Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 1

BASE UNITS, PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS, AND 8. Determine the height water will rise due to
UNIT PRESSURES capillary action in a clean, 6 – mm diameter
tube. What will be the height if the diameter is
1. One slug is equivalent to how many kg? reduced to 0.5 mm? The angle of contact with
water is 0° and the surface tension is 0.0728
2. What is the mass density of fresh water in N/m.
slugs per cubic foot?
9. Chlorine gas at 30°C is under a pressure of 481
3. A liquid in a 1.13 – m3 container has a mass of kPa. Assume a gas constant of 117 N-m/kg-K.
814 kg. Calculate its specific volume.
a. What is its mass density?
b. What is its specific weight?
c. What is its gravity force? PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE:

4. Evaluate the greatest pressure of water in the 10. Calculate the density, specific weight, and
tank shown. specific volume of chlorine gas at 25°C and
pressure of 600,000 N/m2 abs.
R = 118 N-m/kg-K

7. Assuming oil in the differential-type 11. What minimum diameter of glass tube is
manometer shown, calculate the difference in necessary to keep the capillary-height change
pressures between A and B. of water less than 2 mm? Use σ = 0.0712 N/m

12. Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 –

mm diameter at a height of 24.0 mm. What is
the true static height? Use σ = 0.0742 N/m

13. A weather report indicates the barometric

5. The pressure gage in a given tank reads 125 pressure is 756 mm of mercury. What is the
mm Hg. Calculate the equivalent height of atmospheric pressure in kPa?
column of oil.
14. If the atmospheric pressure is 0.9 bar abs and
6. Determine the gage pressure at A in the given a gage attached to a tank reads 390 mm Hg
open-type manometer. vacuum, what is the absolute pressure within
the tank?

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 1

15. The tube shown is filled with oil. Determine 18. A manometer is attached to a tank containing 20. Determine the pressure of the gas in the bulb
the pressure heads at A and B in meters of three different fluids as shown. What will be shown in figure.
water. the difference in elevation (y) of the mercury
column in the manometer?

16. Calculate the pressure, in kPa, at A, B, C, and

D.
19. A manometer is attached to a pipe containing
oil as shown. Calculate the pressure at point
A.

10) 17.1 kg/m3

167.4 N/m3
0.059 m3/kg
11) 14.5 mm
12) 20.6 mm
13) 100.9 kPa
14) 38 kPa
17. Determine the heights of columns of water, 15) -2.38 m H2O
kerosene (sg = 0.82), and nectar (sg = 2.94) -0.51 m H2O
equivalent to 277 mm Hg. 16) -7.848 kPa
4.905 kPa
4.905 kPa
21.680 kPa
17) 3.77 m
4.59 m
1.28 m
18) 0.63 m
19) 13.05 kPa
20) 52.4 kPa

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 2
TOTAL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE B. CURVED SURFACE Liquid Below the Body:

A. PLANE SURFACE Force: P  Ph 2  Pv 2

Force: Location: P = total hydrostatic pressure on a curved

surface (kN).
I Ph = horizontal component; total hydrostatic
P  hA e
At
Ay pressure on plane area “A” which is the
projection of the curved one on the
vertical.
P = total hydrostatic pressure on plane area “A” Pv = vertical component; weight of liquid whose
subjected to liquid (kN) volume is traced by moving the curve
e = distance of the center of pressure “cp” vertically “upward” until the liquid surface
below the center of gravity “cg” along the or its extension.
body (m)
h = distance of the cg below the liquid surface Force Components: Locations:
“l.s.”, on the vertical (m) Liquid Above the Body:
I
y Ph   hA → e (same as
= distance of the cg below the l.s. along the Ay plane surface)
body (m)
I = moment of inertia of A with respect to its Pv  Vol → at the c.g. of volume or
centroid of At
centroidal axis (m4)
Pv  A t L

At
1. A circular gate 1.5 m. in diameter is inclined
at an angle of 45°. Fresh water stands on one
side of the gate to a height of 10 m. above the
center of the gate.
a. Evaluate the total force on the gate.
b. Locate the point of action of the total
force from the bottom on the plane
of the gate.
c. If the gate is hinged at the top,
evaluate the force normal to the gate
at the bottom that will require to
open it in kN.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 2
2. A tank containing water is shown. Calculate
the total resultant force acting on side ABCD
of the container and the location of the
center of pressure.

3. The gate AB shown in Figure is hinged at A

and kept closed by a force P at B. Determine
the nearest value to the:
a. Total force exerted by oil on the gate.
b. Location of this total force from A.
c. Determine the force of oil on the gate 7. The tank shown in Figure is 3 m wide into the
if the pressure at the oil surface is -18 paper. Neglect atmospheric pressure. Unit
kPa. 5. A vertical plane area having the shape shown
weight of water is 9.79 kN/m3. Determine the
is immersed in an oil bath (specific weight =
nearest value to the:
8.75 kN/m3). Determine the magnitude of the
a. vertical component of the total
resultant force acting on one side of the area
hydrostatic force on the quarter-
as a result of the oil.
circle panel AB, in kN.
b. resultant hydrostatic force acting on
the quarter-circle panel AB, in kN.
c. angle that the resultant hydrostatic
force make with the horizontal, in
degrees.

4. The 5-m wide sluice gate “ab” shown, tangent

to the vertical wall at “a”, holds back water.
The surface of the gate in contact with the
water can be taken as part of a cylinder with
radius 4 m. 6. An open tank has a vertical partition and on
a. Determine the horizontal force acting one side contains gasoline with a density ρ =
on the curve. 700 kg/m3 at a depth of 4 m as shown. A
b. Determine the total force on the rectangular gate that is 4 m high and 2 m wide
curve. and hinged at one end is located in the
c. Determine the location of the vertical partition. Water is slowly added to the empty
force from pt. “a”. side of the tank. At what depth h, will the gate
start to open?

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 2
8. The vertical plate shown is submerged in 10. Gate AB in the figure is semicircular, hinged 12.A 3-m diameter open cylindrical tank contains
water. Find the magnitude of the hydrostatic at B, and held by horizontal force P at A. water and has a hemispherical bottom as
force on one side and the depth to the center a. Determine the hydrostatic force shown. Determine the magnitude, line of
of pressure. acting on the gate. action, and direction of the force of the water
b. Determine the location of the on the curved bottom.
hydrostatic force from point A.
c. What force P is required for
equilibrium?

9. Isosceles triangle gate AB is hinged at A and

weighs 1500 N. What horizontal force P is 5) 373.3 kN
required at point B for equilibrium? 6) 3.55 m
7) 1164.1 kN
1505.4 kN
11. A horizontal duct coming from a large dam is 50.6°
2.5 m in diameter. It is closed by a circular 8) 1682.4 kN
door whose centroid is 45 m below the dam’s 6.55 m
water level. Compute the force on the door 9) 18 kN
10) 932.9 kN
and locate its center of pressure.
1.82 m
366.8 kN
11) 2167 kN
8.7 mm below cg
12) -485.4 kN; The force is
directed vertically
downward and due to
symmetry, it acts on the
hemisphere along the
vertical axis of the cylinder

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 3
BUOYANCY
4. A solid object of specific gravity 3.47 floats in PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Archimedes’ Principle: mercury.
“A body immersed in a fluid is acted by a buoyant a. What fraction of its volume is above the 7. A spherical balloon 9.5 m in diameter weighs
force which is equal to the weight of the fluid liquid surface? 1250 N. It is filled with helium weighing 1.65
displaced”. b. What is its weight if 0.018 m3 is below N/m3. Determine the maximum load (N) the
the liquid surface? balloon can lift. γair = 12 N/m3.
BF   f Vd c. What vertical force will fully submerge
the object? 8. Compute the draft of a 100-cm Ø log, sg =
0.67 and 9 m long, floating in sea water.
BF = buoyant force (kN) 5. A stone weighs 468 N in air. When submerged
γf = unit weight of fluid displaced (kN/m3) in water, it weighs 298 N. Determine the 9. A freshly cut log floats with one fourth of its
Vd = volume of fluid displaced (m3); volume of the stone. volume protruding above the water surface.
volume of body displacing;
Determine the specific weight of the log.
volume of body immersed 6. A rectangular tank of internal width of 5 m, as
shown in the figure, contains oil of sp. gr. = 10. To what depth will a 2.4-m diameter log 5 m
1. An iceberg (sg = 0.917) floats in ocean water 0.8 and water. long and specific gravity of 0.425 sink in
with 3000 m3 of the iceberg protruding above a. What is the value of h? freshwater.
the free surface. What is the volume of the b. If a 1000 N block is made to float in oil,
iceberg below the free surface? what is the new value of h? 11. A plastic sphere is immersed in seawater
c. If a 1000 N block is made to float in oil, and moored at the bottom. The sphere
2. A piece of wood floats in water with 15 cm what is the rise (cm) in water surface radius is 38 cm. The mooring line has a
projecting above the water surface. When in chamber B? tension of 710 N. What is the specific weight
placed in oil, the block projects 10 cm above of the sphere, in kN/m3.
the liquid surface.
a. Calculate the height of the wood. 12. A 1-m-diameter cylindrical mass, M, is
b. Calculate the specific gravity of the connected to a 2-m wide rectangular gate as
wood. shown. The gate is to open when the water
c. If the wood is vertically submerged in level, h, drops below 2.5 m. Determine the
seawater (s.g. = 1.03) by how many required value for M. Neglect friction at the
millimeters would it project out the gate hinge and the pulley.
surface?

3. A stone cube 280 mm on a side and weighing

425 N is lowered into a tank containing a layer
of water over a layer of mercury. Determine
the draft in mercury.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 3
What is its specific gravity relative to ocean
water? What portion of its volume would be
above the surface if ice were floating in pure
water?

17. Two spheres, each 1.20 m in diameter,

weigh 4 kN and 12 kN respectively. They are
connected with a short rope and placed in
water.
13. A piece of irregularly shaped metal weighs a. What is the tension in the rope?
300.0 N in air. When the metal is completely b. What is the buoyant force on the
submerged in water, it weighs 232.5 N. Find lighter sphere?
the volume of the metal. c. What portion (in meter) protrudes
from the water?
14. Determine the magnitude and direction of
the force necessary to hold a concrete cube,
0.300 m on each side, in equilibrium and
completely submerged (a) in mercury and
(b) in water. Use sg. of concrete = 2.4.

15. A can floats in the position shown. What is

its weight in N?

7) 3396.33 N
8) 0.62 m
9) 7.36 kN/m3
10) 1.06 m
11) 7.015 kN/m3
12) 2480 kg
13) 0.00688 m3
14) 2.97 kN(downward)
0.37 kN (upward)
15) 5 N
16) 0.857
11.7%
17) 3.12 kN
16. An iceberg in the ocean floats with one- 7.12 kN
seventh of its volume above the surface. 0.34 m

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 4
Stability of Floating Bodies Over Turning Moment s = horizontal distance between the centroids of
v’s (m)
I = moment of inertia of an area which is the top
view of the body at the level of the liquid surface
with respect to the axis of tilting (m4)

B = width of the body (m). M = metacenter; point of intersection between the

D = draft or depth of flotation (m). buoyant force and the tilted axis of the body
V = total volume submerged (m3). which determines its stability.
G = center of gravity of the body in the upright MG = metacentric height (m); distance between
position. the metacenter and the center of gravity of the
Bo = center of buoyancy of the body in the body which measures its stability.
upright position.
Bo’ = center of buoyancy of the body in the tilted
position. For rectangular sections:
B2 
MBo = 1 + 0.5tan2θ
Righting Moment 12D  

For other sections:

vs
MBo = - exact
Vsinθ

I
MBo = - approximate
V

θ = angle of tilting
v = volume of the wedge of immersion/emersion
(m3)

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 4
Situation 1 Problems for Practice:
The center of gravity of a ship in the upright
position is 11.5 m above the center of gravity of Situation 4
the portion below water, the displacement being The waterline section of a 1500-kN barge is as
16 MN. The ship tilts 30º causing the center of shown. Its center of gravity is 1.5 m above the
buoyancy to shift sidewise 9.2 m. center of buoyancy.
1. Is the moment righting or overturning? 9. Compute the initial metacentric height
2. What is the magnitude of this moment? against rolling. (2.93 m)
10. Compute the initial metacentric height
Situation 2 against pitching. (26.32 m)
A rectangular scow 9 m wide, 15 m long and 3.6
m high weighs 3304kN.
3. What is the draft in sea water weighing 10.20
kN/m3?
4. What is the metacentric height if its center of
gravity is 2.7 m above the bottom?
5. If the scow tilts until one side is just at the
point of submergence, determine the righting
couple.

Situation 3
It is desired to float in fresh water a wooden cone,
18 cm in diameter and 25 cm high, with the apex
downward. If the sg of the cone is 0.60:
6. Compute the submerged depth.
7. Compute the distance of the metacenter from
the center of buoyancy.
8. Locate the metacenter from the center of
gravity.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 5
Dams VII. Foundation pressure
A. If e ≤ B/6
I. Consider 1-unit (1m) length of dam R y  6e 
(perpendicular to the sketch) and identify the qmin  1  
B  B
heel and the toe.
R y  6e 
II. Determine all the forces acting: qmax  1  
B  B
A. Vertical Forces
1. Weight of the dam.
2. Weight of water above the dam (if III. Solve the resultant force. B. If e > B/6
any). A. Vertical resultant force, Ry 2R y
3. Weight of permanent structures on q max  qmin = 0
R y  Fy 3x
the dam.
B. Horizontal resultant force, Rx
4. Hydrostatic Uplift (U). Problem 1
R x  Fx
A masonry dam of a trapezoidal section with one
face vertical is 0.6 m thick at the top and 3.0 m
IV. Moment about the toe. at the bottom. It is 6.6 m high and has a
A. Overturning Moment, OM horizontal base. On the inclined face water
B. Righting moment, RM stands 4.5 m deep. Assume sg= 2.4 for the dam
and hydrostatic uplift varies from 60% at the heel
V. Factor of safety to zero at the toe. Use sg = 2.4 for concrete.
A. Factor of safety against overturning a. Find the vertical component of the
F.O. 
RM foundation reaction.
OM b. How far from the toe will that force
intersect the base?
B. Horizontal Forces B. Factor of safety against sliding c. What is the factor of safety against
1. Total hydrostatic force acting at the R y overturning?
vertical projection of the submerged F.S.  d. What is the factor of safety against
Rx sliding assuming μ= 0.51
portion of the dam.
e. What is the intensity of the pressure at
2. Other forces like wind pressure, wave VI. Location of Ry ( x ) and e the toe?
action, floating bodies and f. Calculate the total force of water on the
RM  OM B
earthquake load (if applicable). x e x upstream face.
Ry 2 g. Calculate the total force acting on the
dam.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 5
Problem 2
A dam having a triangular section has a vertical
face 24 m high and base 12 m wide. Use sg = 2.4
a. Determine the height of water that could
rise on the vertical side of the dam so
that the maximum intensity of pressure
at the toe is twice the average pressure
at the base. Neglect hydrostatic uplift.
b. What is the shearing stress at the base?

Problem 3 (for practice)

A trapezoidal concrete dam is 20m high. The
upstream face is vertical and the water is flush
with the top, which is 3m wide. The coefficient
of friction between the base of the dam and the
foundation is 0.60. If it is required to have a
factor of safety of 3 for overturning and knowing
that specific gravity of concrete is 2.40.
a. Find the required width of the base.
b. Find the factor of safety against sliding.
c. Find the pressure at the heel.
d. Find the pressure at the toe.

Problem 4 (for practice)

A trapezoidal concrete dam, 2 m at the top, 4 m
at the bottom, and 7 m high is retaining 6 m of
water at its vertical side. If the specific weight of
the concrete is 23.5 kN/m3, find the factor of
safety against sliding, the factor of safety
against overturning, and the maximum and 3) B = 14.52 m
FS = 1.26
minimum pressure intensity on the base. qheel = 176.09 kPa
Assume there is no hydrostatic uplift and that qtoe = 392.08 kPa
the coefficient of friction between dam and 4) F.S. = 1.34
foundation soil is 0.48. F.O. = 3.42
qmax = 173.56 kPa
qmin = 73.19 kPa

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 6
MOVING VESSEL Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign for
(HOOP TENSION) downward motion.

1. Walls Carrying Stress in Pipes and Tanks Horizontal Motion

VERTICAL MOTION

pD
t 
2t(eff)

t = thickness of the wall (mm)

D = inside diameter (mm)
p = unit pressure of fluid (MPa)
σt = actual or allowable tensile stress in the wall
a
(MPa) tan  
eff = efficiency of the connections g

Note: If efficiency of connections is not

mentioned in the problem, assume 100% Inclined Motion
efficiency
 a
2. Hoops Carrying Stress in Pipes and Cylindrical p  h  1  
 g
Tanks

Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign for
2T downward motion. Also note that a is positive for
S acceleration and negative for deceleration.
pD

S = center to center spacing of the hoops (mm)

T = tensile force in one hoop (N)

ah
tan  
g  av

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 6
d. the volume of water retained when 7. A steel pipe having a diameter of 0.90 m
1. A 10 mm thick steel pipe with inside diameter accelerated at 5.4 m/s2. carries water under a head of 230 m of water.
of 600 mm conveys water under a head of a. Compute the internal pressure on the
480 m: 4. A closed tank 2.4 m long, 1.2 m wide and 1.4 pipe.
a. What is the tensile stress in the pipe in m high contains water 1.1 m deep. A small b. Compute the required wall thickness if
MPa? hole is located near the center of the cover. It the allowable stress for steel pipe is 110
b. What is the stress in the pipe wall if the moves in the direction parallel to the 2.4-m MPa.
head is increased to 500 meters of dimension. c. Compute the tangential force on the
water? a. Determine the acceleration needed so steel pipe.
c. What is the required thickness under a that the water surface will just touch the
head of 500 meters if the allowable bottom of the front wall. 8. A closed cylindrical tank is 2.4 m in diameter
tensile stress of the pipe is 118 MPa and b. Determine the pressure at the bottom of and 7.5 m long is completely filled with
assuming that the joints are 80% the rear wall. gasoline (sg = 0.90). The tank, with its long
efficient? c. Determine the force of water acting on axis horizontal, is pulled by a truck along a
the top of the tank horizontal surface.
2. A 1.2-m Ø wood-stave pipe carries 76 m of d. Determine the total force acting on the a. Determine the pressure difference
water. It is provided with 25-mm Ø steel bottom of the tank. between the ends (along the long axis of
hoops with an allowable tensile stress of the tank) when the truck undergoes an
104.3 MPa. 5. An open circular cylinder with 2 m of water is acceleration of 1.5 m/s2.
a. What pressure of water will be resisted acted by an unbalanced upward force of 20 b. Determine the force on the front wall.
by the hoops? kN. The volume of water inside the cylinder is c. Determine the force on the rear wall.
b. What is the actual tensile force in the 6.28 m3.
hoops if they are spaced at 75 mm a. Compute the acceleration of the tank. 9. An open vessel of water accelerates up a 25°
center to center? b. Compute the pressure at the bottom of plane at 2.5 m/s2.
c. What spacing of the hoops will be the tank. a. What is the horizontal component of the
implemented? c. Calculate the force on the bottom of the acceleration?
tank. b. What is the vertical component of the
3. An open tank 3 m long, 1.80 m wide, and 1.50 acceleration?
m high contains water to a depth of 1.20 m. It 6. A wood-stave pipe carries water under a head c. What is the angle that the water surface
is moving parallel to a pair of longest sides. of 115 m. It is bound by 20-mm Ø steel hoops makes with the horizontal?
Determine the following: having an allowable tensile stress of 98 MPa.
a. the maximum acceleration without Calculate the required spacing of the hoops if
spilling any liquid. the pipe’s inside diameter is 90 cm.
b. the unbalanced force causing the
acceleration in part (1).
6) 61 mm
c. the volume of water spilled if 7) 2256.3 kPa, 9.2 mm, 1015.3 kN
accelerated at 3 m/s2. 8) 10.125 kPa, 47.9 kN, 93.7 kN
9) 2.27 m/s2, 1.06 m/s2, 11.8°

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 7
Rotating Vessels Situation 1 9. What is the pressure at the bottom of the tank
Determine the rpm required for an open 100-cm at A when ω = 6 rad/sec? (241 psf)
Ø cylindrical tank 250 cm high, containing water 10. What is the pressure at the bottom of the tank
150 cm deep, so that: at B when ω = 6 rad/sec? (320 psf)
1. Water could just reach the rim of the tank.
2. The depth of water at center is zero.
3. There is no water at the bottom within 20 cm
from the axis of rotation.

Situation 2
An open cylindrical tank 800 mm in diameter and
2000 mm high contains water to a depth of 1.6 m.
It is rotated about its vertical axis at 13 rad/s.
4. How many liters of water are spilled?
2 x
tan  =
g Situation 3
A 1-m Ø closed cylindrical vessel with vertical
Where tan θ is the slope at the surface of axis is 3 m high. It is filled with water with a
paraboloid at any distance x from the axis of pressure of 290 kPa at the top. The wall is 4 mm
rotation. thick. If the vessel is rotated at 360 rpm,
5. Determine the total pressure against the top.
2 x2 Situation 5
y= 6. Determine the maximum intensity of hoop
2g A closed cylinder 1.0 m Ø and 2.0 m high contains
tension.
water 1.5 m deep, the remaining air space being
7. Determine the force of water against the wall.
under a pressure of 120 kPa.
By squared-property of parabola,
11. Compute the pressure at the center of the
Problems for Practice:
bottom if ω = 12 rad/s. (126 kPa)
2 2
r x 12. Compute the pressure at the circumference
= Situation 4
h y of the bottom. (144 kPa)
An open cylindrical tank, 6 ft high and 3 ft in
13. What ω will just zero the depth of water at
diameter, contains 4.50 ft of water. If the cylinder
Important conversion factor the center. (17.9 rad/s)
rotates about its geometric axis.
14. How much area of the bottom is not covered
8. What constant angular velocity can be
1 with water if ω = 20 rad/s?
1 rpm =  rad / sec attained without spilling any water?
30 (0.042 m2)
(9.27 rad/s)

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 8

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

HA = head added by the pump (m)
(Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem) Q 1
1
TURBINE
Q  AV
2
volume flow rate weight flow rate Theoretically (no Head Loss), T
Q
mass flow rate 2
 m3 N kg 
Q = discharge   E1  E2 (B.E.)
 s s s  HE = head extracted by the turbine (m)
 
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2) 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣 𝑃
+ +𝑍 = + +𝑍 Power:
V = velocity of flow (m/s) 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
PQ  E
THREE FORMS OF HEAD OR ENERGY Actually (with Head Loss),
v2
= velocity head P = power in watts (W)
2g in N.m per N 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣 𝑃
+ +𝑍 = + + 𝑍 + 𝐻𝐿 Q = (m3/s)
P of fluid flowing, 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
= pressure head or in m of fluid γ = N/m3
 E=m
flowing Q 1  Q 2  Q 3  continuous flow
Z = elevation head
Values of E:
E = total head or energy (m) HL
S = slope of the energy grade line S  In pumps, E is HA.
v2 p L
E  z In turbines, E is HE.
2g 
v12 P1 v2 P Ex. For energy available at the tip of the nozzle
v2 HA    Z1  HA  2  2  Z 2  HL  HE
2g  2g  below,
2g
V
p
PUMP

v
E 2 Z
P datum
Z
1
datum
Q

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 8
hp = 746 W k = 1000 4. Pump BC shown brings oil, sg = 0.72 to
QE QE reservoir D at 170 liters per second. The
hp  kW  energy lost from A to B is 1.1 J/N and from C
746 1000
to D is 4.7 J/N.
a. How many hp does the pump supply?
Output b. If the pump is 80% efficient, how much
Efficiency: Eff  100
Input power is needed?
c. What is the elevation of the energy
In pumps, the first power solved is an output. In grade line just after the pump?
turbines, the first power solved is an input. 3. A 50-mm-diameter siphon is drawing oil (s.g.
= 0.82) from an oil reservoir, as shown. The
head loss from point 1 to point 2 is 1.50 m
1. A 250 – mm Ø pipe 2750 m long supplies and from point 2 to point 3 is 2.40 m.
water at a velocity of 2.4 m/s. a. Calculate the exit velocity.
a. What is the discharge in gpm? b. What is the discharge?
b. What is the discharge in mgd? c. Calculate the pressure at point 2.
c. What is the weight flux?
d. What is the mass flux?
e. Calculate the slope of the energy grade
line if the head loss 20 times the velocity 5. Water flows through the turbine shown at a
head. rate of 0.386 m3/s. The pressures at A and B
f. Estimate the population that can be are 161.2 kPa and – 19.6 kPa, respectively.
served assuming a per capita How many kW are delivered by the water to
consumption of 150 liters per day. the turbine?

2. The head loss from section 1 to section 2 in

the pipe system shown is 2.1 m and the head
loss from section 2 to 3 is 4.9 m. If the
velocity of flow at 1 is 1.8 m/s and the
pressure is 180 kPa.
a. Find the discharge.
b. Find the velocity at point 3.
c. Find the pressure at point 3.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 8
Practice Problems 8. The 600-mm Ø pipe shown conducts water
from reservoir A to a pressure turbine which
6. Assume the conduit shown has diameters of discharges through another 600-mm Ø pipe
300 mm and 450 mm at sections 1 and 2, into the tail-race at B. The loss of head from
respectively. If water is flowing in the conduit A to 1 is 5 times the velocity head in the pipe
at a velocity of 5 m/s at section 2, find the ff: and the loss of head from 2 to B is 0.2 times
a. Velocity at section 1. the velocity head in the pipe. If the discharge
b. Flow rate at section 1. is 700 li/s.
c. Flow rate at section 2. a. Compute the hp given up by the water to
d. Weight flow rate. the turbine.
e. Mass flow rate. b. Compute the pressure head at 1.
c. Compute the pressure head at 2.

7. The pump shown delivers 115 li/s of oil, sg =

0.84, to reservoir D at elevation 72 m. The
energy lost in the suction line is 3.2 J/N and in
the discharge line is 7.6 J/N.
a. Compute the total head added by the
pump.
b. How many kW does the pump supply the
system?
c. If the pump is 85% efficient, how much
9. A 150-mm-diameter jet of water is discharging
power does it need? 6) 11.25 m/s
from a nozzle into the air at a velocity of 36.0
0.795 m3/s
m/s. Find the power in the jet with respect to 0.795 m3/s`
a datum at the jet. 7.8 kN/s
795 kg/s
10. A pipe carrying oil with specific gravity 0.877 7) 61.8 m,
58.6 kW
changes in size from 150 mm at section R to
68.9 kW
450 mm at section I. Section R is 3.6 m lower 8) 537.4 hp
than I, and the pressures are 90 kPa and 60 54.1 m
kPa, respectively. If the discharge is 150 -4.25 m
liters/sec, determine the lost head and the 9) 412.2 kW
10) 3.51 m (the flow is
direction of flow. from R to I)

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 9
HEAD LOSSES
Major Loss (due to friction) For non-circular pipe:

Darcy- Weisbach formula A

D  4R R
P
fL v2
hf  - all sections
D 2g
P = wetted perimeter
Q2
h f  0.0826fL - circular pipes only
D5 Minor Loss (due to change in size or direction,
obstruction, etc.)
Manning formula:
v2 v2
hf  6.35n2L - all sections hm  k m
D4/3 2g
Q2
hf  10.29n2L - circular pipes only
D16/3 km = coefficient of such minor loss

Hazen-Williams formula: 1. Calculate the head loss in a 250-mm Ø pipe

4. The elevations of reservoirs 1, 2, and 3 are
v  0.849CR 0.63 0.54
S - all sections 500 m long when water flows at 115 liters per
30 m, 18 m, and 0 respectively. Pipes 1, 2,
second using:
Q  0.2785CD2.63S0.54 and 3 are 900 m of 60 cm, 300 m of 45 cm,
a. Darcy-Weisbach formula, f = 0.02
and 1200 m of 40 cm. f = 0.02
10.64LQ1.85 b. Manning formula, n = 0.012
hf  - circular pipes only a. What is the flow rate in pipe 1?
c. Hazen –Williams formula, C = 100
C1.85D4.87 b. What is the flow rate in pipe 2?
2. The loss of head in a 1200 mm x 600 mm pipe c. What is the flow rate in pipe 3?
S = slope of the egl; hydraulic slope; conveying water is estimated at 0.04 m per
energy gradient meter length. f= 0.032. What is the
discharge? Problems for Practice
HL h f
S 
L L
5. Find the approximate flow rate at which water
THREE – RESERVOIR PROBLEM
will flow in a conduit shaped in the form of an
L = length of the pipe equilateral triangle if the head lost is 4 m per
3. From the given figure, the rate of flow from
hf = head loss due to friction kilometer length. The cross-sectional area of
reservoir A is 0.2 m3/s.
D = diameter of the pipe (m) the duct is 0.075 m2. Assume f = 0.0155
a. Compute the head loss in pipe B.
b. Compute the discharge in pipe C.
c. Compute the diameter of pipe C.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 9
6. A 25 – mm diameter commercial steel pipe, 50 8. Three reservoirs 1, 2, and 3 meet at junction
m long is used to drain an oil tank. Determine x. Reservoir 1, 25 m above reservoir 3, is at
the discharge when the oil level in the tank is elevation 282 m. If the rate of flow from the
5 m above the exit of the pipe. Neglect minor highest reservoir 2 is 605 li/s, calculate the
losses and assume f = 0.12 following.
a. Discharge through pipe 1.
7. Water flows from a tank through 22 meters of b. Discharge through pipe 3.
150 mm diameter pipe and then discharges c. Elevation of reservoir 2.
into air as shown in Figure 20. The flow of
water in the pipe is 120 liters/sec. Assume n Pipes Diameter Length C
= 0.013 and neglect minor losses, 1 900 mm 1410 110
a. Find the velocity of flow in the pipe in 2 750 988 100
m/s.
3 600 1022 90
b. Determine the total head loss in the pipe
in meters. 9. Three reservoirs are interconnected as
c. Calculate the pressure at the top of the shown. Calculate the discharge in each pipe.
tank in kPa.

D = 0.15 m

4m

P=? D = 0.15 m 12 m

3m Water

D = 0.15 m

6m
5) 82.7 L/s
6) 0.313 li/s
7) 6.79 m/s, 13.65 m, 245.25 kPa
8) 0.267 m3/s, 0.872 m3/s, 285 m
9) 4.388 m3/s, 0.661 m3/s, 5.049 m3/s

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 10
PIPES IN SERIES & PARALLEL WATER HAMMER The time required for the pressure wave to
travel from the valve to the reservoir and back
Series Water hammer (or, more generally, fluid to the valve is:
hammer) is a pressure surge or wave resulting
when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes 2L
T
also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change c
direction suddenly (momentum change).
Water Hammer Pressure
Q1  Q 2  Q 3 EB
c - for rigid pipes Rapid Closure (tc <2L/c)
HL  h f1  h f 2  h f 3 

P Ph  cv
hf  c = celerity, speed of pressure wave (m/s)

EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid (Pa)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3) v = velocity of flow (m/s)
Parallel

Slow Closure (tc >2L/c)

Ec
c - for non-rigid pipes
 2Lv
Ph ' 
tc
Ec = composite modulus of elasticity

1 1 d
 
Ec EB Et
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
d = internal diameter of pipe (mm)
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Pa) vD
NR 
Q1  Qa  Qb t = pipe thickness (mm) 
Q2  Qa  Qb
NR = Reynold’s number
hfa  hfb
EB
c V = velocity of flow (m/s)
 E d D = diameter of the pipe (m)
  1  B 
 Et  ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 10
3
 the shortest one which is 250 mm. The 5. Oil with ρ = 950 kg/m and ν (nu) = 0.00002

 pressure drop between the junctions is 260 m2/s flows through a 30-cm Ø pipe 100 m
kPa. Friction factor “f” can be assumed 0.02 long at 5 m/s. ε= 0.00194
ρ = mass density (kg/m3) in the entire system. Calculate the rates of a. What is the Reynolds number?
μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa s) b. What is the friction factor?
flow in the branching pipes.
absolute viscosity; c. What is the total head loss?
coefficient of viscosity;
viscosity 3. Oil (sg=0.85), bulk modulus 1723.75 MPa, is
6. An oil with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and μ = 0.18
flowing in a 600-mm steel pipe at 0.65 m3/s.
kg/(m·s) flows through an inclined pipe as
The rigid pipeline is 2500 m long.
If NR < 2000: shown. Assuming steady laminar flow,
a. If a valve is located at the end of the
64 line, what is the minimum closure a. Is the flow upward or downward?
f
NR time in order to avoid a maximum b. Determine the flow rate.
pressure surge? c. Determine the head loss between
b. Find the water hammer pressure section 1 and section 2.
If NR > 2000: developed by closure of a valve at the
end of the line if the closure time is
   1.8 s.
1 2.51 c. Find the water hammer pressure
 2log   
f  3.7D N f  developed by closure of a valve at the
 R 
end of the line if the closure time is 6
s?

1. Water flows at a rate of 0.020 m3/s from 4. A non-rigid steel pipe 600 mm in diameter is
reservoir A to reservoir B through three to carry a maximum static head of 350 m of
concrete pipes connected in series, as shown water and additional pressure due to water
in the figure. Find the difference in water- hammer when quick closing valve stops a
surface elevations in the reservoirs. Neglect flow of 0.85 m3/s. The pipe has a thickness of
minor losses. f = 0.02. 18 mm, EB = 2068.5 MPa, E = 200 GPa for
steel.
2. A pipe 977 m long branches into 3 pipes at a. What is the composite modulus of
junction A. The three pipes span 1046 m, 885 elasticity?
b. Determine the water hammer
m, and 796 m. They come together at
pressure.
junction B and continue as a single pipe for What is the maximum stress acting on
1224 m. All pipes are 300 mm in size except the pipe?
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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 10
Problems for Practice a. What is Q in the 450 mm pipe?
7. A fluid flows at 0.002 m3/s through a 150 – b. What is Q in the 600 mm pipe?
mm – diameter pipe. Determine whether c. What is the pressure head at junction
the flow is laminar or turbulent if the fluid is: B if the pressure at A is 116 m?
a. Air (ν = 1.48 × 10-5 m2/s)
11. The total head loss from A to D in the looping
b. Water (µ = 8.90 × 10-4 Pa-s)
c. Mercury (µ = 1.53 × 10-3 Pa-s) pipe system below is 9 m. Assuming C=120 in
d. Glycerin (ν = 1.18 × 10-3 m2/s) all pipes, determine the following if 50 liters
e. Gasoline (ν = 4.06 × 10-7 m2/s) per second of water enters at A:
a. Head loss in pipe 2.
8. Water flow at the rate of 250 liters/sec b. Amount of flow in pipe 2.
through a 150 – m horizontal pipe having a c. Diameter of pipe 3.
diameter of 300 mm. Determine the friction
factor if the pressure difference between the
end points is 360 mm Hg.

9. Two concrete pipes are connected in series.

The flow rate of water through the pipes is
0.14 m3/s with a total friction loss of 14.10 m
for both pipes. Each pipe has a length of 300
m. If one pipe has a diameter of 300 mm,
12. Glycerin, sg = 1.26 and μ = 1.49 Pa-s, flows
what is the diameter of the other one?
through a 600-mm Ø pipe at 85 liters per
Neglect minor losses. Use f = 0.021 7) Laminar
second. Turbulent
a. What is the Reynolds number? Turbulent
10. A 0.75-m Ø pipe 1162 m long carrying 2.4
b. What is the friction factor? Laminar
m3/s of water branches into 2 pipes 450- c. What is the critical velocity? Turbulent
mmØ and 600mmØ at junction A. The 450 8) 0.0154
9) 250 mm
mm pipe is 1254 m long and the 600 mm one 10) 0.758 m3/s
is 1186 m. They come together at junction B 1.642 m3/s
51.5 m
and continue as a single pipe 750 mm in 11) 1.9 m
diameter and 866 m long. Assuming the 0.019 m3/s
0.181 m
values of “f” are 0.017, 0.019, 0.020
12) 152.53
respectively for the 750, 600, and 450 mm 0.42
pipe: 3.94 m/s

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 11
ORIFICE
3. specific gravities 0.80, 1.0, and 1.50. Each 5. The figure describes the elevations of the
1. An orifice on a vertical wall has a head of 1.13 liquid has a thickness of 0.60 m and the tank water surfaces in the tanks at the time the
m of oil (sg = 0.89). It discharges 6192 N of oil is 1.20 m in diameter. If a circular orifice 100 short tube serving as an orifice, A=0.004 m2
in 88 seconds. The trajectory measures yield mm in diameter and with C=0.650 drains the and C = 0.60, is closed.
x = 2.4m and y = 1.37 m. Assuming the area of liquid, determine the time to: a. What is the initial discharge?
the opening is 25 cm2. a. remove the first liquid. b. When will the water surface
a. Calculate Cv. b. remove the second liquid. become to the same level following
b. Calculate Cc. c. to drain the tank completely. a quick opening of the tube?
c. Calculate C. c. When will the water surface be 4m
4. The tank shown has the form of a frustum of apart?
2. A jet is issued from the side of a tank under a a cone. How long will it take to empty the
constant head as shown. The side of the tank tank from full capacity? Orifice diameter is 8m
has an inclination of 1H to 1V. The total depth 0.1 m (C = 0.6)
of water in the tank is h1 = 6.70 m and the
orifice is located h2 = 3.7 m above the bottom 5m
of the tank. Neglecting air resistance and
4
assuming Cv = 1.0 determine the following: 11m
a. The maximum height to which the jet
will rise above the orifice. 1m
b. The point “x” the jet will strike a
horizontal plane 1.20 m below the
bottom of the tank. 3
c. The time it takes for the jet to strike a
horizontal plane 1.20 m below the
bottom of the tank.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 11

6. The 75-mm Ø orifice shown has CC = 0.65 and 7. Water flows from a garden hose nozzle with
Cv = 0.98. The depth h = 1.83 m. a velocity of 15 m/s. What is the maximum
a. Compute the required air pressure height that it can reach above the nozzle?
(kPa) above the water to cause the
jet to rise 12.2 m. 8. Water flows through a hole in the bottom of
b. Determine the discharge in m3/s. a large open tank with a speed of 8 m/s.
c. Determine the loss of head through Determine the depth of water in the tank.
the orifice in meters.
9. A 90-mm-diameter orifice, C = 0.80, is placed
in the bottom of a vertical tank that has a
diameter of 2.0 m. How long does it take to
draw the surface down from 4 to 3.5 m?
10.Select the size of orifice that permits a tank of
horizontal cross section 2.0 m2 to have the
air pressure liquid surface drawn down at the rate of 140
mm/s for 3.50-m head on the orifice (C =
0.65).

12.2

6) 106.94 kPa
0.044 m3/s
0.50 m
7) 11.5 m
8) 3.26 m
9) 36 s
10) 257 mm

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 12
Hydrodynamics 2. What is the magnitude of the force exerted Situation 7
by the water on the bend? A pipe, 200 mm in diameter, carries oil at a
Situation 1 3. Determine the direction of the force exerted velocity of 15 m/s will under go a 90° bend.
Assume that the pipe bend is lying horizontally
A jet of water 50 mm Ø and having a velocity of by the water on the bend.
and that the oil inside the pipe has pressure of
25.4 m/s strikes against a plate at right angles.
120 kPa.
1. Determine the force on the plate if the plate Situation 4 4. Determine the resultant along x. (9425 N)
is stationary. A 50-mm Ø jet of water flowing horizontally is 5. Determine the resultant along y. (9425 N)
2. Determine force on the plate if the plate is deflected by a 135° curve vane at a velocity of 6. Determine the magnitude of the resultant.
moving in the same direction as the jet at a flow of 20 m/s. Compute the force needed to (13,329 N)
speed of 12 m/s. hold the vane in position. Assume that there is
Situation 8
3. Determine force on the plate if the plate is no friction.
The 75-mm Ø horizontal jet of water enters the
moving towards the nozzle at a velocity of
moving blade at 12 m/s. The blade is deflected
12m/s. Problems for Practice
60°. If blade moves in the same direction at 4.8
m/s, what is the amount of force of water on the
Situation 2 Situation 5
blade? (230.4 N)
A reducer connects two horizontal pipes, 600 The jets from a garden sprinkler are 25 mm in
mm and 300 mm. The amount of pressure in the diameter and are normal to the 0.60-m radius.
bigger pipe is 200 kPa and the velocity of flow in Cv = 0.80 and Cc = 1.0. If the pressure at the
the smaller pipe 12.72 m/s. base of the nozzle is 360kPa,
1. What is the velocity of flow in the larger 1. Compute the velocity of the jet. (21.47 m/s)
pipe? 2. Compute the force on the jet. (236.17 N)
2. Determine the amount of pressure in the 3. What force must be applied on each
smaller pipe. sprinkler pipe 0.3m from the center of
3. What is the amount of water thrust on the rotation to maintain equilibrium? (472.34 N)
reducer?
Situation 6
Situation 3 A jet of water 50 mm in diameter and a plate
The discharge of water through a 130° bend is 30 strikes each at a right angle. When the plate is
moving towards the jet at a certain speed, the
liters/s. The bend is lying in the horizontal
plate experiences a force that is 2688 N. When
plane and the diameters at the entrance and exit that plate is moving away from the jet at the
are 200 mm and 100 mm respectively. The same speed, the plate experiences a force that is
pressure measured at the entrance is 100 332 N.
kN/m2. 1. What is the velocity of the water? (25 m/s)
1. Determine the amount of pressure in the 2. What is the velocity of the plate? (12 m/s)
smaller pipe. 3. What is the force if the plate stopped
moving? (1227 N)
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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 12

Force on Pipe’s Bend and Reducer:

Impact of a Jet on a Plane/ Force on the Jet

(at Right Angle):

෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄ሺ𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 ሻ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄൫𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 ൯

Force on a Curved Vane/Blade:

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄𝑣
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄ሺ𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 ሻ ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄൫𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 ൯

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 13
OPEN CHANNELS 87 or the smallest P is the “mes” (also called optimum
C channel section, most economical section, most
m
- conduits where liquid flows with free or 1 hydraulically efficient section, most advantageous
atmospheric surface. R section, most favorable section, best hydraulics
section and the like.)
Q  Av (as in pipes) C by Kutter:
1 0.00155
 23 
V by Chezy formula: n S
C
n  0.00155 
1  23  
v  C RS R S 

S = slope of the egl; hydraulic slope; m,n = roughness coefficient

energy gradient (as in pipes)
HL hf If C is not specified, use the Manning’s C in the
S  Chezy’s V. The result is the Manning or the Chezy-
L L
R = hydraulic radius (m) Manning formula for V:

A 1
R (as in pipes) v  R 2/3S1/2
P n

P = wetted perimeter (m) A. UNIFORM FLOW

- the same depth, cross sectional area and
velocity for a length of flow Generally,
 m1/2  - the channel bed is parallel to the egl.
C = Chezy coefficient 
 s 
 

8g
Theoretically, C
f

C by manning:
width at the top = sum of the sides
1
C  R1/6 d
n R
2

If the cross section of the most efficient trapezoidal

Most Efficient Sections (MES): section is not specified, assume
C by Bazin:
In channels of different shapes/ proportions but of
the same A, S and n, the one that gives the biggest Q
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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 13
3. An open channel is to be designed to carry 2.6 7. The finished – concrete channel shown in the
m3/s of water at a slope of 0.0009. The channel figure is designed, without the barrier, for a flow
material has n = 0.014. rate of 6 m3/s at a normal depth of 1 m. For
a. Compute the depth for a semi-circular finished concrete, n = 0.012.
section. a. Determine the design slope of the
b. Compute the depth for a rectangular channel.
section. b. Determine the percentage reduction in
1. A rectangular channel 1.8 m wide conveys water c. Compute the depth for a trapezoidal flow if the channel is divided in the
at a depth of 1.2 m. section. center by the proposed barrier.
a. What is the velocity of flow if it is laid on
a slope of 0.002 and n= 0.012? 4. A trapezoidal canal has bottom width of 5 m and
b. What is the discharge if the channel side slopes of 1H to 2V. The flow is 30 m3/s when
slopes 0.1° and n = 0.016? Use Kutter’s the depth of flow is 1.20 m. Use n = 0.013.
formula for C. a. Calculate the specific energy.
c. What is the velocity of flow if S = b. What is the slope of the channel bed?
0.000263 and f = 0.02? c. Calculate the boundary shearing stress.

2. The figure shows a natural channel flow 5. Water flows in a brickwork rectangular channel
consisting of the main channel and two equal (n = 0.015) 2 m wide, on a slope of 5 m/km.
flood plains on the sides. Assume the slope of a. Find the flow rate when the normal
the channel is 0.0002, n=0.02 for the main and depth is 50 cm.
n=0.04 for the flood plains. b. If the normal depth remains 50 cm, find
a. What is the estimated discharge in the the channel width which will triple the
main channel? flow rate.
b. What is the total discharge?
c. If the total discharge is to be contained
6. The trapezoidal channel is made of brickwork (n
in an asphalt-lined semicircular channel
= 0.015) and slopes at 1:500. Determine the flow
with n=0.016, what diameter is
rate if the normal depth is 80 cm.
required?

5) 2.266 m3/s
5.153 m
6) 5.23 m3/s
7) 0.00114
20%

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 14

Alternate Stages of Flow Generally (all sections),

Bc
- In a channel for a given total head or
specific energy E, there are two stages of Q2 A3c

flow that give the same discharge Q: g Bc
Ac dc
1. The upper stage/ tranquil flow
NF < 1 subcritical

2. The lower stage/ rapid or shooting flow For rectangular sections:

NF > 1 supercritical q2 3. Find the critical depth in the trapezoidal
dc  3 channel shown conveying water at 19 m3/s.
g
NF = Froude number Side slope 1V:3H, n= 0.012.

q = discharge per meter width

Generally (all sections),
1. Water flows in a rectangular channel at a
v
NF  depth of 1.0 m and a velocity of flow of 4
gd m m/s.
a. What is the discharge?
dm = mean/ average depth (m) b. What is the critical depth? 4. A rectangular planed timber flume (n =
A c. What is the Froude number? 0.012) 3 m wide is laid on a slope of 0.0011.
dm 
B d. Is the flow sub or super-critical? For a depth of flow of 0.90 m:
B = width of the l.s. (m) e. What is the alternate depth? a. What is the Manning’s C?
b. What is the uniform flow?
For rectangular sections: 2. A riveted-steel triangular duct, n=0.015,
c. What smallest amount of energy can
flows partly full as shown. If the critical
give the same amount of flow?
depth is 60 cm, compute:
v
NF  a. Critical flow rate.
gd b. Critical velocity.
c. Critical slope.
Critical depth (dc) = depth of flow where the
discharge Q is maximum for a given specific
energy E, or depth of flow where E is minimum
for a given Q.

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 14
5. Water is flowing in a 12 – m wide
rectangular channel at 10.5 m3/s and a
depth of 1.1 m.
a. What is the specific energy?
b. What is the critical depth?

6. The flow rate per unit width in a wide

channel is q = 2.3 m3/s per m width. Is the
flow subcritical or supercritical if the depth
is:
a. 0.2 m
b. 0.8 m
c. 2.5 m

7. A rectangular channel 3 m wide carries 10

m3/s at a depth of 2 m.
a. Is the flow subcritical or supercritical?
b. For the same flow rate, what depth
will give critical flow?

8. Water flows in a 10 – m wide open channel

with a flow rate of 5 m3/s. Determine the
two possible depths if the specific energy of
the flow is E = 0.6 m.

9. A discharge of 4.5 m3/s occurs in a

rectangular channel 1.83 m wide with s = 5) 1.132
0.002 and n = 0.012. 0.427
a. Find the normal depth for uniform 6) supercritical
Supercritical
flow
subcritical
b. Determine the critical depth. 7) subcritical
c. Is the flow subcritical or supercritical? 1.04 m
8) 0.56 m
10. Compute the critical depth for a flow at 0.4 0.173 m
m3/s through a 60° V – notch channel. 9) 1.06 m
0.851 m
Subcritical
10) 0.628

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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 15
NON-UNIFORM FLOW (Varied Flow) a. What is the Froude number?
b. If hydraulic jump occurs, what is the
SO = slope of the channel bed depth of water downstream?
S = slope of the egl c. How much energy is dissipated by the
jump?
Retarded Flow: d1 < d2 V1 > V2 S ≠ SO 3. Water is flowing in a 90° triangular channel at a
depth of 39 cm. A hydraulic jump occurs. The
depth after the jump is 126 cm.
a. What is the discharge?
b. What is the decrease in specific energy
caused by the jump?
Height of the jump = d2  d1 c. What is the head loss in kW?
Power lost by the jump = Q(HL)
4. Over a hydraulic drop structure in a river 22.8m
wide flows 170 m3/s. On the level apron of the
*egl is not parallel to channel bed Solve HL by writing BE or by drawing the egl
structure the water flows 0.60 m deep in the rapid
state. A hydraulic jump is to take place in the
Solving for Q: apron.
Accelerated Flow: d1 > d2 V1 < V2 S ≠ SO Generally, a. What is the depth downstream?
b. What will be the critical depth?
Q
P2  P1  v v
g 1 2
 P   hA
c. What is the energy lost in hp?
d. What is the Froude number upstream?

5. Water flows through an almost level channel 3 m.

For rectangular section: wide at 12 m3/s. The depth gradually increases
form 1.0 m. to 1.1 m. for a length of flow of 5m.
q2 d d a. What is the head loss?
 d1d2 1 2 b. What is the slope of the energy
g 2
gradient?
*egl is not parallel to channel bed c. Compute the value of the roughness
1. A 3.1 – m wide rectangular flume carries coefficient.
water at 5.60 m3/s. The bed slope is 0.00078
Hydraulic Jump: and n = 0.010. At a certain section, the depth
is 92 cm.
A hydraulic jump is a type of shock, where the a. How far therefrom is the depth 80 4) 4.06
flow undergoes a sudden transition from swift, cm? 1.78
thin (shallow) flow to tranquil, thick (deep) flow. b. What is the slope of the egl? 9478.6
c. What is the headloss? 5.12
5) 0.04 m
0.008
2. A stream having a width of 5.4 m carries 16.5 m3/s
0.017
at a velocity of 4.2 m/s.
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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 16

WEIRS  CIPOLLETTI WEIR

v 2 
3/2 3/2
2 
v
Q  mL  H  a    a   symmetrical,
1 – weir plate  2g   2g   trapezoidal weir whose
2 – crest    
3 – approach sides slope 4 V in 1H
4 – nappe Neglecting velocity of approach:
5 – draw down
drop down Q  1.86LH3/2
Q  mLH3/2

When C or m is not given, use the Francis

RECTANGULAR WEIR formula:
DAMS USED AS WEIR (BROAD-CRESTED)
 2 
3/2
v 2 
3/2
v Q  1.71LH3/2
Q  1.84L  H  a    a  
W – channel width  2g   2g  
L – weir Length    
L = length of the dam
Z – weir height
H – weir head Neglecting velocity of approach:

Q  1.84LH3/2 1. A contracted weir 1.31 m long and 1.26 m high

is to be installed in a channel 2.45 m wide.
For contracted sections, replace L by L’ The depth of water back of the weir is 2.14 m.
L'  L  0.1H - for singly contracted a. What is the amount of flow
L'  L  0.2H - for doubly contracted neglecting the velocity of approach?
b. What is the amount of flow
considering the velocity of approach?
TRIANGULAR WEIR c. What is the velocity of approach?

2. The rate of flow of water through an open

8 
Q  C 2g tan H5/2 channel is known at 8 li/s.
15 2 a. What is the head if an 80° V-notch
 3/2
v 2 
3/2
2  v a2  weir is used? C=0.60
Q  C 2gL  H    a
 
3  2g   2g   Q  mH5/2 b. What is the weir factor?
    
c. Calculate the percentage error in
when θ=90°, use m=1.4 discharge that would result if the
Neglecting velocity of approach: error in head measurement is 5 mm.
Q  1.4H5/2
2
Q  C 2gLH3/2
3
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Civil Engineering May 2022 Review Innovations Hydraulics 16

3. A trapezoidal weir 1.5 m long has sides making

an angle of 75°57’50” with the horizontal.
What is the amount of flow if the weir head is
1.0 m?

4. The given figure shows the geometry of a

triangular weir. Calculate the discharge.
C=0.589

7. The rectangular channel has a width of 3 m

and the depth of flow is 1.5 m. Determine the
volumetric flow of water over the rectangular
sharp – crested weir. Take C = 0.83. 7.35 m3/s

5. A rectangular flume, 15 m long and 3 m wide,

feeds a suppressed weir under a head of 0.30
m. If the supply to the flume is cut off, how
long will it take for the head on the weir to
decrease to 0.1 m

Problems for Practice

8. A rectangular, sharp-crested weir with end
6. The rectangular channel is fitted with a 90° contractions is 1.4 m long. How high should it
triangular weir plate. If the upstream depth of be placed in a channel to maintain an
the water within the channel is 2 m ans the upstream depth of 2.35 m for 0.40 m3/s flow?
bottom of the weir plate is 1.5 m from the
bottom of the channel, determine the flow
rate.

6) 0.247 m3/s
7) 7.35 m3/s
8) 2.05 m

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