TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

⚫ Developed by the US Defense Advanced

Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET)
⚫ Used by the global Internet
⚫ No official model but a working one.
◦ Application layer
◦ Transport layer
◦ Internet layer
◦ Host-to-network layer
OSI v TCP/IP
TCP/IP Model
Host-to-network Layer (Physical and Data
Link)
⚫ Physical interface between data transmission
device (e.g. computer) and transmission medium or
network
⚫ Characteristics of transmission medium
• For activating, maintaining and deactivating the physical
link between communicating network systems
⚫ Signal levels
⚫ Data rates
Host-to-network Layer (Physical and Data
Link)
⚫ Exchange of data between end system and network
⚫ Destination address provision
⚫ Includes the LAN and WA N technology details and
all the details contained in the OSI physical and data-link
layers
⚫ Invoking services like priority
Internet Layer (IP)
⚫ Defines a packet and an addressing scheme
⚫ Transfers the data between the Internet layer and the Network
access layers
⚫ The purpose of the Internet layer is to select the best path through the
network for packets to travel
⚫ The main protocol that functions at this layer is Internet Protocol (IP)
◦ Internet Protocol
◦ ICMP, IGMP (Message)
◦ ARP, RARP (Address Resolution)
⚫ Systems may be attached to different networks
⚫ Routing functions across multiple networks and remote hosts
⚫ Implemented in end systems and routers
 Transport Layer (TCP)
⚫ The transport layer provides transport services from the source host to the
destination host.
⚫ Logical connection between the endpoints of the network, the sending host and the
receiving host
⚫ End to End control provided by sliding windows and reliability in
sequencing numbers and acknowledgements
⚫ Also defined as end to end connectivity between host applications
⚫ Reliable delivery of data
⚫ Ordering of delivery
◦ TCP and UDP (User Datagram)
🞄 Segmenting upper layer application data
🞄 Sending segments from one end device to another end device
◦ TCP only
🞄 Establishing end to end operations
🞄 Flow control provided by sliding windows
🞄 Reliability provided by sequence numbers and acknowledgements
 Application Layer
The Application layer in the TCP/IP model is equivalent to the upper three layers (Application,
Presentation, and Session Layer) of the OSI model.
It deals with the communication of the whole data message. The Application layer provides an
interface between the network services and the application programs
Protocols Used in Application Layer

DNS: Domain Name System:

Translates human readable domain names (for eg., www.amazon.com) to machine readable IP
addresses (for example, 192.0.2.44).
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol:
HTTP Protocol gives users a way to interact with web resources such as HTML files by transmitting
hypertext messages between clients and servers.
The Hyper-Text Markup Language, or HTML is the standard markup language for documents designed to be
displayed in a web browser
Other protocols

FTP: File Transfer Protocol

TELNET: Terminal Network

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

TCP/IP Concepts
 TCP UDP
Connection oriented Connectionless Protocol
Re-Transmission of data No Re-Transmisson
Used for Non-real time application Used for real time application
eg. Mail, document, pdf eg. Video call, Live streaming
Slower and reliable Faster and non-reliable

IP Address MAC Address

32 bits 48 bits
Represented in decimals Represented in Hexa-decimals
Router needs IP address to forward data Switch needs MAC address to forward
data
192.88.45.65 70-20-84-00-ED-FC
• TCP/IP • OSI
• OSI refers to Open Systems
• TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
Interconnection.

• TCP/IP uses both the session and presentation • OSI uses different session and
layer in the application layer itself. presentation layers.

• TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal

• OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.

• The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide • In the OSI model, the transport layer
assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.

• While in the OSI model, Protocols are

• Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP
better covered and are easy to replace
model.
with the technology change.

• TCP/IP model network layer only provides • Connectionless and connection-oriented

connectionless (IP) services. The transport services are provided by the network
layer (TCP) provides connections. layer in the OSI model.
PDUs in TCP/IP
Addressing
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Physical Addresses
• The physical address, also known as the link address, is
the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
• It is included in the frame used by the data link layer. It
is the lowest-level address.
• The physical addresses have authority over the network
(LAN or WAN).
• The size and format of these addresses vary depending
on the network.
 Physical Addresses

• In the above figure, a node with physical address 10

sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The
two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology
LAN).
• The computer with physical address 10 is the sender,
and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.
 Physical Addresses
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte)
physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits;
every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a
colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

Logical Addresses
• Logical addresses are necessary for universal
communications that are independent of underlying
physical networks.
• Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have
different address formats.
• A universal addressing system is needed in which each
host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the
underlying physical network.
• A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit
address that can uniquely define a host connected to the
Internet.
• No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the
Internet can have the same IP address.
 Logical Addresses
Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs.
Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses
(logical and physical) for each connection.
Each computer is connected to only one link and therefore
has only one pair of addresses.
Each router, however, is connected to three networks (only
two are shown in the figure).
So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
Logical Addresses
Port addresses
• The IP address and the physical address are necessary
for a quantity of data to travel from a source to the
destination host.
• Today, computers are devices that can run multiple
processes at the same time.
• The end objective of Internet communication is a
process communicating with another process.
• In the TCPI/IP architecture, the label assigned to a
process is called a port address.
• A port address in TCPI/IP is 16 bits in length.
Port addresses
Two computers
communicating via the
Internet.
Sending computer is running
three processes with port
addresses a, b, and c.
Receiving computer is running
two processes with port
addresses j and k.
Process a in the sending
computer needs to
communicate with process j in
the receiving computer.
Although physical addresses
change from hop to hop,
logical and port addresses
remain the same from the
source to destination.
 Port Addresses
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by
one decimal number as shown.
753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
 Specific addresses
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are
• designed for that specific address.

• Examples include the e-mail address (for example,

[email protected]) and the Universal Resource Locator
(URL) (for example, www.mhhe.com).
• The first defines the recipient of an e-mail and the second is
used to find a document on the World Wide Web.
• These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding
port and logical addresses by the sending computer
Performance Metrics
One important issue in networking is the performance of
the network—how good is it? We discuss quality of
service, an overall measurement of network performance,
in greater detail in module 6.

• Bandwidth - capacity of the system

• Throughput - no. of bits that can be pushed
through
• Latency (Delay) - delay incurred by a bit from
start to finish
• Bandwidth-Delay Product
Bandwidth
• One characteristic that measures network performance is
bandwidth.
• However, the term can be used in two different contexts
with two different measuring values: bandwidth in hertz
and bandwidth in bits per second.
• The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of
frequencies in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.
• The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to
the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.
Often referred to as Capacity.
Throughput
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually
send data through a network.
• Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and
throughput seem the same, they are different.
• A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only
send T bps through this link with T always less than B.
• In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement
of a link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how
fast we can send data.
• For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of
1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of the
link may handle only 200 kbps.
• This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps
through this link.
 Problem 1
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of
12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of
10,000 bits.What is the throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

Latency (Delay)
• The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an
entire message to completely arrive at the destination
from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.

• The latency is made of four components: propagation

time, transmission time, queuing time and processing
delay.

Latency =propagation time +transmission time +queuing

time + processing delay
Latency (Delay)
⚫ Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel
from the source to the destination..
◦ Propagation time = Distance/Propagation speed
⚫ Transmission time is the amount of time from the beginning
until the end of a message transmission.
◦ If a digital message, it is the time from the first bit until the
last bit of a message has left the transmitting node.
◦ Transmission time = Message size/bandwidth bps
⚫ Queuing time - time needed for each intermediate or end
device to hold the message before it can be processed. The
queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load
imposed on the network.
Bandwidth-Delay Product
• Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a
link.
• However, we will discuss in future, what is very
important in data communications is the product of the
two, the bandwidth-delay product.
• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits
that can fill the link