated or assumed by observing the temperature of the solar panels. The voltage is
expected to alter on the basis of temperature linearly. The temperature observed is referred to reference and hence
the output voltage is computed from the above equation. The algorithm used in this method is comparatively
simpler and hence power utilization is less. Moreover, the method is flexible enough to be implemented on both
analog and digital circuit. What makes it out stand is, since the variation of temperature with respect to time is
lethargic, the oscillation in power output is omitted.
Where the MPP trackers should be placed?
Initially, there were solar inverters used to perform maximum power point tracking for all the PV modules installed.
The system was such that there was a single current supply for all the modules present. The modules were arranged
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in series with each other. But as the parameters of different modules, differs with each other due to manufacturing
forbearance, partial shading, etc., the I-V characteristic and output of each module differs as well. Since, our supply
is same throughout the arena, some module gets restrained from generating maximum power. As a result, the
efficiency of the system is considerably decreased.
Now a days, companies have started to install maximum power point trackers inside each module to increase the
maximum power generation and hence, allow to work on its maximum efficiency.

3.5 Advantages and Pitfalls of Solar Energy

3.5.1 Advantages: -
1. The process of attaining solar energy is unsoiled.
2. It is a renewable source of energy.
3. The investment is done only during the installation of solar panels, the expenses of acquired solar energy
after installation is little.
4. Solar energy is a perennial source of energy.
5. There is no adulteration is the process of acquiring solar energy.
6. The yield rate is very high, using solar panels.
7. It requires the least maintenance, once the setup is installed.
8. Solar energy is very useful and can be easily drawn into applications in rural areas where the extraction
of electricity is difficult.
9. Solar energy does not create noises compared to the noises created by the machinery in the extraction
of other natural resources.

3.5.2 Pitfalls: -
1. The installations of the solar panel could be pretty expensive, which would require huge investments
and years of saving.
2. Production of electricity is directly dependent on the energy captivated which is interlinked with the
path sun covers. This factor could bring many countries to disadvantage.
3. The power station of solar energy lags in the production of the latter as compared to the traditional
power stations. Moreover, the costs of building such solar power stations could be exorbitant.
4. The consumption of solar energy during the night requires the energy to be stored in large batteries,
which would hence occupy a huge section.
5. The utilization of solar energy is encouraged as the number of merits exceeds the number of
demerits.

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CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE & PROTOTYPE

The framework of this project can be classified in to two main modules:

1. The hardware prototypes

2. The software designs

4.1 The Hardware Prototype

The hardware prototype is assembled of different electronic devices, and elementary materials used for the
mechanical support. The electronic devices/circuit that are utilized in the prototype are again subdued under three
basic titles.

1. The Solar input

2. The controlling circuit
3. The driving motors

For the mechanical structure, uses steel rods to create two pillars of support for the solar panel as well another rod
used for the axis of rotation attached to the driving motors.

4.1.1 The Solar Input

The solar input comprises of the solar panel and two modules of photo sensors, each of which is joined to the solar
panel along its length on either side of the panel. The solar panel is supported to the wooden base by the mechanical
structure. The photo sensors are hence, connected to the controlling circuit.

Figure 4.1: Solar Cell

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4.1.2 Light Dependent Resistor
The conundrum of light dependent resistor and photoresistor is used in a supplementary and in a complementary
manner inter alia in a synonymous form. By being the light- sensitive devices, it’s an embodiment of resistivity
which is the function of incident electromagnetic radiation. Photoconductors and photoconductive cells or simple
photocells are some of the names by which such devices are also designated. Constituted out of semiconductor
materials, these devices are substantiated with high resistance. Symbolic balkanization is the means to indicate the
LDR, one of the most commonly used symbol is shown in the figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.

Figure 4.12: Symbol of LDR

4.1.3 The Controlling Circuit

The controlling circuit is designed with a microcontroller. The microcontroller is inscribed with some algorithm
to compare and detect the direction of light intensities being maximum. The microcontroller uses the inputs from
the photo sensors and then forwards the results after computation to the driving module. The microcontroller we
use in our design is Arduino .

Figure 4.13: Arduino a Controlling Circuit

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4.1.4 Servo Motor

Tiny and lightweight with high output power. Servo can rotate approximately 180 degrees (90 ineach direction),
and works just like the standard kinds but smaller. You can use any servo code, hardware or library to control these
servos. It comes with a 3 horns (arms) and hardware.

Figure 4.14: Servo Motor

4.2 Prototype

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Photo Gallery

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION, FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 CONCLUSION
Today in the world of rampant productivity, energy is the fundamental source upon which the whole civilization
is based upon. As it is said that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed and, in that response, it can be
signified that it can somehow be stored. The attempt towards making such goal substantiated, this project has been
endeavoured towards unravelling the path of such objectivity. It is quite natural that constant utilization of energies
somehow opens the door of scarcity as per as earthly sources are concerned. Sun, in the stand of which, the tallest
source, spiked over for age’s right from the origin of the whole universe, through which life has been conceived,
is the basic and the mother source of all the energies. Considering the very fundamental from the viewpoint of
storing such energy, the project has been unravelled. Energies other than from the Sun, are the process from which
such are been produced through the burning of various materials, involving emission of a large amount of pollution,
causing the environment and the atmosphere sick day by day. Fastness and smartness of the world’s current
behavioural visibility, where easy access of every sphere of life is in need of the acute comfortability, every day is
a new challenge of hatching something new and unique which makes an energy to be the ultimatum source behind
all the hard work exists. In that regards it would be worthier to reveal that commercialization has boomed its wings
to such an extent in the need of money and power that we are somehow present in the pool of acute ignorance of
the world’s resources scarcity, in consequence of which the whole world is wounded. Healing the world is the basis
cultivation with which the hour clock is calling and this project presents the eye, therefore, to open the corridors of
reducing the amount of pollution in storing of energy culled out from the Sun and also to make the pace of
advancement revved around.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The very embodiment through which the futuristic conundrum be set aside, is the project called “Automatic Solar
Tracking System”. A trailblazer by its spirit, this system works in its utmost efficiency, whether that be in terms
of its pecuniary ability or in terms of its accessibility. In the smoke of the darkness where pollution engulfing every
spheres of advancement as an outcome of producibility, this device in its very efficiency work towards

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