ENG 2016

MODULE 3
Analysis of Structures

In the civil engineering field, most analysis of forces are done on structures. These analyses
translate to different kinds of concepts and assumptions. There are many kinds of structure.
This section will limit to those that are pin-connected. Two types of pin-connected structures
will be covered here; pin-connected trusses and pin-connected frames. In the actual structure,
the joints may be welded, riveted, or bolted to a gusset plate at the joint. However as long as
the center-line of the member coincide at the joint, the assumption of a pinned joint maybe
used.

LESSON 1 – Method of Joints for Simple Trusses

OBJECTIVES
To apply the previously discussed principles in statics in analysing simple trusses using method
of joints.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome students! In this lesson, we are going to apply the principles discussed in the previous
modules in analysing simple trusses. There are different methods in solving the member forces
of a truss however; in this lesson we will only focus on how we are going to use method of
joints.

PRE-TEST
Where do you usually see a truss?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES
In the civil engineering field, most analysis of forces are done on structures. These analyses
translate to different kinds of concepts and assumptions.

Here are the general types of structures:

1. Beam – a simple member subjected to

transverse loadings and should be
properly connected.

2. Truss – composed of members/bars

assumed to be connected by frictionless
pins; loads are applied at nodes;
members form triangular divisions.

3. Frames – composed of members that are

connected by rigid joints; passing a cutting
plane through any point exposes internal
shear, axial and moment at that section.

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Trusses are used for two general purposes: (1) as roof trusses and as (2) bridge trusses.
A truss is a structure that is made of straight, slender bars that are joined together to form a
pattern of triangles. Trusses are usually designed to transmit forces over relatively long spans;
common examples are bridge trusses and roof trusses. A typical bridge truss is shown in the
figure below.

The analysis of trusses is based on the following three assumptions:

1. The weights of the members are negligible. A truss can be classified as a lightweight
structure, meaning that the weights of its members are generally much smaller than the loads
that it is designed to carry.

2. All joints are pins. In practice, the members at each joint are usually riveted or welded to a
plate, called a gusset plate, as shown in the figure. However, if the members at a joint are
aligned so that their centroidal axes (axes that pass through the centroids of the cross-sectional
areas of the members) intersect at a common point, advanced methods of analysis indicate
that the assumption of pins is justified.

3. The applied forces act at the joints. Because the members of a truss are slender, they may
fail in bending when subjected to loads applied at locations other than the joints. Therefore,
trusses are designed so that the major applied loads act at the joints.

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Our primary interest is to know the forces acting in the bars and upon the pins of the structure.
Each member of the truss is either in tension or compression. A member in tension causes
forces which pull away from its end joints whereas a member in compression causes forces
which push towards the end joints.

Method of Joints
When using the method of joints to calculate the forces in the members of a truss, the
equilibrium equations are applied to individual joints (or pins) of the truss. Because the
members are two-force bodies, the forces in the FBD of a joint are concurrent. Consequently,
two independent equilibrium equations are available for each joint.

Example #1: To illustrate this method of analysis, consider the truss shown in the figure. The
supports consist of a pin at A and a roller at E.

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Ax

Ay Ey

It is usually a good idea to start the analysis by determining the reactions at the supports using
the FBD of the entire truss. The FBD of the truss in the figure contains three unknown reactions:
Ax, Ay, and Ey, which can be found from the three available equilibrium equations.

Solution:

∑ 𝑀 A=0: ∑ 𝐹𝑦 =0 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 =0
8000(6) + 3000(12) - Ey (24) = 0 Ay – 8000 – 3000 + 3500 = 0 Ax = 0
Ey = 3500 lb Ay = 7500 lb

Let us now determine the forces in the individual members of the truss. Because the force in a
member is internal to the truss, it will appear on a FBD only if the FBD “cuts” the member,
thereby separating it from the rest of the truss. For example, to determine the force in
members AB and AH, we can draw the FBD of joint A—that is, the portion of the truss encircled
by the dashed line 1. This FBD contains the external reactions Ax and Ay and the member forces
PAB and PAH (the subscripts identify the member). Note that we have assumed the forces in the
members to be tensile. If the solution yields a negative value for a force, the force is
compressive. By assuming the members to be in tension, we are using an established
convention for which positive results indicate tension and negative results indicate
compression.

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Having previously computed Ax and Ay, the forces PAB and PAH are the only unknowns in the FBD
for joint A. Therefore, they can be determined from the two independent equilibrium equations
for the joint, as follows.

The negative value for PAB indicates that the force in member AB is compressive (wrong
assumption); the positive value for PAH means that the force in member AH is tensile (correct
assumption). To compute the forces in members BC and BH, we draw the FBD of joint B—the
portion of the truss encircled by the dashed line 2. This FBD is shown below. Note that the force
PAB is equal and opposite to the corresponding force in FBD of joint A. and that we again
assumed PBC and PBH to be tensile. PBC and PBH are the only unknowns in this FBD. The
equilibrium equations of the joint yield:

The negative values indicate that both PBC and PBH are compressive. We could continue the
procedure, moving from joint to joint, until the forces in all the members are determined.
Zero-force members
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There is a special case that occurs frequently enough to warrant special attention. Figure (a)
below shows the FBD for joint G of the previous truss. Because no external loads are applied at
G, the joint equilibrium equations Fx =0 and Fy =0 yield PGH = PGF and PGC =0. Because member
GC does not carry a force, it is called a zero-force member. It is easily verified that the results
remain unchanged if member GC is inclined to GH and GF, as shown in Figure (b). When
analysing a truss, it is often advantageous to begin by identifying zero-force members, thereby
simplifying the solution.

You may wonder why a member, such as GC, is included in the truss if it carries no force. The
explanation is the same as the one given for providing a pin support—rather than a roller—at A
for the truss. It is necessary to ensure the proper constraint of joint G. If member GC were
removed, the truss would theoretically remain in equilibrium for the loading shown. However,
the slightest vertical load applied to the joint at G would cause the truss to deform excessively,
or even collapse. Moreover, it is unlikely that the loads shown in the given will be the only
forces acting on the truss during its lifetime. Should a vertical load be suspended from joint G at
some future time, member GC would be essential for equilibrium.

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Example #2: Find the force acting in all members of the truss shown in the figure.

Solution:

Solve for the reactions first:

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
80(0.75) + 50(2) – RD(3) = 0
RD = 53.33 KN
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
-AH + 80 = 0
AH = 80 KN
Make sure to reverse the direction of the computed
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 force every time you transfer it from one FBD to
-Av – 50 + 53.33 = 0 another. (action-reaction theorem)
Av = 3. 33 KN

Joint A: Joint B:
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-3.33 + FAB( ) = 0 -5.56( ) + FBE= 0
FAB = 5.56 KN (T) FBE = 3.34KN (C)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
-80 + 5.56( ) + FAE = 0 -5.56( ) + FBC = 0
FAE = 75.56 KN (T) FAE = 4.45 KN (T)

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Joint E:
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-3.34 + FCE ( ) = 0
FCE = 5.57 KN (T)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
-75.56 + 5.57( ) + FFE = 0
FFE = 71.11 KN (T)

Joint F:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
-71.11 + FDF = 0
FDF = 71.11 KN (T)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-50 + FCF = 0
FCF = 50KN (T)

Joint C:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
-4.45 - 5.57( ) + 80 - FCD( ) = 0
FCD = 88.87 KN (C)

Joint D: (another solution)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
88.87( ) - FDF = 0
FDF = 71.11 KN (C)

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Example #3: Determine the force in each member of the crane shown in the figure.

Solution:

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At Joint B
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-FBCcos30 + FBDcos60 + = 0 ----- eq.1

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
FBCsin30 + FBDsin60 -120 = 0
FBCsin30 + FBDsin60 = 120 ----- eq. 2

FBC = 60 KN compression
FBD = 104 KN compression

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POST-TEST
1. Determine the force in members AB, BD, and CD of the truss shown in Fig. P-414. Also solve
for the force on members FH, DF, and DG.

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2. Determine the member forces using Method of Joints.

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LESSON 2 – Method of Sections for Simple Trusses

OBJECTIVES
To apply the previously discussed principles in statics in analysing simple trusses using method
of sections.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome students! In this lesson, we are going to apply the principles discussed in the previous
modules in analysing simple trusses. There are different methods in solving the member forces
of a truss however; in this lesson we will only focus on how we are going to use method of
sections.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Truss analysis by the method of joints is based on the FBDs of individual joints. Analyzing the
free-body diagram of a part of a truss that contains two or more joints is called the method of
sections. The FBD for a single joint results in a concurrent, coplanar force system (two
independent equilibrium equations). When applying the method of sections, the force system
will generally be non-concurrent, coplanar (three independent equilibrium equations).

In the method of sections, a part of the truss is isolated on an FBD so that it exposes the forces
to be computed. If the FBD for the isolated portion contains three unknowns, all of them can
usually be computed from the three available equilibrium equations. If the number of
unknowns exceeds three, one or more of the unknowns must be found by analyzing a different
part of the truss. If you are skillful in writing and solving equilibrium equations, the only
challenge in using the method of sections is selecting a convenient part of the truss for the FBD.

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Example #1: Consider once again the truss discussed in the preceding article [its FBD is repeated
in Fig. (a)]. We now use the method of sections to determine the forces in members BC, HC, HG,
and DF—each of these members is identified by two short parallel lines in Fig. (a).

Assuming that the external reactions have been previously computed, the first and most
important step is the selection of the part of the truss to be analyzed. We note that the section
labeled 1 in Fig. (a) passes through members BC, HC, and HG. The forces in these three
members are the only unknowns if the FBD is drawn for a part of the truss that is isolated by
this section. Note that after the section has been chosen, the portion of the truss on either side
of the cut may be used for the FBD. The forces inside the members occur in equal and opposite
pairs, so the same results will be obtained regardless of which part is analyzed. Of course, given
a choice, one would naturally select the less complicated part.

Ax = 0

Ay = 7500 lb Ey = 3500 lb

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Ey = 3500 lb

For our truss, using either the portion to the left or to the right of section 1 is equally
convenient. For no particular reason, we choose to analyze the left portion, with its FBD shown
in Fig. (b) (We have again assumed the members to be in tension). Note that the force system is
non-concurrent and coplanar, so that any set of three independent equations can be used to
compute the three unknown forces.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
7500 – 8000 + PHC( ) + = 0
PHC = 625 lb (tension)

∑ 𝑀𝐻 = 0 (to cancel PHC and PHG)

7500(6) + PBC(8) = 0
PBC = - 5625 lb compression

∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0 (to cancel PHC and PBC)

7500(12) – 8000(6) – PHG(8) = 0
PHG = 5250 lb tension

By using this method, we easily obtain the magnitude of those three forces without computing
for the magnitude of the other members.

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To determine the force in member DF by the method of sections, consider once again the FBD
of the entire truss in Fig. (a). Our intention is to isolate a part of the truss by cutting only three
members, one of which is the member DF. It can be seen that section 2 accomplishes this task.
We choose to analyze the part to the right of this section because it contains fewer forces. The
FBD is shown in Fig. (c), with the unknown forces again assumed to be tensile. Note that P DF can
be computed from the equation

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-PDF + 3500 = 0
PDF = 3500 lb tension

If desired, PEF could now be calculated using MD =0, and ME =0 would give PDC.

As you see, the forces in the members of a truss can be found by either the method of joints or
the method of sections. Selecting the method that results in the most straightforward analysis
is usually not difficult. For example, for the truss shown in Fig.(a), the FBD of joint A is
convenient for computing PAB, whereas the method of sections is more advantageous for
calculating PBC.

Example #2: The truss in the figure is pinned to the wall at point F, and supported by a roller at
point C. Calculate the force (tension or compression) in members BC, BE, and DE.

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Solution: (left of cutting plane a-a)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

-80 – 60 + FBE( )=0

√
FBE = 150.78 KN (T)

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 (to cancel FBE and FBC)

-80(4) + FDE(5) = 0
FDE = 64 KN (T)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 This problem doesn’t require us to solve for

the reactions first since the supports are not
64 – FBC + 150.78( )=0 visible in the left side of the cutting plane.
√
FBC = 120 KN (C)

Example #3: Compute the force in members BD, CD, and CE by the method of sections.
Solution: (left of cutting plane a-a)

∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0 (RAx = 0 since there’s no horizontal forces

to resist)

RAy (15) – 200(12) – 200(6) – 400(12) – 800(6) = 0

RAy = 880 KN

∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0 (to cancel FCD and FDE)

880(3) – FBD( )(6) = 0

√
FBD = 491.93 KN (C)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

880 – 400 – 200 + 491.93( ) - FCD( ) = 0

√ √
FBC = 1118.03 KN (C)

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∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

- 491.93( ) – 1118.03( ) + FCE= 0

√ √
FCE= 1440 KN (T)

CHECKPOINT #1
Compute the force in members BC and CE using ∑ 𝑀.

Example #3: In the Fink truss shown in the figure, the web members BC and EF are
perpendicular to the inclined members at their midpoints. Use the method of sections to
determine the force in members DF, DE, and CE.

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To simplify this problem, we can convert the given external loads into its equivalent force or
resultant located at the center since the loads are symmetrical. Use cutting plane M-N and focus
on the right side since the loads on the right are less complicated.

Solution:
Solve for the reactions first since RG is visible in the right side of cutting plane MN.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
80(6) – RG(12) = 0
RG = 40 KN

Refer to cutting plane MN:

(components of DF at G to
∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 cancel horizontal)

20(1) + 10(4) - 40(4) + FDF( )(4) = 0

√
FDF = 55.90 KN (C)
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-55.90( ) + FDE ( ) – 20 – 10 + 40 = 0
√ √
FDE = 18.03 KN (T)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
55.90( ) – 18.03 ( ) – FCE = 0
√ √
FCE = 40 KN (T)

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POST-TEST
1. Determine the force in bars BD, CD, and DE of the nacelle truss shown.

Solution:

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2. For the cantilever truss shown, determine the forces in members DF, FH, FI, GI, and FG.

Solution:

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LESSON 3 – Method of Members for Frames

OBJECTIVES
To analyse and solve problems consisting frames using Method of Members
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A three-force member is in general a non-axial member that is not simply in tension or
compression. A member of this kind has shear forces perpendicular to the member and
subjected to bending loads. If forces are applied to more than two positions on the member, it
is three-force member. Any beam is a three-force member according to the above definition.
Frames are pin-connected structures with some or all members are three-force members. To
analyze a frame, we can disconnect the three-force member from the structure and draw the
free-body diagram of the member. This approach is called the method of members.

In this method, three equilibrium equations can be written

Below is a figure that shows the difference between axial and non-axial (three-force) members.

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Example #1: The structure shown in the figure is hinged at A and C. Find the horizontal and
vertical components of the hinge force at B, C, and A.

Solution: (since both supports at A and C are hinges,

there are 4 unknowns. We can’t solve the reactions instantly.)

Isolate Member BC and solve for the unknown forces:

Since the FBD in Member BC is symmetrical in terms of loading and supports, C v and Bv will equally
resist the load 20 KN.

CV and BV = 10 KN (or you can solve it using∑ 𝑀.

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
-CH + BH = 0
CH = BH ----- eq.1

Isolate Member AB and solve for the remaining unknowns:

Don’t forget to reverse the direction of BH and BV (action-reaction)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
AV – 10 – 10 = 0
AV = 20 KN

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
-BH (4) + 10(30) + 10(4) = 0
BH = 17.5 KN = CH

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
AH – 17.5 = 0
AH = 17.5 KN

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Example #2: Each member of the frame shown in the figure weighs 50 lb per ft. Compute the
horizontal and vertical components of the pin pressure at C, D, and F.

Solution:

Total weight of each member:

Isolate Member CE:

∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
600(6) – Dv(8) +2000(12) = 0 CH = D H
Dv = 3450 lb
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
CV – 600 + 3450 - 2000 = 0
CV = 850 lb

Isolate Member CE:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
FV – 500 - 3450 = 0 FH – 4933.33 = 0
FV = 3950 lb FH = 4933.33 lb

∑ 𝑀𝐻 = 0
500(4) + 3450(8) – DH(6)= 0
DH = 4933.33 lb = CH

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Example #3: The billboard BC weighing 1000 lb is subjected to a wind pressure of 300 lb/ft as
shown in the figure. Neglecting the weights of the support-members, determine the
component of the hinge forces at A and F.

Solution: (since both supports at A and C are hinges,

there are 4 unknowns. We can’t solve the reactions
instantly.)

300(10) = 3000 lb
Considering the whole system:

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
3000(9) + 1000(6) – FV(12) + FH(4) = 0
FV(12) - FH(4) = 33000 ---- eq.1

∑ 𝑀𝐹 = 0
AV(12)+AH(4) +3000(5) – 1000(6) = 0
AV(12)+AH(4) = -9000 ---- eq.2

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
-AH + 3000 + FH = 0
AH - FH = 3000 ---- eq. 3

Isolate member BC: Isolate member CD:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
BV + CV -1000 = 0
300(10) = 3000 lb

BV + CV = 1000 ---- eq. 4

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
3000(5) – CH(10) = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
CH = 1500 lb
1500 - DH = 0
DH = 1500 lb
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
3000 – BH – 1500 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0
BH = 1500 lb 1500(2) – DV(6) = 0
DV = 500 lb = CV

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Isolate member DF:

∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 Substitute FH to eq. 3:
1500(4) – FH(4) = 0 AH - 1500= 3000
FH = 1500 lb AH = 4500 lb

Substitute AH to eq. 2:
Substitute FH to eq. 1:
AV(12)+4500(4) = -9000
FV(12) - 1500(4) = 33000
AV = -2250 lb
FV = 3250
c lb

Example #4: For the frame shown, determine the horizontal and vertical components of the
hinge force at B as it acts upon member AC.
Solution:

Isolate the pulley:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
AH = 60 KN
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
AV = 60 KN

From the whole system:

∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0
-60(6) + CV(4) = 0
CV = 90 KN
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-60 + EV – 90 = 0
EV = 150 KN

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Solution:

Isolate Member DE:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
150 - BV = 0
BV = 150 KN
∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 You can also solve this problem
-60(8) + BH(3) = 0 by isolating member AC.
BH = 160 KN

Special Topic: Beams and Three-Hinged Arch

Example #5: A beam carrying the loads shown is composed of three segments. It is supported
by four vertical reactions and joined by two frictionless hinges. Determine the values of the
reactions.

Solution: (Problems with internal hinges can be solved similarly like in the previous ones. Just isolate
the members and solve the unknowns one at a time. Make sure to start in members having the least
number of unknowns.)

Isolate the first segment: (Hinges have 2 forces: Horizontal and vertical. However, in this problem
there is no horizontal external force. So, we can safely assume that all horizontal forces are zero in
value)

R1 and H1 = 20 KN since the FBD is

symmetrical in loading and supports.

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Isolate the third segment:

10(6) = 60 KN

H2 and R4 = 30 KN since the FBD is

symmetrical in loading and supports.

Lastly, isolate the second segment: Transfer the loads from segment 1 and 2 (action-reaction)

20(14) = 280 KN ∑ 𝑀𝑅3 = 0

-20(14) + R2(10) – 280(7) +30(4) = 0
R2 = 212 KN

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
-20 + 212 – 280 + R3 - 30 = 0
R3 = 118 KN

Example #6: Two trusses are joined as shown in the figure to form a three-hinged arch.
Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge force at B and then determine
the type and magnitude of force in bars BD and BE.

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Solution:

Considering the FBD of the whole system:

∑ 𝑀𝑐 = 0
AV(8) + AH(2) -24(6) – 72(2) = 0
AV(8) + AH(2) = 288 ---- eq.1

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
AV + CV - 24 - 72 = 0
AV + CV = 96 ---- eq.2

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
AH - CH = 0
AH = CH ---- eq.3

Isolate the left truss:

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 (To produce an equation similar to eq.1)

AV(4) - AH(4) -24(2) = 0

AV(4) - AH(4) = 48 ---- eq.4

Solve eq.1 and eq.4 simultaneously:

AV(8) + AH(2) = 288 ---- eq.1

AV(4) - AH(4) = 48 ---- eq.4

AV = 31.2 KN From eq. 2 and 3, the values of CH and CV can be

AH = 19.2 KN obtained.
CV = 64.8 KN
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 CH = 19.2 KN
31.2 - BH = 0
BH = 19.2 KN

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
31.2 – 24 - BV = 0
BV = 7.2 KN

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Solving for BD and BE, it is advisable to use Method of Sections to solve for its values faster. But if
you are more comfortable using Method of Joints, you may perfectly do so.

Refer to the left side of cutting plane MN.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
31.2 – 24 – FBE sin45 = 0
FBE = 10.182 KN (C)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
19.2 - 10.182cos45 - FBD = 0
FBD = 12 KN (C)

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POST-TEST
1. For the given truss below, compute the force in all members. Also, indicate if the force is in
tension or compression.

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2. A three-hinged arch is composed of two trusses hinged together at D as shown. Compute the
components of the reaction at A and G and then find the forces acting in bars BD and BC.

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3. Neglecting the weight of the frame, find the tension in cable CD.

4. Solve for the reactions of the given beam.

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