UNIT 1

REVIEW OF MATRICES
Structure
Page Nos.
1.1 Introduction 8
Objectives
1.2 Matrices 9
Matrix Addition
Scalar Multiplication
Transpose of a Matrix, symmetric and skew symmetric matrices
Adjoint of a Matrix, symmetric and skew hermitian matrices.
1.3 Matrix Multiplication 22
Matrix Form of Simultaneous Linear Equations
1.4 Summary 26
1.5 Solutions/Answers 27

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit we begin our study of Linear Algebra by recalling facts about
matrices since matrices give many interesting examples of vector spaces. In
Sec. 1.2, we recall matrix addition and scalar multiplication. We also discuss
symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices. In
Sec. 1.3 we discuss matrix multiplication and how to represent a system of
linear equations as a matrix equation.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• represent data in matrix form;

• define order of a matrix;

• add and multiply matrices;

• define the transpose and adjoint of a matrix;

• write down the adjoint and transpose of a matrix;

• define symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices;

• identify whether a given matrix is symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian or

8 skew hermitian; and
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• write a system of linear equations as a matrix equation.

1.2 MATRICES
In this section, we introduce you to matrices. We begin with an example.

Example 1: Suppose XYZ Co. is a distributor of electronic goods of a well

known electronic goods manufacturer. The distributor supplies the goods to
several dealers. How will the company keep track of the number of each
electronic item it supplied to various dealers in different months? One way of
storing the details for a particular month could be as in Table 1.

Table 1: Data of goods distributed in a month

Table Food Television Washing

Fan Processor Machine

Dealer 1 25 20 15 30
Dealer 2 30 15 16 27
Dealer 3 27 18 21 18

One succinct way of representing this data will be in the form of an array as in
Eqn. (1).

25 20 15 30
[30 15 16 27] …(1)
27 18 21 18

The square brackets are used (round brackets are also used) to separate this
data from other data. There are three rows and four columns. Here, the rows
represent the dealers and the columns represent electronic goods.

∗∗∗

We denote the field of real numbers by ℝ and the field of complex numbers by
ℂ.

We formally define a matrix.

Definition 1: By a matrix we mean a rectangular array of the form

a11 a12 ⋯ a1m

a21 a22 ⋯ a2m
[ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an1 an2 ⋯ anm

where aij ∈ F, where F is a field. However, unless we mention otherwise, aij ∈ ℂ

in this course. Here n is the number of rows of the matrix and m is the number 9
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of columns of the matrix. We say that such a matrix is an n × m matrix and that
the matrix has order n × m. We also denote the matrix by (aij ) . If m = n, we
n×m
call such a matrix a square matrix of order n. We call the elements of the
matrix entries. We identify an entry by the row and column it occupies. We
denote the entry that occupies the ith row, jth column by aij . (For example, the
number 27 occupies the third row, first column of the matrix in Eqn. (1). So,
a31 = 27.) Two matrices A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) are equal if m = p, q = n
m×n p×q
and aij = bij , 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n. In other words, they should have the same
order and the corresponding entries should be equal.

Let us look at an example to understand the concept of order of a matrix.

Example 2: Find the order of the following matrices:

1 −1 0 1 1 0 1
1 −1 0 1 1
0 1 −1 1 1 1 0
i) [2 2 1 0 2 ] ii) [ ] iii) [ ]
1 1 0 1 1 1 0
3 4 1 2 0
0 0 1 −1 1 0 1
Which of them are square matrices?

Solution:

i) This has three rows and five columns. So, this is a 3 × 5 matrix. This is not
a square matrix because the number of rows is less than the number of
columns.

ii) This has four rows and four columns. So, this is a 4 × 4 matrix. Since the
number of rows and number of columns are equal this is a square matrix.

iii) This has four rows and three columns. So, this is a 4 × 3 matrix. This is not
a square matrix because the number of rows is greater than the number of
columns.

∗∗∗

Let us look at another example.

Example 3: Consider the data giving the distance between cities of India
Table 2.

Table 2: Distance between cities

Mumbai Delhi Bengaluru Ahmedabad

Mumbai 0 1166.17 839.6 451.23
Dehli 1166.17 0 1745.07 777.11
Bengaluru 839.63 1745.07 0 1235.72
Ahmedabad 451.23 777.11 1235.77 0
10
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We can represent the data in the form of a matrix as follows:
0 1166.17 839.6 451.23
1166.17 0 1745.07 777.11
[ ] …(2)
839.63 1745.07 0 1235.72
451.23 777.11 1235.77 0

∗∗∗

Here is another example of a matrix.

Fig. 1: The rules of Rock, Scissors and paper game.

Source:By Enzoklop - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=27958688

Example 4: Suppose two players, Player A and Player B are playing the
game ‘Rock, Scissors and Paper.’ The rules of the game are given in Fig. 1.

1. Rock beats Scissors, but loses to Paper.

2. Scissors beats Paper, but loses to Rock.

3. Paper beats Rock, but loses to Scissors.

4. If both the players pick the same object, it is a draw.

We can represent the outcomes using a matrix as in Fig. 2

Player B
Rock Scissors Paper
Rock 0 1 −1
Player A Scissors [ −1 0 1 ]
Paper 1 −1 0
Fig. 2: Outcomes of the Rock, Scissors and Paper game.
11
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If Player A wins a round, she gains one point. If she loses a round she loses
one point. For example, if Player A plays Scissors and Player B plays Rock,
Player A loses 1 one point and Player B gains one point. We show this by
putting −1 in the second row, first column of the matrix. The gain of Player B is
the negative of the gain of Player A.

The Rock, Scissors and Paper game is an example of what is called a ‘Two
Person, Zero Sum Game’. The ’Two Person’ part is obvious because two
players play the game. It is called ‘Zero Sum Game’ because the gain of one is
equal to the loss of the other. Such a matrix representation is used in Game
Theory to analyse the game and find the best strategies for the players.

∗∗∗

Here are some exercises for you to try.

E1) There are three main political parties, P1 , P2 and P3 . According to an

opinion poll, the details of the proportion of voters of each party that may
shift their support to other parties are, according to Table 3.

Table 3: Change in votes

From
P1 P2 P3

P1 0.75 0.30 0.15

To P2 0.15 0.60 0.20

P3 0.10 0.10 0.65

Express the data in the form of a matrix. Is the matrix a square matrix?

E2) Suppose ABC group of companies operates four different companies in

three different cities. The net profit in the month of January in units of
lakhs of rupees is in Table 4.

City 1 City 2 City 3

Company 1 123 87 110

Company 2 92 131 102
Company 3 141 87 112
Company 4 105 113 125

Table 4: Net profits in January

12 Represent the data in the form of a matrix. Is the matrix a square matrix?
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In the next subsection, we discuss addition of matrices.

1.2.1 Matrix Addition

Consider the profit data for ABC company in Exercise 2. Suppose the data for
the month of February is in Table 5.

If we represent the data in Table 5 in the form of a matrix, we will get the matrix

110 81 110
102 121 107
[ ]
98 127 103
110 120 103

City 1 City 2 City 3

Company 1 110 81 110

Company 2 102 121 107
Company 3 98 127 103
Company 4 110 120 103

Table 5: Net profits in February

Suppose you want find the total profits for the months of January and February.
To find the total profit made by Company 1 in City 1, you will add the profit
made by the Company 1 in City 1 in January and February. In matrix terms, we
will add the entry in the first row and first column of the matrix for the January
data with the entry in the first row, first column of the February data. We can
similarly find the data for other pairs of companies and cities. In other words,
the data for the months January and February is given by

123 + 110 87 + 81 110 + 110 233 168 220

92 + 102 131 + 121 102 + 107 194 252 209
[ ]=[ ] …(3)
141 + 98 87 + 127 112 + 103 239 214 115
105 + 110 113 + 120 125 + 103 215 233 228

We can read off the total profit made by each company in each city by reading
off the entry in the appropriate column. For example, the entry in the second
row, second column of the matrix in the RHS of Eqn. (3) gives the profit made
by the second company in the second city in the month of January and
February. Motivated by this, we define the addition of matrices.

Definition 2: Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) be two n × m matrices. Then, their

n×m n×m
sum is

A + B = (aij + bij ) …(4) 13

n×m
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Note that, our definition makes sense for matrices with entries in any field since
an operation that we call ‘addition’ is defined in a field. Note that we can add
two matrices only if they have the same order. The matrix which is the sum of
two matrices has the same order as the matrices we add.

Let us now look at an example to understand matrix addition.

Example 5: Which of the following matrices can we add? Find the sum of
those matrices that we can be add.

1 2 1 1 1 0 −1
i) A = [ ] and B = [ ]
3 1 −2 0 2 1 3
1 2 −1 0 1 1
ii) A = [2 1 −1] and B = [2 1 3]
1 1 1 1 −1 1
1 1 2 1
iii) A = [−1 1] and B = [ 0 1]
2 1 −1 1
1 i
1 1 − i 2i
iv) A = [ ] and B = [2 + i 3 − 4I]
2i 1 1+i
4 + i 5 − 4i
1+i 1 −1 1 −i 2i
v) A=[ ] and B = [ ]
i 2−i 1 2 −i i

Solution:

i) Here, both A and B have two rows, but while A has three columns, B has
four columns. So, we cannot add them.

ii) Both A and B have three rows and three columns. So, we can add them.
We have

1 2 −1 0 1 1 1 + 0 2 + 1 −1 + 1 1 3 0
A + B = [2 1 −1] + [2 1 3] = [2 + 2 1 + 1 −1 + 3] = [4 2 2]
1 1 1 1 −1 1 1+1 1−1 1+1 2 0 2

iii) Both A and B have three rows and two columns. So, we can add them.
We have

3 2
A + B = [−1 2]
1 2

iv) Here A has order 2 × 3 and B has order 3 × 2. Since they have different
orders, we cannot add them.

v) Both A and B have order 2 × 3. So, we can add them. We have

1+i 1 −1 1 −i 2i
A+B=[ ]+[ ]
i 2−i 1 2 −i i
1+i+1 1−i −1 + i 2 + i 1 − i −1 + 2i
=[ ]=[ ]
14 i+2−i 2−i−i 1+i 2 2 − 2i 1 + i
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∗∗∗

Try the following exercise to check your understanding of Example 5.

E3) Which of the following matrices can we add? Find the sum of those
matrices that can be added.
1 1
1 2
i) A = [ ] and B = [ 0 2]
3 1
−1 1

1 2 1 0 1 2
ii) A = [ ] and B = [ ]
2 1 1 2 −1 3
1 1 2 1
iii) A = [ ] and B = [ ]
−1 1 0 1
1 −i 2i −i 2i 3 + 2i
iv) A = [ ] and B = [ ]
2 i 4i 1 + i 3 − i 1 − 2i
1 2i 1 −i 2
v) A = [ ] and B = [ ]
2 3i 3 3 + 4i 1

We move on to the next topic, scalar multiplication of matrices, in the next

subsection.

1.2.2 Scalar Multiplication

Suppose the quantities of electronic goods XYZ Co. has distributed in this
month is given in Table 1. Suppose they want to double the quantities of the
goods they supply for the next month. What should be the quantities that they
should supply? They have sold 25 table fans through Dealer 1, so they should
sell 50 table fans through Dealer 1. Similarly they have sold 15 food
processors through Dealer 2, so they should sell 30 food processors through
Dealer 2. In general, they should double the number of each appliance sold by
each Dealer. So, in matrix terms they should multiply each entry of the matrix
in Eqn. (1) by two. In other words, the matrix form of the targeted sales is

2 × 25 2 × 20 2 × 15 2 × 30 50 40 30 60
[2 × 30 2 × 15 2 × 16 2 × 27] = [60 30 32 54]
2 × 27 2 × 18 2 × 21 2 × 18 54 36 42 36

We now formally define scalar multiplication.

Definition 3: Let A = (aij ) and 𝜆 ∈ ℂ. Then, then the scalar multiple of A by

n×m
𝜆 is the matrix (𝜆aij ) . We denote this matrix by 𝜆A
n×m

Again, scalar multiplication makes sense over any field F. If (aij ) is any matrix
with aij ∈ F and 𝜆 ∈ F, then 𝜆 (aij ) = (𝜆aij ) makes sense. Let us look at some
examples.

Example 6: Find the following scalar multiples of matrices: 15

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1 2
i) A=[ ] by −3.
−1 3

1 3
ii) A = [ ] by i.
−i 1 + i

1 2 −i
iii) A = [ ] by 1 + i.
i 1+i 2
Solution:
i) Multiplying each entry of the matrix A by −3, we get
−3 × 1 −3 × 2 −3 −6
−3A = [ ]=[ ]
−3 × −1 −3 × 3 3 −9
ii) Multiplying each entry of the matrix A by i we get
i×1 i×3 i 3i
[ ]=[ ]
i × −i i × (1 + i) 1 −1 + i
iii) Multiplying each entry of the matrix A by 1 + i we get
(1 + i) × 1 (1 + i) × 2 (1 + i) × (−i) 1 + i 2 + 2i 1 − i
[ ]=[ ]
(1 + i) × i (1 + i) × (1 + i) (1 + i) × 2 −1 + i 2i 2 + 2i
∗∗∗

Solve the following exercise to check your understanding of Example 6.

E4) Find the following scalar multiples of matrices:

3 2
i) A = [ ] by −2.
−1 5

1 −1
ii) A = [ ] by 2i.
2−i i
1 2 −i
iii) A = [ ] by 1 + 3i.
i 1+i 2

1.2.3 Transpose of a Matrix, symmetric and skew

symmetric Matrices
Let us go back to Table 1. The data regarding dealers are along the rows and
the products are under columns. But, if we want to look at specific products,
like say Table Fan, we would like to have this data along rows We can read
along columns, but we are more used to reading left to right( or right to left), so
a modified presentation where the data regarding products along the rows may
be more convenient. So, we can re-arrange the data in the following format:

Table 6: Modified data of goods distributed in a month

Dealer 1 Dealer 2 Dealer 3

Table Fan 25 30 27
Food Processor 20 15 18
Television 15 16 21
Washing Machine 30 27 18
16
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0 1166.17 839.6 451.23

1166.17 0 1745.07 777.11
[ ]
839.63 1745.07 0 1235.72
451.23 777.11 1235.77 0

Fig. 3

As you can see the rows of Table 1 have become the columns of Table 6 and
vice versa. With this as the motivation, we now introduce you to the concept of
transpose of a matrix. We begin with the formal definition of transpose.

Definition 4: Let A = (aij ) be an m × n matrix. The transpose of A, denoted

m×n
by At is the n × m matrix (bij ) such that bij = aji .
n×m

In other words, to obtain the transpose of a matrix A, we simply write down the
rows of A as the columns of At . Let us look at an example.

Example 7: Let

1 2 −1
A=[ ]
−1 2 1

Write down At .

Solution: The row of A are [1 2 −1] and [−1 2 1]. Writing these rows in
the column form, we get

1 −1
t
A = [2 2]
−1 1

∗∗∗

As you would have noticed, in general, the order of the transpose of matrix is
different from the order of the matrix. Also, note the relation between a matrix
and its transpose. If A is an m × n matrix, At is an n × m matrix. In Example 7
the order of A was 2 × 3 and the order of At was 3 × 2. However, if A is a square
matrix, then the order of A is the same as the order of At .

Consider the matrix in Eqn. (2). As you can see inFig. 3, there is a certain
symmetry in the entries. We can get the entries above the diagonal by
‘reflecting, the entries below the diagonal. If you imagine a mirror along the
diagonal, the entries above the diagonal are the mirror reflection of the entried
below the diagonal. The entries above the diagonal are the reflection of the
entries of the same colour below diagonal. If you take the transpose of this
matrix, you will get the same matrix.

Similarly, notice the relation between the entries in Fig. 2. The entries above
the diagonal are the negative of the corresponding entries below the diagonal. 17
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This motivates our next definition.

Definition 5: An n × n matrix is called symmetric if At = A. An n × n matrix is

called skew symmetric if At = −A.

Although the definition of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices makes

sense for matrices with complex entries also, usually, we use these terms for
matrices with real entries. Let us now look at an example to understand this
definition.

Example 8: Which of the following matrices are symmetric and which are skew
symmetric? Which are neither symmetric nor skew symmetric? Justify your
answer.
1 2 −1 0 2 1 1 2 −1
i) A1 = [ 2 2 1 ] ii) A2 = [−2 0 1] iii) A3 = [2 2 1 ]
−1 1 3 −1 −1 0 1 −1 3

Solution:

i) We have

1 2 −1
At1 = [ 2 2 1 ] = A1
−1 1 3

So, A1 is symmetric. We have

1−1 −2
−A1 = [−2 −2 −1]
1 −1 −3

The entry in the first row first column of At1 is 1, but the entry in the first
row first column f −A1 is −1. So, At1 ≠ −A1 and A1 is not skew symmetric.

ii) We have

0 −2 −1
At2 = [2 0 −1] ≠ At2
1 1 0

since the entry in the first row, third column of A2 is 1 and the entry in the
first row, third column of At2 is −1. So, the matrix is not symmetric. We
have
0 −2 −1
−A2 = [2 0 −1] = At2
1 1 0

So, it is skew symmetric.

iii) We have

1 2 1
At3 = [ 2 2 −1] ≠ A3
18 −1 1 1
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since the entry in the first row third column in A3 is −1, but the entry in the
first row third column in At3 is 1. So, At3 is not symmetric. We have

−1 −2 −1
−A3 = [−2 −2 1 ] ≠ At3
1 −1 −3

since the entry in the first row, first column of At3 is 1 and the entry in the
first row, first column of −A3 is −1. So, A3 is not skew symmetric.
Therefore, A3 is neither symmetric nor skew symmetric.

∗∗∗

Try the next exercise to check your understanding of Example 8.

E5) Which of the following matrices are symmetric and which are skew
symmetric? Justify your answer.
1 2 −1 0 1 2 0 1 2
a) B1 = [ 2 1 3] b) B2 = [−1 1 3] 3) B3 = [−1 0 −4]
−1 3 1 −2 −3 0 −2 4 0

E6) Show that the diagonal entries of an n × n, real, skew-symmetric matrix

are zero.

E7) If A and B are n × n matrices over a field F, show that (A + B)t = At + Bt .

t
E8) If A is an n × n matrix over a field F. Show that (At ) = A.

In the next subsection, we will discuss hermitian and skew-hermitian matrices

which we can consider as complex analogues of symmetric and
skew-symmetric matrices.

1.2.4 Adjoint of a Matrix, hermitian and

skew-hermitian Matrices
We begin with the definition of the adjoint of a matrix.

Definition 6 (adjoint of a matrix): Let A = (aij ) be an n × m matrix with

n×m
entries in ℂ and let A = (aij ) be the matrix we get by replacing each entry in A by
t
its complex conjugate. The adjoint of A, denoted by A∗ , is the matrix A .

In other words, we get the adjoint of a matrix by replacing each of its entries by
its complex conjugate and taking the transpose of the resulting matrix. Also,
notice that, if all the entries of a matrix are real, its adjoint is simply the
transpose of the matrix because complex conjugation has no effect.

Here is an example to understand the definition of the adjoint of a matrix.

Example 9: Find the adjoint of the following matrices: 19

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1 i
1+i 2−i i
i) A = [ ] ii) B = [ 3i 1 + 2i]
2i 0 1−i
1−i 3+i

Solution:

i) Replacing each entry of the matrix by its complex conjugate, we get

1 − i 2 + i −i
A=[ ]
−2i 0 1+i

Taking the transpose of A, we get

1 − i −2i
∗ t
A = A = [2 + i 0 ]
−i 1+i

ii) Replacing each entry of the matrix by its complex conjugate, we get

1 −i
B = [ −3i 1 − 2i]
1+i 3−i

Taking the transpose of B, we get

t 1 −3i 1+i
B∗ = B = [ ]
−i 1 − 2i 3 − i

∗∗∗

Here is are exercises analogous to Exercise 7 and Exercise 8.

E9) If A and B are n × n complex matrices, show that (A + B)∗ = A∗ + B∗ .

E10) If A is an n × n complex matrix, then (A∗ )∗ = A.

As in the case of transpose of a matrix, if A is an n × m matrix, the adjoint of A is

an m × n matrix. So, if A is a square matrix, adjoint of A has the same order as
A. So, the question whether the adjoint of a matrix is the same as the matrix
makes sense and leads us to the following definition of hermitian and
skew-hermitian matrices.

Definition 7: An n × n matrix A is hermitian if A∗ = A. The matrix A is

skew-hermitian if A∗ = −A.

Here is an example to help you understand the concepts that we have

discussed so far.

Example 10: Which of the following matrices are hermitian and which are
skew hermitian? Which are neither hermitian nor skew hermitian? Justify your
20 answer.
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1 − i 1 + 2i
1 2i i 2+i
i) A1 = [ 1 + i 2 3 ] ii) A2 = [ i 0 1 + 2i]
1 − 2i 3 1 −2 + i −1 + 2i 0
1 + i 2i
1
iii) A3 = [1 − i 2 3]
2i 3 1

Solution:

i) We have

1 + i 1 − 2i
1 1 1 − i 1 + 2i
∗ t
A1 = [ 1 − i 2 3 ] and A1 = A1 = [ 1 + i 2 3 ] = A1
1 + 2i 3 1 1 − 2i 3 1

So, the matrix is hermitian. We have

−1 −1 + i −1 − 2i
−A1 = [ −1 − i −2 −3 ] ≠ A∗1
−1 + 2i −3 −1

since the entry in the first row, first column of A∗ and the first row column
of −A1 is −1. So, A1 is not skew hermitian.

ii) We have

−2i 2−i −i −2i −i −2 − i

∗ t
A2 = [ −i 0 1 − 2i] and A2 = A2 = [ −i 0 −1 − 2i] ≠ A2
−2 − i −1 − 2i 0 2 − i 1 − 2i 0

since the entry in the first row, first column of A2 is 2i and the entry in the
first row, first column of A∗2 is −2i. So, A2 is not hermitian. But

−2i −i −2 − i
−A2 = [ −i 0 −1 − 2i] = A∗2
2 − i 1 − 2i 0

So, A2 is skew hermitian.

iii) We have

1 1 − i −2i 1 1 + i −2i
t
A3 = [1 + i 2 3 ] and A∗ = A3 = [1 − i 2 3 ] ≠ A3
−2i 3 1 −2i 3 1

since the entry in the first row, third column in A3 is 2i and the entry in the
first row, third column in A∗3 is −2i. So, A3 is not hermitian. We have

−1 −1 − i −2i
−A3 = [−1 + i −2 −3 ] ≠ A∗3
−2i −3 −1

So, A3 is not skew hermitian. 21

Block
. . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Vector
. . . . . . . .Spaces
.......
∗∗∗

Here are some exercises for you to try.

E11) Which of the following matrices are hermitian, which are skew hermitian
and which neither hermitian nor skew hermitian? Justify your answer.
i −1 + 2i −1 + i i 1+i 2
i) A1 = [1 + 2i 0 2 ] ii) A2 = [1 − i 2 1]
1+i −2 0 −2 1 + 2i 3
1 1 + 3i 2 + i
iii) A3 = [1 − 3i 1 1 ]
2−i 1 0
E12) Show that the diagonal entries of hermitian matrix are real numbers.

E13) Show that the real part of the diagonal entries of a skew-hermitian matrix
are zero.

With this we conclude this section. In the next section, we will see discuss
matrix multiplication.

1.3 MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

In this section, we introduce you to matrix multiplication. Although the matrix
multiplication looks rather mysterious, you will be able to understand the
motivation behind this definition later when we discuss composition of linear
operators. Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) matrices. For the purpose of matrix
m×n n×k
multiplication, it is useful to look at the matrix A as a collection of row vectors
a1
a
and B as a collection of column vectors. Thus, we visualise A as A = [ 2 ] and
⋮
am
B as B = [b1 b2 ⋯ bk ]. Here ai is the row vector of length n
bi1
bi2
ai = [ai1 ai2 … ain ] and bi is the column vector [ ]. Note that, the row
⋮
bin
vectors ai and the column vectors bi have the same length. We define ‘the dot
product’ ai ⋅ bj by
n
ai ⋅ bj = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + ⋯ + ain bnj = ∑ aik bkj …(5)
k=1
We define the product AB by
a11 a12 ⋯ a1n b11 b12 ⋯ b1j ⋯ b1k c11 c12 ⋯ c1n
a a ⋯ a2n ⎤⎡ b21 b22 ⋯ b2j ⋯ b2k ⎤
⎡ 21 22
c c ⋯ c2n ⎤
⎡ 21 22
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⋮
⎢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎥⎥⎢⎢ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥= …(6)
⎢ ai1 ai2 ⋯ ain ⎥⎢
⎢ bi1 bi2 ⋯ bij ⋯ bik ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ci1 cij ⋯ cin ⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
22 ⎣am1 am2 ⋯ amn ⎦⎣bm1 bm2 ⋯ bmj ⋯ bmk ⎦ ⎣cm1 cm2 ⋯ cmn ⎦
Unit
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........
where
n
cij = ai ⋅ bj = ∑ aik bkj
k=1

Let us now look at an example.

Example 11: Evaluate the following matrix products:

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
1 2 1 1 0 0 1 1
a) [ ][ ] b) [2 1 1 1] [ ]
−1 0 0 −1 1 2 1 1
3 1 1 0
1 0 −1

Solution: We calculate entry by entry using the scheme in Eqn. (6). Let
AB = C. We compute the entries of C one by one, row by row. We take the dot
product of the row and the column that are coloured blue.

a) We have
12 1 10
[ ][ ] c11 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 0 = 1
−1 0 0 −1 1

12 1 10
[ ][ ] c12 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ (−1) = −1
−1 0 0 −1 1

12 1 10
[ ][ ] c13 = 1 ⋅ 0 + 2 ⋅ 1 = 2
−1 0 0 −1 1
We now compute the second row.
12 1 10
[ ][ ] c21 = −1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 0 = −1
−1 0 0 −1 1

12 1 10
[ ][ ] c22 = −1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ −1 = −1
−1 0 0 −1 1

12 1 10
[ ][ ] c23 = −1 ⋅ 0 + 0 ⋅ 1 = 0
−1 0 0 −1 1

1 2 1 1 0 1 −1 2
Therefore, [ ][ ]=[ ]
−1 0 0 −1 1 −1 −1 0

b) We have
1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c11 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 0 + (−1) ⋅ 2 + 0 ⋅ 1 = −1
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c12 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 0 = 2
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c13 = 1 ⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ (−1) = 3
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1 23
Block
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. . . . . . . .Spaces
.......
This completes the computation of the first row. We now compute the
second row.
1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c21 = 2 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 1 = 5
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c22 = 2 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 0 = 4
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c23 = 2 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 0 = 4
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

This completes the computation of the second row. We now compute the
third row.
1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c31 = 3 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ 2 + 0 ⋅ 0 = 5
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c32 = 3 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ 2 + 0 ⋅ 0 = 5
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1][ ] c32 = 3 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ (−1) = 8
2 1 1
31 10
1 0 −1

Therefore,

1 1 2
1 2 −1 0 −1 2 3
0 1 1
[2 1 1 1 ] [ ] = [ 5 4 5]
2 1 1
31 1 0 5 58
1 0 −1

∗∗∗

Here are some exercises for you to help you practise matrix multiplication.

E14) Compute the following matrix products:

1 2 1 −1 1 1 1 1
−2 1 1
a) [−1 0] [ ] b) [0 −1 1] [0 1 1]
1 3 1
1 1 1 1 2 1 −1 1

24 E15) If A and B are two n × n matrices, show that (AB)t = Bt At

Unit
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........

1.3.1 Matrix Form of Simultaneous Linear

Equations

In this subsection we will see how to write a system of linear equations in

matrix form. Why do we need to do this? This form allows us to use methods of
linear algebra in finding the solutions of linear equations. Suppose we have the
following set of equations:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ⋯ + a1m xm = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ⋯ + a2m xm = b2
…(7)
⋮ ⋮
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + ⋯ + anm xm = bn

Look at the first equation. The LHS of the equation is the matrix product

x1
x2
[a11 a12 ⋯ a1m ] [ ]
⋮
xm

Similarly, the LHS of the second equation is

x1
x2
[a21 a22 ⋯ a2m ] [ ]
⋮
xm

More generally, the LHS of the ith equation in Eqn. (7) is the dot product of the
a11 a12 ⋯ a1m x1
a a22 ⋯ a2m x
ith row of [ 21 ] and the column matrix [ 2 ]. So, we can write the
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮
an1 an2 ⋯ anm xm
LHS part of Eqn. (7) as

a11 a12 ⋯ a1m x1

a21 a22 ⋯ a2m x2
[ ][ ] …(8)
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮
an1 an2 ⋯ anm xm

The matrix product in Eqn. (8) gives a column matrix of length n. Recall that,
two matrices of the same order are equal if the corresponding entries are
equal. So, we can write Eqn. (7) in the matrix form as

a11 a12 ⋯ a1m x1 b1

a21 a22 ⋯ a2m x2 b2
[ ][ ]=[ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an1 an2 ⋯ anm xm bn

or

AX = B 25
Block
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. . . . . . . .Spaces
.......
where

a11 a12 ⋯ a1m x1 b1

a21 a22 ⋯ a2m x2 b2
A=[ ], X = [ ] and B = [ ] …(9)
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an1 an2 ⋯ anm xm bn

The matrix A in Eqn. (9) is called the coefficient matrix of the equation. Note
that if the system of equations has m variables and n equations, the coefficient
matrix is an n × m matrix. Let us now look at an example.

Example 12: Write the following system of simultaneous equations in matrix

form:

2x1 + 3x2 + x3 − x4 = 1
x1 + 2x2 − 2x4 = 2
x1 + 2x3 − x4 = 8

Solution: There are four variables and three equations. So, the coefficient
matrix will be a 3 × 4 matrix. The matrix form is

x1
2 3 1 −1 1
x2
[1 2 0 −2] [ ] = [2]
x3
1 0 2 −1 8
x4

∗∗∗

Try the following exercises now to see if you can write a system of
simultaneous equations in matrix form.

E16) Write the following systems of equations in matrix form:

a) x + 3x3 − x4 = 1 b) x + x + 3x − x = 2
1 1 2 3 4
x1 + 2x2 − x4 = 3 x1 + 2x2 − x3 + 5x4 = 1
x1 + 2x3 − x4 = −1 x1 + 2x3 − x4 = −3

We have come to the end of this Unit. In the next section, we summarise the
contents of this Unit.

1.4 SUMMARY
In this Unit we have seen

1. how to represent data in matrix form;

2. the definition order of a matrix;

26 3. how to add and multiply matrices;

Unit
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........
4. the definition of the transpose and the adjoint of a matrix;

5. how to write down the adjoint and transpose of a matrix;

6. the definition of symmetric, skew-symmetric, hermitian and

skew-hermitian matrices;

7. how to identify whether a given matrix is symmetric, skew-symmetric,

hermitian or skew hermitian; and

8. how to write a system of linear equations as a matrix equation.

1.5 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS

0.75 0.30 0.15

E1) [0.15 0.60 0.20]. The matrix is a square matrix since the number of
0.10 0.10 0.65
rows and number of columns are equal.
E2) The matrix representation is

123 87 110
92 131 102
[ ]
141 87 112
105 113 125

The order of the matrix is 4 × 3. The matrix is not a square matrix because
the number of rows and number of columns are not equal.

E3) i) A has two rows and B has three rows. Although both have the same
number of columns, we cannot add them because the number of
rows are different.
ii) Both A and B have two rows and three columns. So, we can add
them. We have
1 3 3
A+B=[ ]
4 0 4

iii) Both A and B have two rows and two columns, so we can add them.
We have
3 2
A+B=[ ]
−1 2

iv) We have

1 −i 2i −i 2i 3 + 2i
A+B=[ ]+[ ]
2 i 4i 1 + i 3 − i 1 − 2i
1−i −i + 2i 2i + 3 + 2i 1 − i i 3 + 4i
=[ ]=[ ]
2 + 1 + i i + 3 − i 4i + 1 − 2i 3 + i 3 1 + 2i 27
Block
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. . . . . . . .Spaces
.......
v) A has order 2 × 2 and B has order 2 × 3. So, we cannot add them.

E4) i) Multiplying each entry of the matrix A by −2, we get

−2 × 3 −2 × 2 −6 −4
−2A = [ ]=[ ]
−2 × −1 −2 × 5 2 −10

ii) Multiplying each entry of the matrix A by 2i we get

2i × 1 2i × −1 2i −2i
[ ]=[ ]
2i × (2 − i) 2i × i 2 + 4i −2

iii) Multiplying each entry of the matrix A by 1 + 3i we get

(1 + 3i) × 1 (1 + 3i) × 2 (1 + 3i) × (−i) 1 + 3i 2 + 6i 3 − i

[ ]=[ ]
(1 + 3i) × i (1 + 3i) × (1 + i) (1 + 3i) × 2 −3 + i −2 + 4i 2 + 6i

E5) a) We have

1 2 −1
Bt1 = [ 2 1 3 ] = B1
−1 3 1

So, B1 is symmetric. We have

−1 −2
1
−B1 = [−2 −1 −3]
1 −3 −1

The entry in the first row, first column of Bt1 is 1, but the entry in the
first row, first column of −B1 is −1. So, Bt1 ≠ −B1 , B1 is not skew
symmetric.
b) We have

0 −1 −2
Bt2 = [1 1 −3] ≠ B2
2 3 0

since the entry in the first row, second column of B2 is 1 and the entry
in the first row, second column of Bt2 is −1. So, B2 is not symmetric.
We have
0 −1 −2
−B2 = [1 −1 −3] ≠ Bt2
2 3 0

since the entry in the second row, second column in −B2 it is −1 and
the second row, second column in Bt2 is 1. So, B2 is not skew
symmetric.
c) We have

0 −1 −2
Bt3 = [1 0 4] = −B3
2 −4 0

28 So, it is not symmetric, but it is skew symmetric.

Unit
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........
E6) Let (aij ) be a skew-symmetric matrix. Then, by definition, aij = −aji . In
n×n
particular, if i = j, then aii = −aii or 2aii = 0. So, aii = 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. This
gives a necessary condition for a matrix to be skew-symmetric. It is not
sufficient. Can you find a matrix whose diagonal entries are zero, yet not
skew-symmetric?
E7) Let A = (ai ) and B = (bij ) and A + B = C. Let C = (cij ). Then cij = aij + bij . Let
At = (a′ij ), Bt = (b′ij ) where a′ij = aji , b′ij = bji . Let Ct = (c′ij ). Then we have
c′ij = cji = aji + bji = a′ij + b′ij . So, C′ = At + Bt or (A + B)t = Ct = At + Bt .
t
E8) Let A = (aij ), At = (a′ij ) and (At ) = (a″ij ). We have a′ij = aji and a″ij = a′ji . So,
t
we have a″ij = a′ji = aij or (At ) = A.

E9) Let A = (ai ) and B = (bij ) and A + B = C. Let C = (cij ). Then cij = aij + bij . Let
A∗ = (a′ij ), B∗ = (b′ij ) where a′ij = aji , b′ij = bji . Let C∗ = (c′ij ). Then we have
c′ij = cji = aji + bji = aji + bji = a′ij + b′ij . So, C′ = A∗ + B∗ or
(A + B)∗ = C∗ = A∗ + B∗ .
t
E10) Let A = (aij ), At = (a′ij ) and (At ) = (a″ij ). We have a′ij = aji and a″ij = a′ji . So,
we have a″ij = a′ji = aij = aij . Therefore, (A∗ )∗ = A.

E11) i) We have

−i −1 − 2i −1 − i −i 1 − 2i 1 − i
t
A1 = [1 − 2i 0 2 ] and A∗1 = A1 = [−1 − 2i 0 −2 ] ≠ A1
1−i −2 0 −1 − i 2 0

since the entry in the first row, second column in A1 is −1 + 2i and the
entry in the first row, second column in A∗1 is −1 − 2i.
So, A1 is not hermitian. We have

−i 1 − 2i 1 − i
−A1 = [−1 − 2i 0 −2 ] = A∗1
−1 − i 2 0

So, A1 is skew hermitian.

ii) We have

−i
1−i 2 −i 1+i −2
∗ t
A2 = [1 + i 2 1] and A2 = A2 = [1 − i 2 1 − 2i] ≠ A2
−2 1 − 2i 3 2 1 3

since the entry in the first row, first column in A2 is i and the entry in the firt
row, first column in A∗2 is −i. So, A2 is not hermitian. We have

−i −(1 + i) −2
−A2 = [−1 + i −2 −1] ≠ A∗2
2 −1 − 2i −3

since the entry in the first row, second column in A∗2 is 1 + i and the entry
in the first row, second column in −A2 is −(1 + i). So, A2 in not skew
hermitian either. 29
Block
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. . . . . . . .Spaces
.......
iii) We have

1 − 3i 2 − i
1 1 1 + 3i 2 + i
∗ t
A3 = [1 + 3i 1 1 ] .A3 = A3 = [1 − 3i 1 1 ] = A3
2+i 1 0 2−i 1 0

So, A3 is hermitian. We have

−1 −1 − 3i −2 − i
−A3 = [−1 + 3i −1 −1 ] ≠ A∗3
−2 + i −1 0

since the entry in the first row, first column of A∗3 is one and the entry in
the first row, first column of −A3 is −1. So, A3 is not skew-hermitian.
E12) Let A = (aij ) be an n × n hermitian matrix and let A∗ = (a′ij ). Then, we have
A = A∗ or aij = a′ij = aji , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n. If A is hermitian, aij = a′ij = aij for
1 ≤ i, j ≤ n. In particular, if i = j, we have aii = aii , i.e. the complex
conjugate of aii is itself. So, aii is real for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
E13) Let A = (aij ) be an n × n hermitian matrix and let A∗ = (a′ij ). Then, we have
a′ij = aji , 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n. If A is skew-hermitian, −aij = a′ij = aij for 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n. In
particular, if i = j, we have −aii = aii , i.e. the complex conjugate of
aii + aii = 2Re (aii ) = 0. So, the real part of aii = 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

E14) a) We have

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c11 = 1 ⋅ (−2) + 2 ⋅ 1 = 0
1 3 1
1 1

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c12 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 3 = 7
1 3 1
1 1

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c13 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 1 = 3
1 3 1
1 1

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c21 = (−1) ⋅ (−2) + 0 ⋅ 1 = 2
1 3 1
1 1

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c22 = (−1) ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 3 = −1
1 3 1
1 1

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c23 = (−1) ⋅ 1 + 0 ⋅ 1 = −1
1 3 1
1 1

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c31 = 1 ⋅ (−2) + 1 ⋅ 1 = −1
1 3 1
30 1 1
Unit
. . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Matrices
........
1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c32 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 3 = 4
1 3 1
1 1

1 2
−2 1 1
[−1 0][ ] c33 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 = 2
1 3 1
1 1
So, we have

1 2 0 7 3
−2 1 1
[−1 0] [ ] = [ 2 −1 −1]
1 3 1
1 1 −1 4 2

b) 1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c11 = 1 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ 1 = 2
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c12 = 1 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (−1) = −1
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c13 = 1 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 = 1
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c21 = 0 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ 1 = 1
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c22 = 0 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (−1) = −2
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c23 = 0 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 = 0
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c31 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 0 + 2 ⋅ 1 = 3
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c32 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ (−1) = 0
1 1 2 1 −1 1
1 −1 1 1 1 1
[0 −1 1][0 1 1] c33 = 1 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 1 = 4. Therefore
1 1 2 1 −1 1

1 −1 1 1 1 1 2 −1 1
[0 −1 1] [0 1 1] = [1 −2 0]
1 1 2 1 −1 1 3 0 4

E15) Let A = (aij ), B = (bij ). Let us write At = (a′ij ), Bt = (b′ij ) where a′ij = aji and
b′ij = bji . Let C = AB = (cij ), C′ = Bt At = (c′ij ), D = (AB) = (dij ) and
D′ = (AB)t = (d′ij ). Then, We need to prove that D′ = C′ or d′ij = c′ij . We have 31
Block
. . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Vector
. . . . . . . .Spaces
.......
c′ij = cji , d′ij = dji for 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n. We have
n n n
′ ′ ′
cij = ∑ bik akj = ∑ bki ajk = ∑ ajk bki …(10)
k=1 k=1 k=1

n
d′ij = dji = ∑ ajk bki …(11)
k=1

From Eqn. (10) and Eqn. (11), it follows that d′ij = c′ij .

E16) a) x1
1 0 3 −1 1
x2
[1 2 0 −1] [ ] = [ 3 ]
x3
1 0 2 −1 −1
x4

b) x1
1 1 3 −1 1
x2
[1 2 −1 5 ] [ ] = [ 1 ]
x3
1 0 2 −1 −3
x4

32