PRE-UNIVERSITY REMEDIAL PROGRAM FOR THE 2014 E.C.

ESSLCE EXAMINEES

Unit One: Hobbies and Crafts

1.1. Listening Skills - My favorite free -time activity - Listening for details

1.2. Grammar.
Activity: Think-Pair-Share

What does grammar mean?

At a high level, the definition of grammar is a system of rules that allow us to structure
sentences. It includes several aspects of the English language, like: Parts of speech (verbs,
adjectives, nouns, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, modifiers, etc.) Clauses (e.g.
independent, dependent, compound)

1.2.1. Simple present tense - Active and passive forms

Simple present is also called present simple.

Activity
A. For what purpose do we use the simple present tense?

B. What should be the form of the verb in this tense either in the singular or the plural

subject?

The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place regularly, never or several
times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set
by a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the present.

1. For repeated or regular actions in the present time period.

I take the bus to the university.

The buses to the university leave every morning.

Aster sleeps eight hours every night during the week.

2. For facts

The President of The USA lives in The White House.

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 A dog has four legs.

Milk is white.

3. For habits.

I get up early every day.

Fatuma brushes her teeth twice a day.

They travel to Awassa every year.

4. For things that are always/generally true.

Man is mortal.

The human body contains 206 bones.

Water boils at hundred degrees centigrade.

We often use adverbs of frequency like sometimes, always and never with the present simple:

I sometimes go to the cinema.

She never plays football.

Activity
Write your own sentences with the present simple to indicate the various uses of
the tense.

Negative Sentences in the Simple Present Tense

To make a negative sentence in English we normally use Don't or Doesn't with all verbs
EXCEPT To Be and Modal verbs (can, might, should etc.).

Affirmative: You speak French.

Negative: You don't speak French.

You will see that we add don't between the subject and the verb. We use Don't when the
subject is I, you, we or they.

Affirmative: He speaks Amharic.

Negative: He doesn't speak Amharic.

When the subject is he, she or it, we add doesn't between the subject and the verb to make a
negative sentence. Notice that the letter S at the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence
(because it is in third person) disappears in the negative sentence.

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Present Simple Active and Passive Forms

Look at these two sentences:

1.Mother mixes teff flour and water to make injera.

1. 2. Injera is made from a mixture of teff flour and water.
Sentence 1 tells us who does the action. The verb is in the present simple active form.

Sentence 2 does not tell us who does the action, but what happened. It is in the passive.

We use passive verbs when who does the action is not important. We want to focus on what

happened, not who did it.

Activity.

Rewrite these sentences in the passive form.

1. Mother allows the mixture to ferment for several days. The mixture …

2. Then she bakes the injera on a clay plate over a fire. Then the injera …

3. She pours the mixture onto the baking surface.

4. She does not roll it out.

5. We tear off small pieces of injera to hold the stew or salad for eating.

6. The injera soaks up the juices and flavors.

7. Most Ethiopians eats injera daily.

1.2.2. Present progressive tense -Active and passive forms

Activity (Work in pairs)

A. What is the present perfect tense?

B. What is the form of the present perfect tense?

C. When do we use this tense?

The Present Continuous Formula: to be [am, is, are] + verb [present participle

In English grammar, the present progressive is a verb construction comprised of a present

form of the verb "to be" plus a present participle that usually conveys a sense of ongoing
action at the present time. The present progressive is used to describe an activity currently in
progress.

For example, "I am reading right now."

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Notice this construction is distinct from the simple present ("I read"), the present perfect ("I
have read"), and the present perfect progressive ("I have been reading").

The present progressive also occurs when a speaker is referring to things that are planned for
the future, e.g., "I am reading at the event tomorrow."

Present Progressive Tense

We use the present progressive tense:

1. When somebody is doing something at this moment.

A. Sarah is changing her clothes right now.

B. Her boyfriend is waiting for her.

C. We are learning the progressive tense in English.

2. When something is happening at this moment. When the action has started but hasn't
finished.

A. It is snowing at the moment.

B. The economy is growing at an exponential rate.

C. The children are sleeping so please be quiet.

3. To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not
necessarily at that exact moment.

A. Kassahun is studying a lot for his exam.

B. I'm reading a great book. (Not necessary right at this moment)

C. We are planning a trip to Jamaica. Signal Words: English Present Progressive Tense

Verbs that we don't use in the Progressive Tense

Another difference is that there are some verbs in English that we don't use in the progressive
tense. These include:

Belong Have (possession) Like Own Remember

Cost Hear Love Seem Understand

Hate Know Need Want

Different Meanings

In questions the same verb can change the meaning depending on if it is in the present
or the present progressive tense.

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Differences in meaning of verb

Statement Meaning

What do you do? What is your job?

What are you doing? What are you doing at the moment?

What do you read? What do you like to read?

What are you reading? What are you reading right now?

Signal words can help us decide which tense to use. The signal words for the present
progressive are:

at the moment

now, just now, right now

Listen!

Look!

Activity

Fill in the correct form of the Present Progressive as in the examples.

1.The runners are approaching the finish line. (approach)

2. Are you preparing the contract for the client? (prepare)

3. Joyce isn‘t playing in today‘s tournament. (not play)

1. The team members late to finish the bid. (stay)

2. What Arnie over there? (do)

3. you a big wedding? (plan)

4. The computers finally like they‘re supposed to. (run)

5. Ann in from New York tonight? (fly)

6. I Peter for a drink later. (meet)

7. How much money they in the company? (invest)

8. He to you. (Not lie) He the truth. (tell)

1.2.3. Present perfect tense -Active and passive forms

Activity

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From your previous knowledge:

What is the form of the present perfect tense?

For what purpose do we use this tense?

The present perfect tense is formed by using has or have with the past participle (that is, -ed
or -d added to the infinitive form). Irregular verbs have irregular past participles, sometimes
the same as, sometimes different from, their past simple form:

Infinitive Past simple Present perfect

Regular Work I worked I have worked
Irregular Run I ran I have run
See I saw I have seen
Think I thought I have thought

We use the present perfect tense to show that an action is related to both the past and the
present:

The action started in the past and continuous into the present.

I have been at this school for two years.

The action was in the past but in a time which is related to the present.

I haven‘t seen Abebe today.

The action was in the very recent past.

The president has opened a new hospital in our town.

The simple past shows that an action took place in the past. It has no relation with the
present.

I went to the market yesterday.

We use the present perfect tense to describe an action which finished at some time in the past,
but we don‘t know exactly when, for example:

We‘ve often eaten Doro Wat. (But we are not told exactly when)

She has already arrived. (The action is finished, but no time information is given) Remember

in the present perfect tense, we use has for one person, and have for more than
one and change the form of the verb.

T h e Use of „For ‟, „S in ce ‟, and „Ago‟

Notice how for, since and ago are used as time expressions.

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 A. A period of time + ‗ago‘. „ago‟ is used with verbs in the past simple.
The OAU was established half a century ago.

B. For + a period of time. We use for when we measure the duration – when we say how
long something lasts. For can be used with verbs in any tense or form.
The OAU was in existence for almost 40 years.

C. Since + a point of time in the past. Since is used with verbs in the present perfect
tense.
The OAU has been in existence since 2002

Activity.

Write your own sentence using ‗for‘, ‗since‘ and ‗ago‘ and compare it with your partner.

Forming the present perfect

Remember, we use the past simple if we know when the past action finished. We use the
present perfect when the action has finished but we don‘t know when. Negative forms of the
present perfect use not between has or have and the past participle:

She has not worked all day.

They have not gone to school.

To ask a question in the present perfect, we put has or have before the noun or pronoun:

Has she seen the new film?

Have you done the assignment?

Activity
Write the past tense forms of the following verbs and compare it with your partner.

lose ring write visit feed tell listen

make think give ask fall wipe eat

play sweep sing clean go choose

1.2.4. Simple Future tense

Activity: Pair-share

What is the form of the future tense?

When do we use this tense?

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Any action that is scheduled to happen in the future comes under the agenda of the future
tense. Like any other tense, Future Tense too can be detected by the verb form and the
auxiliaries used.

How to form the simple future

The formula for the simple future is will + [root form of verb].

I will learn a new language.

Kemal will read that book.

My brothers will sleep till noon if no one wakes them up.

You will see what I mean.

It doesn‘t matter if the subject is singular or plural; the formula for the simple future doesn‘t
change.

But…

There is another way to show that something will happen in the future. It follows the formula
[am/is/are] + going to + [root form verb].

I am going to learn a new language.

Kemal is going to read that book.

My brothers are going to sleep till noon if no one wakes them up.

You are going to see what I mean.

The going to construction is common in speech and casual writing. Keep in mind though that
it‘s on the informal side, so it‘s a good idea to stick to the will + [root form] construction in
formal writing.

How to make the simple future negative

To make the simple future negative, the formula is will + not + [root form].

Fatuma will not quit before she reaches her goal.

Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow because the bus will not wait for you.

He will not say anything bad about his boss.

I will not finish my homework in time for class.

Using the “going to” construction, the formula is [am/is/are] + not + going to + [root
form].

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 Fatuma is not going to quit before she reaches her goal.

Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow because the bus is not going to wait for you.

He is not going to say anything bad about his boss.

I am not going to finish my homework in time for class.

How to ask a question

To ask a question in the simple future, the formula is will + [subject] + [root form].

Will Helen finish War and Peace over the summer?

Will I have the discipline to study Spanish every day?

What will you buy with the money you found?

The formula for the “going to” construction is [am/is/are] + [subject] +going to + [root
form].

Is Helen going to finish War and Peace over the summer?

Am I going to have the discipline to study Spanish every day?

What are you going to buy with the money you found?

The simple future is a verb tense that‘s used to talk about things that haven‘t happened yet.

This year, Aster will read War and Peace.

It will be hard, but she‘s determined to do it.

Use the simple future to talk about an action or condition that will begin and end in the
future.

There are several different ways of talking about the future:

The present continuous:

1 We are having a party at the end of term.

2 I‘m not playing football after school today. (Future arrangements)

3 Are my uncle and aunt visiting us next weekend?

going to

1 I‘m going to do my homework before football.

2 I‘m not going to watch the film on TV tonight. (Future plans)

3 Are you going to buy anything at the market today?

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will / won‟t

1 Cities will be cleaner. (Predictions about the future)

2 We will not (won‘t) have a good crop of maize this year. (What we think will happen)

3 Which school will you go to next year?

Markers of Future Tense

Tomorrow Years to come Coming week Ensuing year

Next Next day Coming month Following day

Following Next month Coming year Following week

Days to come Next week Ensuing week Following month

Months to come Next year Ensuing month Following year

1.2.5. Verb forms

Activity

Discuss these questions with your partner

Do you know the different kinds of verbs?

What do you know about the forms of verbs?

What is the form of regular verb?

What is the form of irregular verb?

What Is a Verb Form?

A verb form is a way in which a verb is shaped or modified in order to suit the context that
speaks about an action that is performed at a specific time. The five verb forms in English are
root verb, third person singular present form of verb, present participle, simple past and past
participle.

Root Verb with Examples

The root verb is the verb in its original form, without any inflexion or change. The root form
of the verb is used as the base form to create the other forms of the verb. Keep in mind that
this is not the case with all verbs. The root form of the verb is modified when conjugated to
represent other forms of the verb only for regular verbs. Irregular verbs have unique ways in
which they are conjugated, and not all remain the same.

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Root verbs are most often used to indicate the simple present tense. Let us take a look at the
following examples of how the root verb is used in sentences.

Examples of Root Verbs:

I love watching movies with my friends. (Root verb – love)

I finish my homework before 6 p.m. everyday. (Root verb – finish)

You play really well. (Root verb – play)

You are beautiful. (Root verb – be)

In the above examples, the verbs ‗love‘, ‗finish‘, ‗play‘ and ‗are‘ are used in their original
form, and so they are called root verbs.

Third Person Singular Present Form with Examples

The third person singular form of the verb is used to represent the simple present tense. As far
as regular verbs are concerned, the third person singular form is indicated by the addition of
an ‗s‘ or ‗es‘ to the end of the root verb.

Examples of Third Person Singular Present Form:

Ali likes having cereal for breakfast.

Root verb – like; Third person singular form – likes

Habtamu teaches English for sixth grade students.

Root verb – teach; Third person singular form – teaches

My father reads the newspaper every day.

Root verb – read; Third person singular form – reads

The Sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

Root verb – rise, set; Third person singular form – rises, sets

Present Participle Form of the Verb with Examples

The present participle form of the verb is formed by adding an ‗ing‘ to the base form/root
verb. In some cases, when the word is a monosyllabic word that ends with a vowel followed
by a consonant, the last consonant is doubled, and then the ‗ing‘ is added. For verbs ending
with an ‗e‘, the ‗e‘ is removed, and the ‗ing‘ is added in most cases. However, there are a few

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verbs that retain the ‗e‘ in the base form when converted to the present participle form of the
verb.

This form of the verb is used in the continuous/progressive tenses to indicate that the action is
still going on. It is also used to convert verbs into nouns that refer to an action.

Examples of Present Participle Form:

Words that have double consonants

Run – Running

Swim – Swimming

Forget – Forgetting

Sit – Sitting

Cut – Cutting

Examples of regular verbs converted to the present participle form

Cry – crying

Try – Trying

Read – Reading

Write – Writing (‗e‘ is removed)

Age – Ageing (‗e‘ is retained)

Simple Past Form of the Verb with Examples

The simple past form of the verb is used to denote an action that took place in the past. It is
usually formed by adding an ‗ed‘ or ‗d‘ (for words ending in ‗e‘) to the end of the root verb.
However, there are irregular verbs that do not follow the general rule. Let us look at a few
examples of the simple past form of the verb.

Examples of Simple Past Form:

Regular verbs in the simple past form

Cheat – Cheated

Dodge – Dodged

Jump – Jumped

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Skip – Skipped

Iron – Ironed

Verbs that take the same form as the root verb in the simple past form of
the verb
Read – Read

Cut – Cut

Put – Put

Let – Let

Hit – Hit

Hurt – Hurt

Irregular verb forms

Run – Ran

Sit – Sat

Sing – Sang

Throw – Threw

Fly – Flew

Bring – Brought

Buy – Bought

Think – Though

Ring – Rang

Find – Found

Lose – Lost

Meet – Met

Activity

Test Your Knowledge of the Five Forms of Verbs

Why not check your understanding of the five different verb forms? Fill in the blanks with
the suitable form of the verb in the following sentences.

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1. I (go) to school every day.

2. Tsehay (love) ice cream.

3. Did you (find) the pink dress I (ask) for?

4. I will (come) to the party tomorrow.

5. My mom (clean) the house yesterday evening.

6. My name (to be) Sheena D‘Souza.

7. That bottle (belong) to me.

8. My son, Siyum can (count) up to fifty.

9. Freddy will be (go) to work tomorrow.

10. Ahmed (play) football.

1.2.6. Asking questions

1.2.6.1 Wh- questions

Question words: we use question words when we ask a question to get specific
information.

We use:

● what for questions about things or actions: What did you do last night?

What do you want to eat?

● who and whom for questions about people: Who is coming to your party?

Whom will you invite to your party?

● where for questions about place: Where are you going?

● when for questions about time: When will the bus arrive?

● which for questions about choice: Which dress do you prefer?

● why for questions about reasons: Why did you go to Kenya?

Work with a partner and use these question words to ask each other questions. Try to use
each of the question words from the example above.

Example:

What is your name?

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Where do you live?

How old are you? etc

Activity

Choose a question word from the list to complete these questions and then give short
answers to each question.

Who? What? Why? Which? Where? How?

1. of these materials do I need to make a mat: sisal or clay?

2. do you use banana fibers for?

3. can you buy some wood carvings?

4. makes carvings in stone?

5. many times must you fire a glazed pot?

6. does an artist need a palette?

7. colors of thread are there in the carpet?

8. does a potter fire his pots?

9. do you prefer, paintings or pottery?

10. does papyrus come from?

1.2.6.2. Yes/No questions

Activity: Pair-share

What do you know about Yes/No questions

Yes / No questions (closed questions)

In English, there are two basic types of questions: Yes / No questions and Wh– questions.
Yes / No questions are also called closed questions because there are only two possible
responses: Yes or No. When forming a Yes / No question, it must include one of these verbs:
BE, DO, HAVE, or a modal verb. It is impossible to ask a Yes / No question without one of
these verbs.

Use the verb be to ask Yes / No questions about the identity or description of a person, place,
or thing.

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Question Response

1.Am I your friend? Yes. / Yes, you are. / Yes, you are my friend.

2. Is this a good restaurant? No. / No, it is not. / No, it is not a good restaurant.

3. Are these islands Greek? Yes. / Yes, they are. / Yes, these islands are Greek.

4. Was his idea interesting? No. / No, it wasn‘t. / No, his idea was not interesting.

5. Were they happy? Yes. / Yes, they were. / Yes, they were happy.

Note that the response can be short (Yes. / No.), or long: Yes or No followed by the
subject and verb.

Use the verb BE to ask a Yes / No question about a current activity or situation. This
requires the present progressive: BE + (verb+ing).

Question Response

Am I going with you and Teshome? Yes. / Yes, you are.

Is she working today? No. / No, she isn‘t.

Are we seeing a play tomorrow? Yes. / Yes, we are.

Use the verb BE to ask a Yes / No question about a past activity or situation. This requires the
past progressive: WAS / WERE + (verb+ing).

Question Response

Was it raining? Yes. / Yes, it was.

Were they playing? No. / No, they weren‘t.

Use the verb BE to ask a Yes / No question with the passive voice.

Question Response

Is gold mined in Canada? Yes. / Yes, it is.

Are flowers grown here? No. / No, they are not.

Was the book read? Yes. / Yes, it was.

Use the verb HAVE to ask if somebody has done something or if some action has taken
place. Note that these Yes / No questions use the present perfect (HAVE + past
participle).

Question Response

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Has your brother left? No. / No, he hasn‘t.

Have you driven before? Yes. / Yes, I have.

Has the party started? Yes. / Yes, it has.

1.2.6.3. Tag questions

Activity: Think Aloud

From your previous knowledge, what is a tag question?

A tag question is a small question that is attached, or "tagged", to the end of a sentence.
Rather than repeat the main verb, a form of "be" or other auxiliary verb or modal is used in
the tag. We use tag questions to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Is that
right?" or "Do you agree?" They are very common in English.

The basic structure of a tag question is:

Positive statement takes negative tag

Example. Snow is white, isn't it?

Negative statement takes positive tag

Example. You don't like me, do you?

Answering Tag Questions

How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat
the tag and reverse it (They don't live here, do they? Yes, they do).

Here are some more examples, with correct answers:

1.The moon goes round the earth, doesn't it? Yes, it does.

2. The earth is bigger than the moon, isn't it? Yes.

3. The earth is bigger than the sun, isn't it? No, it isn't!

4. Asian people don't like rice, do they? Yes, they do!

5. Elephants live in Europe, don't they? No, they don't!

6. Men don't have babies, do they? No.

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7. The English alphabet doesn't have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn't.

Tag Question Special Cases

Negative adverbs

The adverbs never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely have a negative sense. Even
though they may be in a positive statement, the feeling of the statement is negative. We treat
statements with these words like negative statements, so the question tag is normally positive.
Look at these examples:

positive statement treated as negative statement positive tag

1.He never came again, did he?

2. She can rarely come these days, can she?

3. You hardly ever came late, did you?

4. I barely know you, do I?

Imperatives

Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the sentence
remains an imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use won't for invitations. We
use can, can't, will, would for orders.

Imperative + question tag notes

Take a seat, won't you? polite invitation

Help me, can you? quite friendly

Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would you? quite polite

Do it now, will you? less polite

Don't forget, will you? with negative imperatives only will is possible

Additional points

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1.In the present form of be: In an affirmative statement, if the subject is “I”, the
auxiliary changes to aren‟t in the tag.

I‘m sitting next to you, aren‘t I?

I‘m a little early, aren‘t I?

2. With let‟s, the tag is shall we?

Let‘s go to the beach, shall we?

Let‘s have a coffee, shall we?

3. With an imperative, the tag is will you?

Close the window, will you?

Hold this, will you?

4. We use an affirmative tag after a sentence containing a negative word such as never,
hardly, nobody.

Nobody lives in this house, do they?

You‘ve never liked me, have you?

5. When the subject is nothing, we use “it” in the tag.

Nothing bad happened, did it?

Nothing ever happens, does it?

6. If the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone or everyone, we use

“they” in the tag.

Nobody asked for me, did they?

Nobody lives here, do they?

7. If the main verb in the sentence is have (not an auxiliary verb), it is more common to
use do in the tag.

You have a Ferrari, don‘t you?

She had a great time, didn‘t she?

8. With used to, we use “didn‟t” in the tag.

You used to work here, didn‘t you?

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 He used to have long hair, didn‘t he?

9. We can use affirmative tags after affirmative sentences to express a reaction such as
surprise or interest.

You‘re moving to Brazil, are you?

Activity.

Here is an exercise for you to check how far you have understood the use of question tags.
Go through and add question tags to the following sentences.

1. You must be there by 11:30 a.m.,

2. Gobeze is not present today,

3. The teacher had asked you to submit an address proof,

4. He is the prime suspect,

5. Hellen and Lula were not here,

6. Get me the duster,

7. I don‘t think your sister will be pleased to see this,

8. You will have waited for me,

9. They brought a bottle of wine when they came,

10. Desalegne and Aster have a baby girl,

1.2.6.4. Indirect questions

Activity: Pair-Share
Work in pair and share what you know about indirect questions.

An indirect or embedded question is a part of a sentence that would be a question if it were

on its

own, but is not a question in the context of the sentence, for example:

I don‘t know where she has gone.

Could you tell me where the bank is.

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Look at the two ways we can ask for help or information. Which of these questions are more
polite?

Where is the bus stop?

Could you tell me where the bus station is?

Does the bus to Werder leave from here?

Do you know if the bus to Werder leaves from here, please?

Asking questions politely

These polite questions are called indirect questions. They are important when we ask
strangers for information. Notice how indirect questions are different from normal, direct
questions: They start with a short phrase, such as:

Can you tell me …?

Could you tell me …?

Do you know …?

The word order of the question is not like a normal question:

… where the station is?

… when the shop opens?

… how to get to the mosque?

… the way to the church?

We use if when there is no question word:

… if the bus leaves from here?

… if there is a bank near here?

We use a rising intonation with indirect questions as this makes them sound more polite. It is
polite to use a short phrase like Yes, of course or I‘m sorry I don‘t know the answer when we
answer the question.

1.3. Reading Comprehension

Activity: KWL Chart

Complete the first two columns of the table before you read the passage.
What I know about plants What I want to know about What I learned about plants
and animals. plants and animals. and animals (post reading

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 activity)

Plants and Animals

Plants and animals do not live apart as I many ways they are important to each other. Most
green plants can do very well by themselves. So long as there is sunlight, carbon dioxide in
the air, and water and minerals in the soil, they can make their own food.

The food of other living things even the food of meat-eating animals comes direct or
indirectly from the green plants. For example, some people eat mutton; comes from a sheep;
the sheep eats grass. These steps or links make up what is called a food chain. Without green
plants, all other living things would in time die of starvation.

Plants help animals and other ways too. They furnish homes and shelter for many animals.
Many birds, as is known, build their nests in trees. Deer and many other animals use bushes
for shelter. Beavers build their lodges from trees that they cut down. And even man depends
much upon plants for shelter because trees furnish the timber that goes into the making of his
house.

Animals repay some of this debt by helping plants. You may be aware that many insects and
some birds do important work for plants by pollinating them. You must have also learned
how animals often help plants by scattering seeds.

What is waste material for one of these kinds of life is often valuable substance of the other.
For example, animals give off carbon dioxide gas when they breath. When plants
manufacture food, they absorb this gas from the air. Using the carbon and realizing some of
the oxygen back into the air, the oxygen that is realized then is again available to animals.
Thus, the cycle continues animals help plants and plants help animals. Even dead plants and
animals help living ones because as the dead one decay they enrich the soil by adding
chemicals to it.

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All plants and animals have their enemies. Insects eat plants; birds eat insects; other animals
kills birds. But here too, animals are helpful to some living things but are harmful to others.

There are other rules in nature that act as checks and balances. For example if there are more
animals in a certain area than there is food to support them, some of the animals must migrate
or starve. In either case, the number of animals will be reduced until the balance between
animals and the available food supply is restored.

These helps and hindrances are constantly going on in the plant and animal world to achieve
what is called the balance in nature. As long as one living thing is dependent on another,
whenever the scales are tipped, nature takes steps to balance the scales again.

Comprehension

A. After reading the above reading passage carefully, answer the following questions.

1. The idea of this passage is that

A. Some plants are more important than others.

B. Some animals are more important than others.

C. Plants and animals are dependent on each other.

D. Some animals are more intelligent than others.

2. In certain area, there are more animals than there is food to support them. This indicates

A. An imbalance in nature.

B. Survival of the fittest.

C. Population explosion.

D. Crop failure.

3. In the passage it stated that

A. Only some green plants can do very well by themselves.

B. Animals cannot live by themselves.

C. Some animals can make their own food without depending on plants.

D. Some green plants can make their own food.

4. According to one of the paragraphs in the passage, plants help animals

A. in providing them with the food they need.

23
 B. in providing them with shelter and food.

C. in providing them with houses and shelter.

D. in killing some harmful insects.

5. In paragraph four it is implied that

A. Plants are indebted to animals.

B. Plants are indebted to animals.

C. Animals are not indebted to plants.

D. Animals are indebted to plants.

B. Write whether the following statements are true or false according to the reading passage.

1. Dead animals and plants enrich the soil by adding invaluable chemicals to it.

2. Man does not depend on plants in building his own house.

3. Without green plants, other living things could not exist in this world.

4. Oxygen which is very important to plants in making food is released by men.

C. Vocabulary Questions

Read the following sentences carefully and then decide which word or phrase is the most
appropriate definition for the underlined word.

1. Oceans and other water bodies of the world furnish homes for many sea animals.

A. offer B. provide C. build D. construct

2.Without green plants, animals would die of starvation. apart

A. from lack of strength. B. from lack of water C. from lack of food. D. from
lack of starch.

3.The decay of dead animals and plants enrich the soil.

A. fertile B. ruined C. fresh D. buried

4. Dead plants and animals enrich the soil.

A. fertile B. erode C. lessen D. diminish

5. Plants and animals do not live apart.

A. together B. in harmony C. separately D. side by side

D. Reference Questions.

24
 1. ‗they‘ para 1, line 3 refers

A. animals B. plants C. animals and plants D. minerals

2. ‗they‘ para 3, line 3 refers

A. animals B. plants C. beavers D. deer

3. ‗it‘ para 5, line 7 refers

A. plant B. animal C. oxygen D. soil

4. ‗his‘ para 3, line 4 refers

A. man B. beaver C. deer D. plant

1.4. Speaking

Activity: Group Work

What did you learn about plants and animals from the reading passage?

Classroom survey -Agreeing and Disagreeing.

You are going to have a class discussion on this subject:

Listening to the radio is a waste of time.

Work in a group with people who have the same opinion as you. In your group do the
following:

● Think of points to support your opinion. For example: Listening to the radio is important
because

without it we would not learn about world events.

● Think about possible arguments against your viewpoint and what you can say against them.
For example,

Argument 1: You can waste a lot of time listening to pop music.

Argument 2: Yes, but it gives me pleasure to hear local Ethiopian artists on the
radio.

When everyone is ready, you can begin the class discussion.

● Make sure everyone has the chance to speak.

● Listen carefully to what other people say and question or support what they have said.

● Keep the discussion going – don‘t wait in silence for other people to speak.

25
● Use some of these expressions:

In my opinion …

I think …

I‘d like to say that …

What do you think?

I‘m sorry I don‘t agree.

I agree / disagree.

I agree with you but …

I don‘t see it like that.

You‘re absolutely right.

That is / isn‘t true.

Yes, but don‘t you think …?

I‘m sorry but you‘re wrong.

1.5. Writing -Descriptive writing -Keeping a diary Assessment - Speaking - Writing

Revision
Questions

26
Unit two: Moral education and personal responsibility
Conditional sentences
Conditionals describe the result of a certain condition. The if clause tells us the condition (If
you study hard) and the main clause tells you the result (you will pass your exams). The order
of the clauses does not change the meaning.

Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.

1) Zero conditional

We use the zero conditional to talk about things that are generally true, especially for laws
and rules.
Ice melts if you heat it.
When the sun goes down, it gets dark.

The structure is: if/when + present simple >> present simple.

2) First conditional: the likely/probable condition

We use the first conditional when we talk about future situations we believe are real or
possible.

If I understand how English grammar works, I will pass the exam.

I will call you when I finish work.

In first conditional sentences, the structure is usually: if/when + present simple >> will +
infinitive.

It is also common to use this structure with unless, as long as, as soon as or in case instead
of if.

Abeba will leave as soon as her grandmother arrives.

I do not want to stay in Addis Ababa unless I get a well-paid job.
I will give you a key in case I'm not at the dorm.
You can go to the library, as long as you are back by midnight.

3) Second conditional: the unlikely and imaginary conditional

The second conditional is used to imagine present or future situations that are impossible or
unlikely in reality.

I would fly if I were a bird.

If I won a lottery, I would buy a big house in this city.
I would not worry if I were you.

The structure is usually: if + past simple >> + would + infinitive.

27
When if is followed by the verb be, it is grammatically correct to say if I were, if he were, if
she were and if it were. However, it is also common to hear these structures with was,
especially in the he/she form.

If I were you, I would not wear this glass.

If she was prime minister, she would invest more money in primary schools.
He would travel more if he was younger.

4) Third conditional: the imposable conditional

We often use the third conditional to express regret or to complain about something.

If I‘d known about the conditional sentences before, I would not have failed my English test

This is the way we imagine how things could have been different in the past. If something
had been different, something else would have happened. Notice that both the condition and
the result are impossible now.

If I had travelled to Tanzania I would have visited Mount Kilimanjaro.

In this case, the speaker didn‘t travel to Tanzania so she/he didn‘t visit Mount Kilimanjaro.

We can also use negatives to talk about things that did happen in the past.

He wouldn‘t have missed the bus if he hadn‘t overslept.

= (So he overslept and he missed the bus.) When you‘re using this kind of conditional be
careful with the contractions. We use‘d for would and had.

If I‘d seen him, I‘d have asked him to come over. (Had, would)

We can use other verbs apart from would or might.

E.g. If they had told me, I might have been able to help.

The third conditional is used to imagine a different past. We imagine a change in a past
situation and the different result of that change.

E.g. .I would have passed the exam If I had understood the instructions properly.
In third conditional sentences, the structure is usually: If + past perfect >> would have + past
participle.

The voices: Active and passive

Change the following active sentences into passive

Ethiopian grows teff.

We had accepted the proposal and granted the money.

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He has killed the lion.

Lock the door.

Who will give the talk on today‘s seminar?.

Has the doctor given you your letter of discharge?

Modula Auxiliaries
Expressing ability: General ability vs. specific abilities
We usually use could or couldn't to talk about general abilities in the past.

I could play Piano before I joined university.

My sister could not cook until she went to high school.
Ability on one occasion – successful

When we talk about achieving something on a specific occasion in the past, we use was/were
able to (= had the ability to) and managed to (= succeeded in doing something difficult).

The thief was able to get in through the bathroom window.

The thief managed to get in through the bathroom window even though it was locked.

Could is not usually correct when we are talking about ability at a specific moment in the
past.

We also use used to talk about something that happened regularly or was the case in the past,
but is not now. E.g. my sister used to visit her parents every week when she was high a
school student.

Ability on one occasion – unsuccessful

When we talk about a specific occasion when someone did not have the ability to do
something, we can use wasn't/weren't able to, or didn't manage to.

I was not able to attend yesterday’s international conference due to illness.

They worked on it for months but they did not manage to find a solution.

Expressing obligation and advice: Have to, must and should

We use have to / must / should + infinitive to talk about obligation, things that are necessary
to do, or to give advice about things that are a good idea to do.

Must and have to are both used for obligation and are often quite similar. They are both
followed by the infinitive. E.g. I must eat now. / I have to eat now.

However, we often use must for more personal opinions about what it is necessary to do, and
have to for what somebody in authority has said it is necessary to do.

29
E.g. I must remember to get a present for party (my opinion).

You have to look after their behavior regularly. (Student advisor say so).

Do you have to wear uniform for school? (Asking about school rules)

Have to is more frequent in conversation; must is used more in formal writing, for example in
written notices. E.g. Drivers must fasten their seat-belts.

Have changes in the third person singular (he/she/it has); but must doesn‘t change. It‘s a
modal verb and modals don‘t change

We use both have got to, for obligation, and had better, for advice, a lot in speaking.

 I have got to be careful with a dog.

 I had better get something a bit quieter.
 I had better go, I mustn‘t miss the bus!

There is also important thing between must and have to

E.g. You mustn‘t forget … (don‘t forget – you have no choice)

If you don‘t like him, you don‘t have to see him again. (There is no obligation to see him
again, but you have a choice) or

In a non-smoking area you mustn‘t smoke, but in a smoking area you don‘t have to smoke
but you can if you want to.

Let‘s look at advice; telling people what you think is a good idea. We use should for advice,
or making suggestions, and must for strong advice.

 You must go for a walk with your friend at least once a day.
 Maybe you should go for a coffee or lunch and see how you feel?
 You shouldn‘t leave it on the street.

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Unit three: Education

3.1. Grammar

3.1.1. Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe nouns or pronouns. Common examples are good, nice, and easy.
There are several ways to recognize an adjective. One important way to recognize an adjective is by
its location in the phrase or sentence, so word order is important. Adjectives generally occur in two
different locations: (1) before a noun or (2) after the verb be.

Adjectives can be divided as attributive adjectives and predicative adjectives. Attributive adjectives
come before nouns, and predicative adjective come after the verb to be. Adjectives can also be
gradable and non-gradable. Gradable adjectives are adjectives that are used with comparative and
superlative degrees. Non-gradable adjectives are not used in comparative and superlative degrees.
Necessary, dead etc are non-gradable adjectives. We cannot say that something is more necessary
than the other.

We can also recognize an adjective by what it is doing in the sentence. Is it describing (delicious)? Is
it identifying a specific noun (the)? Is it telling whether it is near (this book) or far (that book) from
the speaker?

We can also identify an adjective by the question it answers. Adjectives often tell which one (This
book is mine), how many (I have six books), how much (No one received any mail today), or what
kind (Raw milk can be dangerous).

Another way to recognize some adjectives is by the ending (that is, the final suffix). According to the
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al., 1999), the seven most frequent
suffixes that mark an adjective are:

1. –al (final, natural, social)

2. –ent (current, different, excellent)

3. –ive (active, passive, positive)

4. –ous/–ious (famous, obvious, serious)

5. –ate (accurate, private, separate

6. –ful (beautiful, helpful, useful)

7. –less (endless, helpless, homeless)

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additionally, there are useful and common adjectives of suffix –y (crazy, easy, funny, health, hilly,
juicy, trendy, windy). However, many smaller adjectives do not have any overt endings: cold, short,
young.

What is the correct order of adjectives? Is it a red book or a book red? What happens if you have two
adjectives? Is it cotton white socks or white cotton socks? This is really two questions: (1) Do
adjectives come before or after nouns? and (2) when there are two or more adjectives, what is the
correct sequence?

The general rule is that adjectives come in this order: (1) opinion, (2) size, (3) age, (4) shape, (5)
color,(6) origin, (7) material. White is a color and cotton is a material, so we have to put white before
cotton. Many grammar books explain this rule, and students spend a lot of time memorizing the
sequence and then completing many exercises. Although this information may certainly be useful for
an English exam, it may not be so valuable for actually speaking English. The average native speaker
tends to only use one or occasionally two adjectives to describe any given noun in everyday speech.
Therefore, students who use more than two descriptive adjectives consecutively before a noun might
sound odd.

One final point here is that English also frequently uses nouns as adjectives. Examples include a wool
sweater, a bus station, a dinner invitation, a flower garden, and a wedding cake. In academic or
technical English, it is common to have multiple nouns functioning as adjectives

The order of adjectives can be shown as follows:

You can identify adjectives by asking one of the following questions and seeing if the word answers
any of these questions: which one?, what kind?, how many?, how much?, or whose? The English
language normally uses a particular word order when using more than one adjective to describe a
noun. Have you ever asked yourself why a phrase like the metal, ugly, big trash can is incorrect, and
the ugly, blue, metal trash can is correct? Below is an explanation about the order of adjectives.

1. determiner
2. Opinion: Ugly, beautiful, quiet, right, delicious, wonderful, terrible
3. Size: Short, big, small, huge, tiny, miniscule, large
4. Age: Old, young, ancient, antique, teenage
5. Shape: Round, square, triangular, circular, octagonal
6. Color: Yellow, reddish, mauve, beige, blue-green, off-white
7. Pattern: Striped, polka dotted, checked, plaid
8. Origin/Nationality: Southern, French, Korean, Saudi, African, Asian
9. Material: Cloth, metal, paper, aluminum

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 10. Purpose: Shopping, drinking, dining
 Degrees of comparison

Adjectives can be divided as gradable and non-gradable. Gradable adjective are used in
comparison; comparative and superlative degrees. Non-gradable adjectives, like dead and
necessary cannot be used in comparative and superlative degrees. A particular type of
gradability is known as ‗comparison‘. Comparison is a property associated with many
adjectives, including the most commonly occurring ones, expressed by three separate
inflectional forms known as absolute, comparative and superlative, for example:" Sally is
tall"," Sally is taller than Bill", and " Sally is the tallest in class". Regarding form, many (but
not all) adjectives take the comparative and superlative suffixes, "–er" and "–est",
respectively; thus: "new→ newer→ newest

An adverb describes an action (a verb) saying how, when, where something happens . So, an
adverb is a word that describes, limits, distinguishes, or otherwise talks about verbs. So,
adverbs are to verbs as adjectives are to nouns. Adverbs characterize or otherwise assign a
manner to their verbs, for example: "Connie jumped up quickly" (in a quick manner). Like
adjectives, many adverbs are gradable. Comparison, however, is normally expressed
analytically (e.g. heavily, more heavily, most heavily) rather than inflectionally (e.g. slow,
slower, slowest) .

Gradable adjectives and adverbs are used in three degrees of comparison: positive,
comparative, and superlative. The positive does not really compare; rather, it describes a
single object. Two objects are compared in the comparative, and three or more in the
superlative.

A. Positive Degree: An adjective or ad adverb is said to be in the positive degree when there
is no comparison. Positive degree simply shows the quality of a person or thing. Example:
Aster is a beautiful girl.
1. SAMENESS: When we want to talk about that two persons, places, animals or thins are
the same we use the as/so + adjective/adverb + as structure. Examples: A. Helen is
as/so beautiful as Aster. B. David played the flute as/so beautifully as John did. C.
Kobo is so/as hot as Hara.

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2. Differences: To show the difference in quality, quantity, degree, size shape etc of
something, we use the not as/so + adjective/adverb structure. Example: A. Helen is not
so smart as Aster. B. John is not so polite as David.
B. Comparative Degree:

The degrees of comparison in English grammar are made with adjectives and adverbs to
show how big or small, high or low, more or less, many or few, of the qualities, numbers, and
positions of the nouns (persons, things, places) in comparison to the others mentioned in the
other part of a sentence or an expression. Therefore, the comparative degree is the form we
use when we compare two things (a group of things). An adjective/ adverb is said to be in the
comparative degree when it is used to compare two nouns/pronouns.

In English a comparative adjective is generally formed by adding –er to a mono-syllabic

positive adjective. a superlative adjective is generally formed by adding –est to the positive.
When the positive has more than one syllable, more and most are generally used to form the
comparative and superlative, respectively. The adverb is formed similarly.

Comparative degree is formed based on some rules

1. Short adjective + ER. Comparative degree in one-syllable adjectives is made by

adding the inflectional suffix, "-er" to the absolute degree of the adjectives. Examples:
old  older, young  younger ,
2. CVC + ER (the final consonant is doubled)

big  bigger

hot  hotter

3. Short adjective ended in –Y  -IER

easy  easier

heavy  heavier

4. Long adjective: MORE + long adjective: Adjectives that have three or more syllables
usually require the words, more/most or less/least.

Examples: difficult--more difficult, most difficult, less difficult, least difficult, exciting 
more exciting, most exciting, beautiful  more beautiful

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 5. There are Irregular Comparative Degree of Adjectives which is formed differently.

Good - better

Bad - worse

Ill - worse

Far - farther/ further

Old - elder

Little - less

Much – more

Many - more

Note: We use THAN after the comparative form of the adjective.

John is taller than Mary.

C. Superlative Degree

An adjective/adverb is in superlative degree when it is used to compare more than two

nouns/pronouns. We use the article 'the' before the superlative degrees. Superlative degree
shows comparison of more than two persons or things: Some examples of the superlative
degree. Examples:

a. Helen is the tallest girl in the class.

b. She is the most beautiful girl in the school.
c. This is one of the worst crimes of all.
d. It is the best choice of all.
D. progressive comparison

Progressive comparison is also called double comparative degree. It use to express the
general increase or general decrease of something. (More and more/ -er and –er) is the
structure of progressive comparison.

Examples: A. The cost of living is getting worse and worse.

B. The weather of the town is becoming hotter and hotter.

35
 C. The appearance of the village is becoming more and more attractive.

E. Parallel comparison

Parallel comparison is used to express the parallel increase or decrease of something. The
structure of parallel comparison can be shown as:

The + comparative, the + comparative

Examples: A. The more you eat, the fatter you will be.

B. The older I get, the richer I will become.

Positive, comparative and superlative degrees can be summarized in the following table.

Positive degree Comparative degree Superlative degree

Hot Hotter Hottest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Big Bigger Biggest
Sad Sadder Saddest
Happy Happier Happiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Well Better Best
Little Less Least
Much/many More Most
Far Farther/further Farthest/furthest
In Inner Innermost, inmost
Up Upper Uppermost
Out Outer Outermost
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Interesting More interesting Most interesting

36
Speaking

1. Write sentences of your own about schools, towns, persons or places taking positive,
comparative and superlative degrees into account, and then speak aloud in the class.

3.1.2. Relative clauses

A relative (or adjective) clause modifies a noun or pronoun and is introduced by a relative
pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, or that) or occasionally a relative adverb (usually when,
where, or why). Relative clauses function as subordinate or dependent clauses and therefore
cannot stand alone as complete sentences. The relative pronoun (or adverb) is used to connect
the relative clause to an independent clause by referring to the noun or pronoun being
modified.

Relative clauses are the connectors—that, who, which, when, whose, and where—that we use
to define the noun that comes before the clause.

 Who--------------------- for person mostly in subjective case

 Whom ----------------- for person mostly in objective case
 That ---------------- for persons, animals, places or things
 Which------------- for thins, places
 Whose ----------- possessive

TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive. Each type has a
different function within a sentence and requires different punctuation.

A. Defining or restrictive relative clause: It defines the preceding subject. It is not

separated by a comma. In defining relative clauses, you cannot omit information from
the sentence without changing the intended meaning. Commas cannot be used around
defining relative clauses.
Example: The woman who lives next door is a doctor. Who lives next door tells us
which woman.
B. Non-defining/ non-restrictive relative clause: Non-defining relative clauses present
―extra‖ information that could be omitted. Commas are used around non-defining
relative clauses.

37
 Example: The man, who wears a green jacket, is a teacher.

3.1.3. Types of Adverbs

Adverbs tell us more about the verb, and are called modifiers of verbs. There are 5 different
types of adverbs.

1. Adverbs of Degree

For adverbs that answer ―how much‖ or to ―what extent‖, we use adverbs of degree. For
example, they usually modify other verbs, adjectives, or adverbs making them stronger or
weaker.

These types of adverbs modify adjectives but not the other way around. In other words,
adverbs can combine with other adverbs to put more emphasis on the verb. When you use
‗more‘, ‗most‘, and ‗least‘, they can show degree when describing a verb.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE EXAMPLES:

 He‘s very good at playing the piano.

 She‘s almost always late arriving at school.
 It‘s pretty interesting to see the history of China.
 The English test was extremely difficult.
 When he wears his running shoes, he moves more quickly among everyone.

2. Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency express ―how often‖ something takes place. In other words, it explains
the intensity of occurrence that an event happens. Adverbs of frequency are usually in this
form: Subject + Adverb + Verb. In addition, adverbs like ―daily‖, ―weekly‖, ―monthly‖ and
―yearly‖ describe frequency. But these adverbs of frequency answer ―how often‖ in a more
specific way.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY EXAMPLES:

 I usually go to the gym on weekends.

 She always wakes up at 7:00 am.

38
  The family rarely eats brown rice for dinner.
 I never take sick days.

3. Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner express how something happens. In most cases for adverbs of manner,
you can take an adjective and simply add -ly to form an adverb. For example, if you take the
sentence – ―The cat is quick (adjective).‖

Instead of describing a noun, an adverb describes or modifies a verb. In this case, the noun is
the word ‗cat‘. Because adverbs describe verbs, you need to add a verb in the sentence. For
example, you can use the verb ―to run‖ in this form – ―The cat runs quickly.‖

Adverbs of manner tell us the way or how to do something. However, not all adverbs end
with ―-ly‖. For example, the words ‗fast‘ and ‗well‘ describe verbs but do not end in ―-ly‖.

ADVERBS OF MANNER EXAMPLES:

 The cat runs quickly.

 She plays the violin terribly.
 The horse moved fast.
 She plays the piano well.

4. Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of Place describe ―where‖ an action takes place. In addition, we usually find adverbs
of place after the main verb.

For example, ―indoors‖, ―next week‖ and ―still‖ all describe where something happens.
Again, we often find these adverbs of place after a verb in a sentence.

ADVERBS OF PLACE EXAMPLES:

 If you want to see the hot air balloon, you will have to go outside.
 When she entered the classroom, she sat down.
 I searched everywhere but I couldn‘t find him.
 He walks downstairs to meet his father.

39
 5. Adverbs of Time

As with all adverbs, they tell us more about the verb. For adverbs of time, they tell us when
the verb happened or will happen. For example, ―afterward‖, ―every day‖ and ―recently‘ are
adverbs of time and describe ―when‖.

On the other hand, adverbs of time can describe the duration of an event that occurs. Also, it
can show when an action is complete.

ADVERBS OF TIME EXAMPLES:

 We‘ll go to the festival tomorrow.

 Yesterday, we played in the basketball tournament.
 She‘ll eventually finish studying and go to university.
 They ate popcorn and watched movies all day.

Note: If adverbs of manner, place and time appear in one sentence, their order is MPT(
manner, place, time).

3.1.4. Preposition

A preposition is a word (or group of words) that shows the relation of a noun or pronoun to
some other word in a sentence. Prepositions often describe relationships in time or space. A
preposition usually begins a phrase that ends in a noun or a pronoun. The noun or pronoun at
the end of the prepositional phrase is the object of the preposition.

Classification of prepositions

Prepositions are classified as simple and compound.

1. Simple
2. Compound
Simple preposition

Simple prepositions are single word prepositions form, of, on, with are the simple
prepositions.

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Examples:

1. The book is on the chair.

2. I don‘t work at night.
Compound preposition

Compound prepositions are more than one word prepositions ―in between‖ and because of
are the preposition made up of two words in front of and on behalf of are preposition made up
of three words.

Examples:

1. The book is ― in front of‖ the clock.

2. My English textbook is lying ― In between ― the two books ― War and peace‖ and ―
The lord of the Rings‖.
Kinds of preposition

1. Preposition of time
2. Preposition of place
3. Preposition of direction
Preposition of time

The preposition which is show the time when something is happens.

The preposition of time are ―at , on, for, to, during, by are the preposition of the time.

Examples:

1. I start work at 5a;00 am.

2. My brother birthday is on Tuesday.
3. In winter its too cold to work.
Preposition of place

Prepositions can be used to show where something is located. The prepositions of place are
―In, at, after, among, between are preposition of place.

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Examples:

They ran after the thief.

I hold the book between my thumb and fingers.

Prepositions of direction

Prepositions are used to show movement to or from a place.

Prepositions of direction are ―To through, across, back to, are the direction prepositions.

Examples:

1. I moved to Karachi in 1992.

2. She swam across the river.
3. He walked around the home.
Preposition Usage Example
In  months/seasons  in August/in the summer in
 years 1985
 time of day  in the evening
 centuries and historical  in the 19th century
periods  Mystic Market closes in two
 after a certain period of time hours.
At  time of days  at 2:30
 noon, night, and midnight  at night
 names of mealtime  at breakfast
 age  I learned how to use a computer
at 12
On Days of the week On friday
since from a period of time up to the I have been a student since 2004.
present (when it started)
For how long a period of time has I have been a student here for 2 years.
been

42
3.1.5. Direct and Indirect speech

A. Direct speech

We may report what someone has said without any change. This kind of reporting a speech
is called direct speech. The original words of the speaker will remain unchanged.

Reporting verbs like say, said, answered, replied etc may be used. The words of the speaker
will be put within a quotation mark.

Examples:

a. He said, ― I can speak English fluently.‘‘

b. ―I can speak English fluently,‘‘ he said.
c. ―I will come,‖ he said, ―if you invite me.‖
d. ― If you invite me, I will come,‖ he said.
e. He says, ― The sun is a star.‖

B. Reported speech

When we report what someone has said with our own words, it is called reported speech.
When we change direct speech into indirect speech, there will be changes.

General Rules of Changing Tense:

Rule 1: If the reporting verb in the direct speech is in the Present Tense, Present Perfect
Tense or Future Tense, then the Tense of the verb of the Reported Speech does not change.
Only the persons change.

Direct: She says, ―I am happy‖.

Indirect: She says that she is happy.

Direct: Rana has said, ―I have taken my lunch‖.

Indirect: Rana has said that he has taken his lunch.

Direct: Salma will say, ―I love ice-cream‖.

Indirect: Salma will say that she loves ice-cream.

43
Rule 2: When the reporting or principal verb is in the Past Tense, all Present tenses of the
Direct speech are changed into the corresponding Past Tenses.

a. A simple present becomes a simple past such as –

Direct: He said, ―I am sick‖. Indirect: He said that he was sick.
b. A present continuous becomes a past continuous such as –
Direct: She said, ―My mother is cooking food‖.
Indirect: She said that her mother was cooking food.
c. A present perfect becomes a past perfect such as –
Direct: Jaki said, ―I have finished my home task‖.
Indirect: Jaki said that he(Jaki) had finished his home task.
d. A present perfect continuous becomes a past perfect continuous such as –
Direct: The students said, ―We have been waiting for the bus for two hours.‖
Indirect: The students said that they had been waiting for the bus for two
hours.

Rule 3: Changing the Past Simple and Past Perfect Tense of the Direct speech at the time of
making indirect.

a. If the reporting verb is in the Past tense, the Past Simple tense of the Direct Speech is
changed into Past Perfect Tense. For example –
Direct: He said, ―The man died in the last night‖.
Indirect: He said that the man had died in the last night.
b. If the reporting verb is in the Past tense, the Past Continuous Tense of the Direct Speech
is changed into Past Perfect Continuous Tense. For example –
Direct: Jaki said, ―He was playing football.‖
Indirect: Jaki said that he had been playing football

Note: Past Perfect Tense and Past Perfect Continuous Tense do not change their forms in the
Indirect Speech.

Rule 4: The ‗shall‘ of the Future Tense is changed into ‗should‘ and the ‗will‘ is changed into
‗would‘.

Direct: Tamim said, ―I shall go to Dhaka the next day‖.

Indirect: Tamim said that he should go to Dhaka the next day.

44
 Direct: Ruma said, ―I will study hard‖.

Indirect: Ruma said that she would study hard.

Rule 5: The tenses may not change if the statement is still relevant or if it is a universal truth.
We can often choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them. The past tense is
often used when it is uncertain if the statement is true or when we are reporting objectively.

Direct: ―I know his address‖, said Kamal.

Indirect: Kamal said that he knows/knew her address.

Direct: The teacher said, ―The earth moves round the sun‖.

Indirect: The teacher said that the earth moves/moved round the sun.

Rule 6: If the reporting verb is in the Present Tense, the tenses of the Direct speech do not
change in the Indirect Speech. For example

Direct: He says, ―He is busy‖.

Indirect: He says that he is busy.

Direct: He has just said, ―He is going to America‖.

Indirect: He has just said that he is going to America.

Direct: Ruma says, ―She has passed the examination‖.

Indirect: Ruma says that she has passed the examination.

Rule 7: The modal auxiliaries (will, shall, can, may) of the Direct Speech are changed into
(would, should, could, might) in the Indirect Speech respectively. For example –

Direct: Father said to me, ―You will go to school tomorrow‖.

Indirect: Father said to me that I would go to school the next day.

Direct: Raju said, ―I shall call him‖.

Indirect: Raju said that he should call him.

Direct: He said, ―I can finish the work‖.

45
 Indirect: He said that he can finish the work.

Direct: Rakib said, ―I may stay here tonight‖.

Indirect: Rakib said that he might stay there that night.

Rules for Changing Person

Rule 8: The pronouns of the Direct Speech are changed, where necessary, so that their
relations with the reporter and his hearer, rather than with the original speaker, are indicated.
Observe the following examples:

Direct: He said to me, ―I don‘t believe you‖.

Indirect: He said that he didn‘t believe me.

Direct: She said to him, ―I do not follow you‖.

Indirect: She said to him that she didn‘t follow him.

Direct: I said to him, ―I don‘t like you‖.

Indirect: I told him that I didn‘t like him.

Direct: I said to you, ―I don‘t believe you‖.

Indirect: I said to you that I didn‘t believe you.

Rule 9: Words expressing nearness in time or place are generally changed into words
expressing distance in time and place. Thus –

now becomes then

here -----there
today -----that day
this ----that

these---- those
ago ----before

yesterday----- the day before

i. Changing statements into reported speech

In changing Assertive Sentence into Indirect Speech –

46
 (a) say/said, or tell/told are used depending on the tense
(b) inverted comma {― ‖} is omitted and conjunction ―that‖ is used, and finally
(c) the subject of the reported speech and verb, and the remaining parts are used.
Direct: Jaki Said, ―I am eating rice‖.
Indirect: Jaki said that he was eating rice.
Direct: Raju said, ―I will go to Dhaka tomorrow‖.
Indirect: Raju said that he would do to Dhaka the next day.
Direct: Mother said to her child, ―You are a bad boy‖.
Indirect: Mother said to her child that it (child) was a bad boy.
Direct: Teacher said to the students, ―You have done well in the examination‖.
Indirect: Teacher said to the students that they had done well in the examination.

Exercise:

A. Change the following direct speeches into indirect ones.

1. The man says, ―I shall do it.‖

2. He says, ―I went there yesterday.‖

3. He says, ―I am ready to go.‖

4. She said, ―I want to go.‖

5. I said, ―I have learnt my lesson.‖

6. Karim said, ―I am learning English.‖

7. Jaki said, ―I can do it.‖

8. He said, ―I am going to Dhaka.‖

9. Shammi said, ―I went to school.‖

10. Ruma says, ―She loves cricket.‖

11. Teacher says, ―The earth moves round the sun.‖

12. Mina said to me, ―I was sick.‖

13. He said, ―I was reading a book.‖ Mother said, ―I have finished cooking.‖

47
14. Rana says, ―I never tell a lie.‖

15. Ragib said, ―You did not help me.‖

B. Change the following indirect speeches into direct ones.

1.He said that he is ready to go.

2. He said that he was sorry for being late that day.

3. She said that she had not heard the news.

4. He told me that he was there to help me.

5. He said that he was fourteen years old.

6. The teacher said that twelve months make a year.

7. She said that she had been ill the previous day.

8. He said that he was reading a newspaper.

9. My friend said that she did not know her.

10. She said that the children sang, danced and played.

ii. Interrogative Sentence

 Rules for Changing Interrogative Sentence into indirect speech

In changing Interrogative Sentence into Indirect Speech –

(a) The Reporting Verb is changed into ‗ask‘, ‗enquire of‘ etc.

(b) If the Reported Speech starts with an Auxiliary Verb (do, does, did, shall, will, am, is, are,
were, were, can, may, have, has, had), then ‗If/whether‘ is used instead of ‗that‘.

(c) If the Reported Speech starts with an Interrogative Pronoun (who, whom, whose, what,
which, etc.) and interrogative Adverb (where, how, when), then instead of ‗If/whether‘ that
‗WH‘ word is used.

(d) The sentence is converted to Assertive sentence.

For Example:

48
Direct: Rana said to his mother, ―is the food ready?‖

Indirect: Rana asked his mother if the food was ready.

Direct: He said to me, ―Are you going to school?‖

Indirect: He asked me if I was going to school.

Direct: Teacher said to the students, ―Have you finished your task?‖

Indirect: Teacher asked the students if they had finished their task. Direct: He said to me, ―What are
you saying?‖ Indirect: He asked me what I was saying.

Direct: ―Where is the bank‖, asked the stranger.

Indirect: The stranger inquired where the bank was.

Direct: The Policeman said to us, ―Where are you going?‖

Indirect: The Policeman inquired us where we were going.

Direct : He said to me, ―Are you ill?‖

Indirect: He asked (or enquired of ) me if (or whether) I was ill.

III. Imperative Sentence

In changing Imperative Sentence into Indirect Speech –

(a) The Reporting verb is changed into request/ order/command/advise.

(b) Inverted Comma is omitted and ―to‖ is used.

(c) The remaining part of the reported speech is used accordingly.

For example:

Direct: He said to me, ―Please lend me your pen‖.

Indirect: He requested me to lend him my pen.

Direct: The teacher said to the students, ―Always speak the truth‖.

Indirect: The teacher advised the students to speak the truth always.

Direct: The captain said to his team mates, ―attack now‖.

49
 Indirect: The captain ordered his team mates to attack then.

Direct : My friend said to me, ―Go home at once.‖

Indirect : My friend told or advised me to go home at once.

Direct : He said to me, ―Do not go there.‖

Indirect : He told or advised or ordered me not to go there. Direct: I said to him, ―Please explain the
passage.‖

Indirect : I requested him to explain the passage.

Direct : I said to him, ―Excuse me, sir.‖

Indirect : I begged him to excuse me.

Note: If the Imperative Sentence is in Negative, then ―not‖ is used after Reporting Verb and then
comes ―to‖.

For example:

Direct: Mother said, ―Do not tell a lie‖.

Indirect: Mother advised not to tell a lie.

Direct: He said to me, ―Do not go today‖.

Indirect: He requested me not to go that day.

If there is ‗let‘ in an Imperative Sentence, the Reporting Verb is changed into propose/suggest, the
Inverted Comma is omitted and ―that‖ is used. Then ―they/we‖ + the verb of the Reported Speech and
the rest of the parts. For Example –

Direct: He said to me, ―Let us play football.‖

Indirect: He proposed me that we should play football.

Direct: Jaki said to her, ―Let us go for a walk.‖

Indirect: Jaki proposed her that they should go for a walk.

Direct: I said to him, ―Let us pray for the betterment of our country.‖

Indirect: I proposed him that we should pray for the betterment of our country.

50
 Direct : He said to me, ―Let us go home.‖ Indirect : He proposed or suggested to me that we
should go home.

Direct : I said to him, ―Let us have some music‖.

Indirect : I proposed or suggested to him that we should have some music.

Direct : He said, ―Let him do whatever he likes.‖

Indirect : He said that he might (or might be allowed to) do whatever he liked.

Direct : He said, ―Let me come in.‖

Indirect : He requested that he might be allowed to come in.

Direct : He said to me, ―Let him say whatever he likes, I shall certainly support.‖

Indirect : He told me that he (a third person) might say whatever he liked, but he (the speaker)
would certainly support me.

V. Changing exclamations into reported speech

In changing Exclamatory Sentence into Indirect Speech –

a. The Reporting Verb is changed into ―exclaim/exclaimed with joy or exclaimed happily‖ if the
Direct Speech expresses joy or delight.
b. b) The Reporting Verb is changed into ―exclaim/exclaimed with sorrow or grief, or exclaimed
sadly‖ if the Direct Speech expresses sorrow or grief.
c. c) Inverted Comma is omitted and ‗that‘ is used. d) Sometimes, very/great is used to qualify
the adjective

For example:

Direct: He said, ―Alas, I am undone‖.

Indirect: He exclaimed sadly that he was undone.

Direct: Raju said, ―How clever he is!‖

Indirect: Raju exclaimed that he was very clever.

Direct: He said, ―Bravo, we have won the game!‖

Indirect: He exclaimed with joy that they had won the game.

51
 Direct : He said, ―What a fool I am!‖

Indirect : He exclaimed with grief that he was a great fool.

Sentences that convey greetings, good-bye, farewell, etc. are changed in the following way: reporting
verb is changed into ‗wish‘ or ‗bid‘, etc.

Direct: He said, ―Good morning, my friend.‖

Indirect: He wished good morning to his friend.

Direct: He said to Raju, ―Good night, my friend.‖

Indirect: He bade good night to his friend Raju.

Direct: The man said, ―Farewell, my friend.‖

Indirect: The man bade farewell to his friend.

3.1.6. Letter writing

With the advent of emails and modern technology, the concept of writing Letters has taken a back
seats but the style persists and people use it while writing emails. Drafting Letters demands
meticulous attention. One should be careful about what is being written.

Following are some objectives of letters writing

 A Letter bridges communication gap between two or more parties.

 A Letter can create awareness, inform or provoke a thought in the receiver or the mass.

 A well-written letter is a good way to express one‘s feelings.

 A heartfelt letter acts as a personal memoir and may be preserved by the receiver.

Types of Letter

Letters are categorized into two types

1. Informal Letters

These are also known as personal letters, usually written to family, friends, relatives, neighbors or to
acquaintances. These letters may or may not have a concrete reason of writing. They may be written
just to share an experience, enquire about someone‘s how about, updating someone with a general
incident etc. In these letters we cover personal letters (letters to family, letters to relatives, love letters

52
and letters to elderly people) and social letters (letters to friends, social invitations,
congratulatory/apology letters, letters of condolence/sympathy, thank you letters).

2. Formal Letters

These letters are written to discuss business, apply for services, make requests, file/register complaints
etc. The foundation of these letters and categorization depends upon what is being discussed in the
letters. The Letters are short and to the point. The formulation of formal letters, letters of application,
official letters and letters to the Editor.

Formal letters are usually written for some of the following:

– To apply for a job.

– To make a complaint.

– To order goods.

– To the editor of a newspaper.

– To ask for something

– a form, an appointment.

– To ask for information.

– To make a booking for a holiday etc.

– To invite someone to an event or to visit such as a school open day or a JCSP celebration.

Points to note:

 The sender's address (your address), is on the top right hand corner.
 The address of the company/person to whom the letter is being sent is written on the left-
hand side.
 When you do not know the name of the person to whom you are writing, you may start with
'Dear Sir/Madam'.
 If you begin with 'Dear Sir/Madam', you end the letter with 'Yours faithfully', and your full
name.
 If you know the name of the person you are sending the letter to e.g. Dear Ms Smith, you end
the letter with ‗Yours sincerely‘ and your full name.
 Remember to use capital letters, full stops and commas.

53
 UNIT FOUR: WATER
This unit covers a reading passage about drought and its effects with ample reading tasks as
well as speaking and writing activities. Moreover, it incorporates grammatical aspects such as
quantifiers, articles and linking words.

Objectives of the unit: At the end of the unit, you are expected to:

 Become aware of the effects of shortage of water;

 Read the passage about Drought and answer questions;
 Identify the differences between as and like
 Use quantifiers correctly and complete tasks;
 Use linking words to connect separate sentences and complete tasks correctly.

4.1 READING

Drought

Activity 4.1: pre -reading questions

1. What are the serious challenges (man-made or natural) our world is experiencing now
a day?

._

2. Whatisdrought?

3. Have you ever experienced a drought season in your local area? If yes, what are the
effects

4. What should be done to prevent such

problems

Now read the following passage about Drought and answer the comprehension
questions following it.

1.A drought is a situation where there is a sustained lack of water, whether it comes from the
atmosphere (below-average precipitation), the surface, or the ground. Drought may be
declared after only 15 days or it may linger for months or even years. The ecosystem and
agriculture of the impacted area may suffer significantly, and the local economy may also
suffer. The likelihood of drought and consequent wildfires are considerably increased during
the annual dry seasons in the tropics. Heat waves can make drought conditions much worse
by accelerating the evaporation of water.

2. In recorded history, the Atacama Desert in Chile experienced the world's longest drought.
It lasted for 400 years. Since the beginning of time, humans have typically seen droughts as
"disasters" because of the effects they have on society and the availability of food. Humans

54
have frequently attempted to explain droughts by blaming them on either natural disasters
caused by humans or supernatural forces.

Drought and climate change

3.The majority of the world's climates frequently experience drought. But because of climate
change, these typical droughts are now more harsh and unpredictable. According to World
Health Organization (WHO), climate change-related increase in temperature is making
already dry regions drier and previously rainy parts wetter. This means that in dry areas,
increasing temperatures cause water to evaporate more quickly, which either increases the
likelihood of drought or lengthens existing droughts. Studies based on dendrochronology, or
the dating of tree rings, show that drought caused by climate change dates back to 1900.

4.Multiple drought-related elements, such as the amount of rain that falls and how quickly it
evaporates again, are impacted by climate change. Droughts will become more severe and
frequent throughout a large portion of the earth as a result of warming over land and an
increase in atmospheric evaporative demand.

5.It is almost impossible to conclusively link droughts to human-induced climate change due
to the scarcity of data on historical droughts. However, some regions, such the Mediterranean
and California, already clearly display a human stamp. In these areas, increased water
consumption, population growth, and urbanization, all exacerbate the effects of droughts.

Drought effects on the environment

6.The consequences of drought and water shortage can be grouped into three categories
environmental, economic, and social. Wetlands drying out, wildfires being more numerous
and intense, and biodiversity loss are some of the environmental repercussions. Lower
production of food, increased food production costs, issues with water supply for the energy
sector, and disruption of water supplies for local economies are just a few of the economic
implications. The detrimental impact on people's health who are directly impacted by this
phenomenon (extreme heat waves), high food prices, and stress brought on by poor harvests,
water scarcity, mass migrations, and humanitarian crises are only a few examples of the
social and health consequences.

Mitigation of the drought effects

7.Through crop rotation and irrigation, individuals can effectively lessen the effects of
drought on agriculture. Nowadays, inadequate drought mitigation methods have a serious
human cost that is made worse by ever-rising population concentrations. We can assist
farmers in developing drought-tolerant crops, managing existing water assets, and seeking
and alternative water sources.

8.There are several other measures to relieve, prevent or mitigate the effects of droughts. For
example, during droughts, many dams and the reservoirs they are connected to provide extra
water to the population and agriculture. Cloud seeding is another technique to mitigate the
effects of droughts. This is an intentional weather modification technique to provoke rain fall.
9.However, there is still no clear scientific confirmation of the usefulness of purposeful

55
weather modification. This remains a contentious issue. Desalination can be another
solution. It is the process of using seawater for drinking or irrigation. Finally, recycling water
may provide another source of water use. This is water that undergoes treatment and
purification to make it suitable for reuse.

10.The above measures can be very effective. However, if humans do not change their
behaviour, these measures will have limited effects. We have to stop polluting the
environment to reduce the effects of climate change. Moreover, because of the scarcity of
water, people must restrict its use to economize it. For example limiting the use of sprinklers,
hoses, or buckets on outdoor plants, and filling swimming pools are examples of outdoor
water consumption that have to be restricted. Green infrastructure must be used to improve
water management, boost building energy efficiency by reducing the amount of power drawn
from facilities that require water to operate, and make use of renewable energy sources like
solar and wind.

11.Droughts have become more frequent recently mainly due to climate change and
pollution. Governments and businesses must assess their drought vulnerability and develop
adaptation measures. By practicing and encouraging water conservation and improving water
efficiency throughout landscapes, city designs, and water infrastructure, they can assist in the
preparation for both upcoming droughts and climate change. They can help farmers plant
drought-resistant crops, find alternate water sources, and develop emergency drought
strategies.

12. Drought resilience can be increased as a side benefit of other actions that increase
resilience to other stressors, such as implementing green infrastructure for water
management, increasing the energy efficiency of buildings by using less power from plants
that depend on water to function and utilizing renewable energy sources like solar and wind.

Sources: Wikipedia/https://www.myenglishpages.com/english/reading.php//

Activity 4.2: While-reading Questions

A. Decide whether the following statements are true or false according to the
information given in the passage and justify your reasons.

1. Droughts may last for years.

2.Droughts triggered by climates change dates back to the beginning of the twentieth
century.

3.The causes of the droughts in some areas such as California and the Mediterranean may
not be due to human behaviour.

4. Improving human behaviour towards the environment is not essential in limiting the
effects of droughts.

56
B. Answer the following questions

1.What are the two important elements affected by climate change according to paragraph
2?

2. According to paragraph 11, Governments are expected to take measures such as

3. What is the main idea of paragraph

7?
.

4. Three categories of drouguht affected regions are

_,
and

5. What does economizing water

mean?
.

6. How can people restore the sufficient

rainfall?
_.

7. Write down the various mitigation techniques of drought and explain mentioned in the
passage?

_.

C. Reference Questions.
1.It… para 2, line 2

2.It…para 4, line 1

3.who…par 6, line 6_

4.they…para 8, line 2

5.they…para 11,line 5
6.this…..para 9, line 2

7. their….para10,line 1_

D. Guess the meanings of these words from the context;

1. ‗exacerbate‘….para 5, line 4

2. „repercussions‟ para6, line3

57
3. „disruption‟ para6, line 5

4. „ mitigate‟ par8, line 3

5. ‗contentious‘ para 9, line 2

6. ‗vulnerability‘ para 11,line 2

Activity 4.3 Post-reading Question

A. Write a short paragraph about drought mitigation techniques including your

actual experience around the environment, what is expected from citizens, from
the
government?

.
4.2 GRAMMAR LESSON: Like and As
I was treated like a dog - not literally true
 I was treated as a guest - real
 Plastic is bad for the planet, as everyone knows - AS can also be used as a subordinating
conjunction
 Your mobile is like mine - LIKE can also mean ―similar to
Choose 'as' or 'like'.
1. She works a teacher (it's her job).
2. I'm very my mother.
3. Julie loves mangoes as much I do.
4. He arrived I was leaving.
5. He works in a bank, his father.
6. I used a tea towel an oven glove and I burned it!
7. Your perfume smells flowers.
8. it was cold, I took a scarf.
9. He works a hairdresser (it's his job).
10. That woman looks my grandmother.
11. Please do it me.
12. She hates chocolate as much John.
13. the other students, Paul failed the exam.
14. London is just as busy Tokyo.
15. She often plays sports, tennis or football.

58
 16. Amanda works a lawyer (it's her job).
17. This room is just as hot the other room.
18. You look your sister.
19. She studied really hard, us.
20. We are as intelligent you.

We generally use LIKE and AS to make comparisons.

LIKE

LIKE = similar to; the same as.

The structure of the sentence is usually: VERB + LIKE + NOUN / PRONOUN.

 He speaks like a native speaker. (= He speaks similar to a native speaker)

 She looks like a supermodel.
 You look like him.
 Stop behaving like animals!

LIKE is mainly used as a comparison.

AS

AS = the way; in the same way; in the same condition

The structure of the sentence is usually: AS + SUBJECT + VERB.

 Nobody sings as she does. (= Nobody sings in the same way she does)
 They went to the party as they were.
 Please don't use my plate as an ashtray.
 As I said before, we have to get ready.

Notice how you could replace AS with 'the way' or 'in the same way' and maintain the same
meaning.

It is common in American English to use LIKE instead of AS. However, it is generally

considered informal to use it in this way.

 We play football like champions do.

Another use of AS is to say what the role/position/function of a person/thing is.

 He started work as a carpenter.

 She used the tapestry as decoration in her living room.
 I worked as an English teacher at the school.

59
LIKE vs. AS

Be careful, in similar sentences that use LIKE and AS, the meanings of each sentence are
very different. For example:

 As your boss, I must warn you to be careful. (I am your boss - I am in the role of boss
- REALITY.)
 Like your boss, I must warn you to be careful. (I am not your boss, but he/she and I
have a similar opinion. - COMPARISON)

Another example with different meanings:

 This curry is hot, like all good curries. (Like + Noun Phrase)
= Similar to all good curries
 This curry is hot, as it should be. (As + Clause)
= Comparing to the way a curry should be. Notice how after AS there is a Subject +
Verb (= a clause)

Quantifiers: Many vs. much: few vs. afew etc

Fill in: much, many, lots of, a lot of, little, most, a little, little, a few, few.
1. It seems we have had assignments in English this year.
2. How do we have to read this week?
3. Americans don‘t like George Bush
4. There aren‘t very books in the library.
5. I think he drank wine last night.
6. I have had headaches already because of the stress.
7. I didn‘t use fertilizer1 last spring, that‘s why we had so
weeds2 .
8. It has rained very this summer, that‘s why the grass is so brown.
9. people know as much about computers as Jack does.
10. I‘m having trouble passing my driving test.
11. I do have friends but not that many.
12. How juice is left in the bottle?
13. John had money with him so he couldn‘t even buy a bus ticket.
14. time and money is spent on education in Great Britain.
15. I know Spanish so I am going to have a problem when I get there.
16. of the children in our block have got roller skates.
17. Football is the only subject I know very of. It doesn‘t interest me that
much.
18. people can live without money. We simply need it.
19. There are leftovers for you in the refrigerator.
20. Is she already gone? – I‘m only minutes late.
21. There is doubt that Anne will win the contest.
22. There is not very dancing going on at the party.
23. people in the city ride a bike to work because you are simply
faster.
24. London has beautiful buildings.

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Note:

Quantifiers are adjectives or adjectival phrases that describe ―how much‖ (uncountable) or
―how many‖ (countable)† of a given noun there is. Some quantifiers can only go with
countable (precise quantity) nouns, while others can only
modify uncountable (imprecise quantity) nouns. A few quantifiers can modify both. Some
examples are listed below

For use with For use with both types of For use with
uncountable nouns nouns countable noun
A little, little No, none A few, few
A bit of Some (of) A number of
A great deal of Any Numerous
A large amount of A lot Several
Much Lots of Many
Plenty of (numbers)*
Enough

Examples
• The city had a large amount of traffic due to road construction.
• Not much rain in the spring meant that the crops suffered in the summer.

Some and Any are used before plural nouns

and uncountable nouns to talk about an
indefinite quantity
Articles (a,an and the)
Exercises (A) Complete the following sentences with articles(a,an the or o article)

1.Robert and Jessica went to party last night.

2.Can you tell me how to get to cinema from here?
3. college is closed today.
4.Gregory is one of strangest people I know.
5.I recommend you try _ tomato soup at this restaurant.
6. beer is not good for you.
7.Would you like to see film?
8. apple a day keeps doctor away.
9. I can't believe I failed yesterday's test!
10.Do you have dictionary that I can borrow?
11.There were many dogs in the park. One dog was
Dalmatian.
12.Pandas and tigers are both endangered animals.
13.Magda is wearing _ blue dress with red shoes
14.Bornholm is island in the Baltic Sea.
15.Christmas comes once year.
Excersice B: Fill in the gaps with the correct article (a, an, the, 0) when
necessary.
I am from Winchester, Hampshire. Winchester is_ city in United

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Kingdom. I live in town called Taunton which is on River
Tone. I live in house in quiet street in countryside.
street is called ―Hudson Street‖ and house is more than 100 years old! I
am English lecturer at college near center of town. I
like books, music and taking photographs. I usually have
lunch at college. I usually go -- home by_ car. We have all kinds of
food in England. I like Polish food very much. Sometimes, I go
to Polish restaurant in Bath. restaurant is called ―Magda‘s‖.
Polish food is delicious.
Additional Notes: Definite and Indefinite Articles Basically, an
article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two
articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an
is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article
and a/an the indefinite article.
For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's
read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.
Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular
member of a
group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many
movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.
"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For
example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific
movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any
movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.
Indefinite Articles: a and an
"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a
group. For example: "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to
any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.
"Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific
policeman; we need any policeman who is available.
"When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-
specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the
zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific
or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular
member of a group. For example:
"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that
bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a
particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a

62
 particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably
there is only one elephant at the zoo.

Linking Words (coordinating and subordinating conjunctions)

1. Coordinating conjunction
A coordinating conjunction is a linking word that joins two independent clauses. The most
common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Coordinating
conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. For example:
I drank tea and water.
I will go home quickly or stay here.
She studied hard, but she failed the examination.
Activity- 1: Write an appropriate coordinating conjunction in the space provided.

1. You read a news-paper every day, _you do not know what is going on in the
world.
2. Members of the churches met for dinner, they held an inter faith service.
3. The runner admitted taking steroids, he was forced to give up his medals.
4. Employers do not want the theft, do they want the expense and had publicity
of having an employee arrested.
5. You should return the paper on time, you will lose grade for lateness.

Activity- 2: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating

conjunctions.

1. A. The dog ate the food very fast.

B. It was very hungry.
2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian idols.
B. The Judge didn‘t allow him to pass the next stage.
3. A. She didn‘t bring her exercise book.
B. She didn‘t bring her pen.
4. A. The farmer worked all day and night.
B. He harvested a lot of crops.
B. Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words, phrases, and
clauses. Below are five pairs of correlative conjunctions commonly used in English:

Correlative conjunction Meaning Example

Both …… and Both Both Tariku and his son are artists.

―To accomplish great things, we must not only act but

Not only ……. But also Both
also dream; not only plan, but also believe.‖

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 Either ……or One of the two Either you or Susan must stay with me.
Neither …… nor None of the two He helps neither his parents nor his brothers.

Dilemma Yohanse is trying to decide whether to go to medical

Whether …….. or
/confusion/ school or to go to law school.

Correlative conjunctions always join grammatically equal elements in a language (e.g. noun
& noun, phrase & phrase, clause & clause, verbs & verbs etc.)

Example:

1. Both my sister and my brother work with computers.

(The Correlative conjunction joins the noun.)
2. Put your gold either in a bank or in a treasury account.
(The Correlative conjunction joins the prepositional phrases)
3. Either help us in our struggle for equality or step aside and let us pass.
( The Correlative conjunction joins two independent clauses.)
4. Betelhem became angry both with our singing and with our shouting.
( This Correlative conjunction links two prepositional phrases.)
5. She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
( The Correlative conjunction links two nouns.)
6. The teachers are not only intelligent but also friend.
(This is not correct because intelligent is an adjective and friend is a noun.)
7. The athletes did not know whether to run or walking in order to warm up.
(This is not correct because to run is the infinitive form, and walking is the present participle
form.)

Activity-3: In the space provided, write an appropriate correlative conjunction.

1. bananas oranges are cheap in this town; both

are expensive.
2. I am proud to be here happy to meet you. It is good
opportunity to me.
3. go to bed early this evening stop complaining about being tired in class.
4. When they found the man who had been lost for four days, he was tired
hungry.
5. the life of an individual the history of a society can be understood
without understanding both.‖
6. The newlyweds could not decide to live with her parents rent an apartment.
7. my uncle my cousin live in San Diego.
8. You could stay here go with us.
9. my brother my sister loves football. They always watch
English Premier League.

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 Activity- 4: Combine the following pairs of sentences.

Example: You can pay your fees in cash. You can pay your fees by cheque.

You can pay your fees either in cash or by cheque.

1. You can see her now. You can see her tomorrow.
2. He couldn‘t meet his mother. He couldn‘t meet his sister.
3. Belaynesh is a secretary. Her daughter is a secretary.
4. To go to Gondar, you can use a bus. To go to Gonder, you can use a plane.
5. Azeb is beautiful. She is honest.
6. I want to go to class. I want to go to my appointment.
7. America is a capitalist county. England is a capitalist country.
C. Adverb Conjunction
Adverb conjunction is an adverb used to relate and connect main /independent/ clauses in a
sentence. Common conjunctive adverbs are:
Also still consequently however indeed
Hence then furthermore moreover likewise
Thus instead nevertheless therefore otherwise
Besides on the other hand on the contrary
Example:
1. I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn‘t have to stand in line.
2. Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
3. The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were playing our song.
4. Meron is clever, besides, she is polite and kind.
5. The new model car is small; moreover, it consumes little benzene.
6. She recognized me; still she didn‘t talk to me.
7. Run away; otherwise, they will kill you.
8. We entirely agree with you on this issue. However, there is one objection.

The following table presents the meaning of different adverb conjunctions.

Meaning Adverb conjunction

Addition Furthermore, moreover, in addition, also, besides …
Contrast However, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary …

Alternative Instead, otherwise ….

Result Therefore, consequently, thus …

Comparison similarly, likewise

Emphasis namely, certainly, indeed

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 Activity- 5: In the space provided, use the appropriate conjunctive adverbs.
1. Sunshine Construction company is building a plant in Nazareth; , it is planning
to build another in Bahir Dar within three years.
2. Everyone liked the hotel; , no one was able to pay the required price.
3. She made coffee; , she cooked breakfast.
4. He teaches in private school; , he runs his own restaurant.
5. It‘s dark and you can‘t go out; , it is raining.
6. They wouldn‘t accept our demands; , we must fight them.
7. We entirely agree with you on this issue. There is one small objection, .
8. We were getting late; , we decided to take a taxi.

Activity- 6: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using the appropriate

conjunctive adverb.

1. He won the lottery. His father gave him a lot of money.

2. He worked hard. He became rich.
3. Abebe‘s parents are wealthy. They are not happy.
4. Bahir Dar is growing fast. Debre Markos is growing slowly.
5. He works in the supermarket. He learns in the evening.
6. They work in the same Department. They do not talk to each other.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same
sentence by using subordinators. Subordination uses a subordinating conjunction and relative
pronouns to make one clause dependent on another. The dependent clause is subordinated to
the independent clause.

The linking devices we use in subordination are:

A. Subordinating Conjunction
B. Relative Pronoun
A. Subordinating Conjunction: is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with
independent clauses. Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they must be joined to
an independent clause to be grammatically correct. They tell when, where, why, how, and to
what extent. More often we use a subordinating conjunction to show a difference in
importance and strength of ideas.

Examples:

1. Because the train was late, I arrived late to work .

2. Even though polar bears look like land animals, they are extremely skilled in the water.
3. Rahel was reading fiction while her brother was listening to music.
4. I never knew what love meant until I met you.
5. Wherever you can find an empty spot, just drop your luggage there.
6. Although I have called repeatedly, the credit card company has not corrected my account.
7. He won‘t listen to you unless you make him turn off the radio.

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8. My uncle always calls after he watches film.
9. She saves money so that she could build her own house.
10. We ate our lunch as soon as we arrived home.

Some of the common subordinating conjunction are given below:

Meaning Subordinating Conjunction

Reason Because, since, as,
Purpose so that, in order that
Contrast Although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while,
Condition Unless, if, as long as, provided that,
Result so………. that, such a(an)----that
Time After, until, as soon as, before, since, when, while, once, whenever,
Place Where, wherever
Comparison than as … as

Activity- 7: In the space provided, use appropriate subordinating conjunction

As, until, although, because, after, if, whenever, as soon as, where
1. It was easy for me, I help Aster write the letter.
2. Please come to my home you can.
3. had hurt my legs, I did not stop playing.
4. he ate his lunch, he went out for work.
5. He cannot study his lesson he is busy helping his parents.
6. he is thin, he won the race easily.
7. I will stay here my colleagues return from their meeting.
8. I found my book I had left them.

Activity- 8: Join the following sentences using the most appropriate

subordinating conjunction

1. Meron reaches home quickly. She will tell her father about the accident.
2. He works hard. He doesn‘t succeed.
3. The day was very cold. They continued their work.
4. She is a decent girl. Everyone likes to marry her.
5. He is poor. He is honest.
6. They have been very miserable. Their father died.
7. I took a taxi. I received your message.

B. Relative pronoun

Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to join subordinate
/dependent/ clauses with the independent sentences. They also introduce relative clauses.

Examples:

1. The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the seaport.

67
2. This is the purse that I found on the road.
3. The book which I bought yesterday cost me 4.50 Birr.
4. The girl whose pen you borrowed, has come to ask for it.

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Unit Five: Family Life (13 Hrs.)
5.1. Listening Skills
A Father‟s Voice
You are going to listen to a text in which a father talks about his son and daughter.

Listening for details

1 Listen and choose the best answer to these questions.

1 How does the father feel about his daughter‘s future?

a He is optimistic.
b He has some worries.

2 How does the father feel about his son‘s future?

a He is optimistic.
b He has some worries.

Note Taking
2 Listen again and make short notes in your exercise book on the father‟s views on these
topics.

1 His daughter‘s education.

2 Her plan to go to university in Addis Ababa.
3 The news that she has a boyfriend.
4 Her future marriage.
5 His son‘s plan to work with his uncle.
6 His son‘s values.
7 His son‘s plan to move to the city.
8 Imported music, films and television programs.
Vocabulary in context

3 Match the words on the left, which come from the listening text, with the meanings on
the right.

1. Potential a. Someone who buys and sells goods.

2. Distract b. To become larger, or to make something larger.
3. Trader c. Beliefs about what is right and wrong, or about what is
important in life.

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 4. Expand d. Abilities or qualities that may make someone or something
very successful in the future.
5. Values e. The place where someone or something began.
6. Roots f. To take someone‘s attention away from what they are doing.
4 In a small group, talk about the listening text.

1 To what extent are the views expressed similar or different to what your parents think?

2 To what extent do you think you are like the daughter or the son?

Listening
A father‘s voice
Before students look at the material in the Students‘ Book, ask them how most fathers feel
about their teenage daughters and what they want for them.
1 Introduce the activity and tell the class to listen for the answers to questions 1 and 2. Read
the listening text at normal speed – not too slowly. Elicit the answer from the class and put it
on the board.
2 Tell students to write the topics in their exercise books, leaving a few blank lines between
each one for their notes. Remind them to write their answers in note form, not full sentences.
Then read the script again. Afterwards give students a few minutes to finish their notes and
compare what they have written with their partners. Then ask for volunteers to put their notes
for different topics on the board.
3 Students can do this activity in pairs before you go through the answers with the whole
class.
4 Allow about five minutes for group discussion of these questions before asking each group
to report back a summary of what they said to the whole class.

Listening script
My daughter is intelligent, like her mother, and she has great potential. All through school I
have encouraged her to get a good education then she will get a good job, marry well and
have a good life in the future.

It was different when I was young. My father would not allow my sisters to go to school and
they were all married by the age of 15. My girl is different and she will have a different life.
But she has her own mind. She goes to school in the town and she‘s picking up ideas there
that I don‘t like. She talks of going to university in Addis Ababa. She has no elder brothers

70
there to look after her. I don‘t mind her going to college in our town, but not all the way to
Addis. She must stay at home until she gets married. When she gets a job, we will find her a
good husband.

Well, that is my idea, but I have heard that she is seeing a boy, another student at her school.
Our neighbour saw them in a café together. When I asked her about it she said she had done
nothing wrong. She kept silent when I asked her if he was her boyfriend. What will she do
next? If she has boyfriends it will distract her from her studies, she may get pregnant, and
then we won‘t be able to arrange a good marriage for her.

Then there is my son. He is younger than his sister, but also intelligent. He says he will be a
businessman. He has no time for school. He wants to leave after Grade 10. He works at
weekends with his uncle, my wife‘s brother. He is a trader. My son says he will help his
uncle expand the business. If he works hard, he will make a good life for himself. But he
wants money now: he wants a motorcycle, he wants smart shoes, he wants so many things.
Things he sees on TV. He is also picking up ideas I don‘t like. It worries me because he
doesn‘t seem to have any real values. Our traditions don‘t mean anything to him. He doesn‘t
want to live as he was brought up. He says he will live in the city. The countryside is not
enough for him. Our family have lived here for generations. He must have his roots here.
Without roots you are no one.

There are so many bad influences today: the music the young people listen to, especially the
imported music, is shocking and the films and TV programmes are worse. How can our
children stay on the right road with all these things around them? Our ways seem old-
fashioned to them. There is a right road but it is narrow and easy to take the wrong turning.
Will my children understand before it‘s too late?

5.2. Grammar
5.2.1. Talking about the future

The simple future refers to a time later than now, and expresses facts or certainty.
We can use different tense form to talk about future time

o Present continuous
o Be going to
o Simple future Will/shall

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 1. present Continuous

We use the present Continuous to refer to activities and events planned for the future, i.e.
to talk about future arrangements. We generally need an adverbial unless the meaning is
clear from the context: We're spending next winter in Australia

2. The 'going to'-future

The going to-future is formed with am/is/are going to + the base form of the verb

a. to express intentions

When there is any suggestion of intentions and plans, we tend to use the going to-future
rather than will in informal style:
I'm going to practise the piano for two hours this evening (i.e.
That's my intention: what I have planned/arranged to do.)

b.. Predictions based on current circumstances

The going to-future is often used, like will, to predict the future. It is common in speech,
especially when we are referring to the immediate future. The speaker sees signs of
something that is about to happen:
1
Oh, look It's going to rain! Look out' She's going to faint!

3. Simple Future
We use the simple future for the following purposes:
a. To make promises
I will pay you back tomorrow.
I' ll buy you a bicycle for your birthday
We will not forget Mom‘s birthday.
b. To express instant decisions
I am bored. I will take a short break.
It is too cold. I will not go outside.
c. To talk about future facts.
I will be 17 on my next birth day.
d. To make prediction about the future based on what we think, hope or expected. We
often use these expression with will: I think, I don‟t think, I‟m sure, I believe, I hope,
I expect, I think he will say yes.

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 EXERCISE

I. Complete the sentences with the correct verb form.

1. Don‟t worry! I ----------- (phone) you on your birthday.
2. Peter isn‟t studying at all these days. He --------- (fail) his final exam.
3. When I finish my secondary education, I ---------- (go) to university, no doubt!
4. I‟m sorry, but I can‟t go to the cinema. I ----------- (take) my brother to his music lesson
this afternoon.
5. My father says he -------- (give up) smoking, I can‟t believe him.
6. According to the weather forecast tomorrow---------- (be) hot and sunny.
7. Hurry up! The train --------------- (arrive) in three minutes.
8. Mandy and John ------------- (get married) on 25th June.
9. The new TV programme ---------------- (start) tonight at 9:30.
10. Put some suntan cream on or you ------------ (get) burnt.
11. I don‟t think Tony ----------------- (finish) his essay in time.
12. Why don‟t you come with us, Susan? We ------ (meet) Paul at the pub after dinner.
13. ―What------ (do) this summer, Alice?‖ ―I don‟t know, but I think I ------ (surf) the Internet
to look for special offers.

II. Choose the most suitable verb form.

1. It‟s a wonderful evening. I really don't think it -------- (to rain) tomorrow.
A. is going to rain B. shall rain C. rains D. will rain
We often use will ('ll) with '(I) don't think' or '(I) think' for predictions based on our own
personal opinion or knowledge: I don't think the exam will be very difficult.
2. Bekele------------ (to visit) his parents tomorrow. He has got an appointment with them.
A. is visiting B. will have visited C. will visit D. visits
We use ‘I am doing’ (present continuous) when we say what we have arranged to do. While ‘I
am going to do something’ means ‘I've decided to do it, but perhaps not arranged to do it.
3. Jim has invited us to his birthday party. He -------- (to be) 27 next week.
A. shall be B. will be C. is going to be D. is
We use the Future Simple Tense when we talk about actions which will certainly happen in
the future and which we cannot control.
4. Mike, can you help me? Well, it's a difficult situation but I--------- (to see) what I can do
for you.

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A. am seeing B. am going to see C. will see D. see
We use the Future Simple when we decide to do something at the time of speaking –
something that we didn't plan. In the test sentence we see the immediate reply to the request
‘Mike, can you help me?’, and the respondent decides to consider the possible help at the
time of replying, but he didn't plan to do it.
5. Carol is 15. She already knows what she wants. She ------------- a singer.
A. shall become B. will become C. is going to become D. becomes
If we have a plan, ambition or intention to do something in the future, we use 'be going to’.
We do not use 'will' with personal arrangements.BUT: In formal English we usually use
'will', not 'going to', for arrangements.
6. I'm sorry, but I have no time to do it. I ------- (to take part) in serious negotiations
tomorrow.
A. will take part B. am going to take part C. take part D. shall take part
If we have decided to do something or arranged to do something in the near future we use 'be
going to'.
7. I promise, I ------------ (to ring up / you) tomorrow.
A. am going to ring you up C. ring you up
B. will ring you up D. am ringing you up
We use ‘will’ when we decide to do something at the same time as speaking - immediate
decisions: ‘I’ll call back later’. Or we can use ‘will’ to make promises: ‘I will never do that
again’. I will ring you up tomorrow.
8. I------- (to be) very glad to see you tomorrow.
A. is B. am going to be C. am D. will be
We can use the Future Simple (will and shall) to express invitations, immediate intentions
and decisions: (invitation) Will you come for dinner on Saturday? We use ‘will’ when
decisions or intentions are immediate and ‘be going to’ when we have already made a plan.
In the test sentence we see either the speaker’s immediate decision or a polite invitation to
come. We also use ‘will’ to talk about the future to mean ‘want’ to or ‘be willing to’: I hope
you will come to my party. The test sentence can be an implied form of the idea ‘I hope we
will see tomorrow’.
9. I'm so happy! Lisa and Jake are planning the wedding. They ---------- (to marry) soon!
A. are going to marry B. will marry C. will have married D. marry
If we have a plan, ambition or intention to do something in the future we use 'be going to'.
11. Jill -------- (to go) to the dentist next Monday. She has made this decision today.

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A. goes B. will go C. shall go D. is going to go
We use ‘be going to’ when we have already made a plan or an arrangement, or we have
intentions: I am going to fly to Vienna tomorrow. They are going to Montenegro on holidays
in August.
13. I suppose that Bob -------- (to return) to Berlin in a few days.
A. is going to return B. will return C. shall return D. returns
We use the Future Simple Tense when we talk about our predictions about the future.
14. When water --------- at 100 degrees, put some salt and spaghetti into the saucepan.

A. will boil B. boils C. is going to boil D. will have to boil

We do not use the Future Tense in subordinate clauses.

5.2.2. Sentence Types

Simple Sentences
A clause is a group of words that contains one subject and one verb. A sentence that consists
of one clause is called a simple sentence. Here are some examples. The subjects are printed in
bold and the verbs are printed in color.
The girls are playing baseball.
Sally found a good hiding place.
I am eating my breakfast.
Tom is wearing his new shoes today.
Will you help me?
The sky was very cloudy.
I can hear the birds.
Everyone was happy.
Is it raining again?
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains two clauses joined by a conjunction such as and, or, but or so.
Look at these examples. The verbs in the clauses are printed in color. Notice that there are
two verbs, one on each side of the conjunction.
Some people are always happy and some people are always sad.
She opened the bag and took out a book.
Do you want coffee or would you prefer lemonade?
Is that a bird or is it a plane?

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John is good at English but he‘s not very good at math.
Michael wants to see Star Wars but his friends have already seen it.
Tom dropped his sandwich so I gave him mine.
It started to rain so we went inside.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate (dependent)
clauses.

Example: They rested when evening came.

From this example, we can understand that the clause ―they rested‖ makes good sense. It is
dependent on the clause ―they rested‖. Thus, it is called a dependent or subordinate clause.

Example:

1/ If he wins the prize, he will buy a house.

Dependent/ subordinate Independent/ main

Compound- complex Sentences

Sometimes we can combine compound and complex sentences, using at least two main
clauses and one subordinate clause. The result of such combination is called compound-
complex sentence contains two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.

Main clause subordinate clause Main clause

Example: 1. The scientist knew that his experiment would succeed, but he avoided
publicity until the final test was complete.

2. When the sky darkened, the wind blew and the leaves fell.

Subordinate clause main main

3. Because it was hot day, Hanna ordered a cold Pepsi; and she drank it at once.

subordinate main main

Exercise 1: Read the following sentences and write simple, compound, complex or
compound-complex in the space provided.

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 1) Canada is a rich country.
.
2) Still, it has many poor people.
.
3) Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
.
4) The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the
contents. .
5) My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
.
6) My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
.
7) Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
.
8) My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
.
9) Some students like to study in the morning.
.
10) The teacher returned the home work after he noticed the errors.
.
Exercise 2: Create two examples of each structural type of sentence. Your sentences may be
different.
Simple
1
2)

Compound
1

2.

Complex
1.

2.

Compound-complex

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1.

2.

5.2.3. Verb patterns

Verbs followed by gerund and infinitives

The base form of a verb (go) often functions as an infinitive. It is called the bare infinitive
because it is used without to. We must distinguish it from the to-infinitive, where to is
always used in front of the base form of the verb (to go). The -ing form of a verb (going)
sometimes functions as a gerund (i.e. a kind of noun). Many verbs and adjectives, and some
nouns, can be followed by one or other of these forms, and in some cases by more than one
form.
verb + to + infinitive
Some verbs are followed by the infinitive with to:
I decided to go home as soon as possible.
We all wanted to have more English classes.
Common verbs with this pattern are:

 verbs of thinking and feeling:

choose hate like prefer

decide hope love remember
expect intend mean want
forget learn plan would like/love

 verbs of saying:

Agree Promise refuse threaten

 others
arrange fail manage
attempt help tend

verb + noun + to + infinitive

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Some verbs are followed by a noun and the infinitive with to:
She asked him to send her a text message.
He wanted all his friends to come to his party.
Common verbs with this pattern are:
advise invite
persuade remind
order ask
encourage tell
warn

make and let

The verbs make and let are followed by a noun and the infinitive without to:
They made him pay for the things he had broken.
The doctor made me wait for almost an hour.
They let you go in free at the weekend.
Verbs followed by the '-ing' form
Will you let me come in?

Common verbs followed by the -ing form are:

 verbs of liking and disliking:

detest Dislike Enjoy fancy hate like

I love swimming but I hate jogging.

They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
 phrases with mind:
wouldn't mind (= would like)
don't mind (= I am willing to)
would you mind (= will you please …?)
I wouldn't mind having some fish and chips.
I don't mind waiting for a few minutes.
Would you mind holding this for me?

 verbs of saying and thinking:

admit Consider Deny imagine remember

Our leader suggested waiting until the storm was over.

Everyone denied seeing the accident.
 others:

avoid Begin finish Keep miss practise risk

I haven't finished writing this letter.

Let's practise speaking English.

Gerund or Infinitive - Exercise 1

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1) A lot of people are worried about their jobs. (lose)
2) He agreed a new car. (buy)
3) The question is easy _ (answer)
4) Not everybody can afford to university. (go)
5) I look forward to you at the weekend. (see)
6) Are you thinking of London? (visit)
7) He apologized for so late. (arrive)
8) Stop noise, please; I‘m studying. (make)
9) She doesn't mind the night shift. (work)
10) I learned the bike at the age of 5.(ride)
Gerund or Infinitive - Exercise 2
1) We decided a new car. (buy)
2) I regret you we won‘t lend you the money. (tell)
3) Peter gave up _.(smoke)
4) He'd like an aeroplane.(fly)
5) I enjoy picture postcards. (write)
6) He offered help with the cleaning. (help)
7) Avoid silly mistakes.(make)
8) My parents wanted me home at 11 o'clock. (be)
9) I dream about _ a big house. (build)
10) He advised me so much money. (not spend)
Gerund or Infinitive Exercise 3
Fill the gaps with the verb in brackets in the appropriate form.
1 I can't stand in queues. ( to wait )
2 I wouldn't like in his shoes. ( to be )
3 Jim loves in Thailand. ( to work )
4 I hate the shopping on Saturday. ( to do )
5 Blast! I forgot milk. ( to buy )
6 In the end we decided in. ( to stay )
7 I need some information about Portugal. ( to find )
8 My parents like for long walks at the weekend. ( to go )
9 Tony gave up years ago. ( to smoke )
10 I wanted and see Troy but no one else was interested. ( to go )
11 Mrs Leith offered us to the airport. ( to take )
12 Clare refused clean up after the party. ( to help )
13 I tried him to come but it was no use. ( to persuade )
14 Do you mind not ? ( to smoke )
15 Everybody really enjoyed the cha-cha-cha. ( to dance )
16 Lionel admitted my chocolate mousse. ( to eat )

Gerund or Infinitive Exercise 3 answers

1 I can't stand waiting in queues. ( to wait )
2 I wouldn't like to be in his shoes. ( to be )
3 Jim loves working in Thailand. ( to work )

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4 I hate doing the shopping on Saturday. ( to do )
5 Blast! I forgot to buy milk. ( to buy )
6 In the end we decided to stay in. ( to stay )
7 I need to find some information about Portugal. ( to find )
8 My parents like going for long walks at the weekend. ( to go )
9 Tony gave up smoking years ago. ( to smoke )
10 I wanted to go and see Troy but no one else was interested. ( to go )
11 Mrs Leith offered to take us to the airport. ( to take )
12 Clare refused to help clean up after the party. ( to help )
13 I tried to persuade him to come but it was no use. ( to persuade )
14 Do you mind not smoking ? ( to smoke )
15 Everybody really enjoyed dancing the cha-cha-cha. ( to dance )
16 Lionel admitted eating my chocolate mousse. ( to eat )

5.3. Reading Comprehension

Reading: My family
1. Think of the ingredients for a happy family life.
• Brainstorm your ideas.
Read this description of happy family life in one part of Ethiopia. Identify aspects of
the life described that match your list of „ingredients‟ in exercise 1.
My name is Aret and I live in the beautiful Semien Mountains area, where I have grown up.
My family live in a typical stone and mud house with a thatched roof. I have two brothers,
Wakwoya who is younger than me and also at school, and Berhe, our older brother who is
already a primary school teacher. My grandparents also live with us. People say I take after
my father who is tall and strong-minded! I hope I will be beautiful like my mother, too! I
have to get up very early as I go to school in the morning. After school, I have to help my
brother look after the goats. I help my mother prepare injera for our meal, too. Then I get on
with my homework in the evenings. At weekends we often go to the school field for sports. I
usually play in a volleyball game or do some training. Wakwoya plays football. When there‘s
a holiday, like Timket or Enkutatash, the whole family goes to the village and we have to
take part in special dances: one for the girls and one for the boys. I always look forward to
these occasions very much. Wakwoya and I are close in age and when we were growing up
we used to play together but we often fell out. Now we are older we get on better, and help
each other with our homework. I want to do well in Grade 12. My parents have worked hard
to let us stay on at school and I don‘t want to let them down.
A childhood memory

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1. The text below comes from The African Child by Camara Laye. It is his
autobiographical account of growing up in a village in Guinea, in West Africa. His
father was a goldsmith and had a workshop. He employed a number of apprentices –
young boys who were learning the craft – and they lived in the family compound. Read
the text and answer the questions below.

In the morning when, after some persuasion, we rose, we found the breakfast ready. My
mother awoke at dawn to prepare it. We all sat around the great steaming dishes: my parents,
sisters, brothers, and the apprentices. There was one dish for the men, and another for my
mother and my sisters.
It would not be exactly right for me to say that my mother presided over the meal: my father
presided over it. Nevertheless, it was the presence of my mother that made itself felt first of
all. Was that because she had prepared the food, because meals are things which are mainly a
woman‘s business? Maybe. But there was something more: my mother, by the mere fact of
her presence, and even though she was not seated directly in front of the men‘s dish, saw to it
that everything was done according to her own rules; and those rules were strict.

Thus it was forbidden to cast my gaze upon guests older than myself, and I was also
forbidden to talk: my whole attention had to be fixed on the food before me. In fact, it would
have been most impolite to chatter at that moment. Even my younger brothers knew that this
was no time to jabber: this was the hour to pay honour to the food. Older people observed
more or less the same silence. This was not the only rule: those concerning cleanliness were
no less important. Finally, if there was meat on the dish, I was not allowed to take it from the
centre of the dish, but only from the part directly in front of me, and my father would put
more within my reach if he saw I needed it. Any other behaviour would have been frowned
upon and quickly reprimanded. In any case, my portion was always so plentiful that I
should never have been tempted to take more than I was given.

When the meal was over, I would say: ‗Thank you, Father.‘ The apprentices would say:
‗Thank you, master.‘ Then I would bow to my mother and say: ‗The meal was good,
Mother.‘
My brothers, my sisters, the apprentices did likewise. My parents replied, ‗Thank you‘ to
each one of them. Such was the rule. My father would certainly have been offended to see it

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broken, but it was my mother, with her quicker temper, who rebuked any transgression. My
father‘s mind was with his work, and he left these prerogatives to her.

5.3.2. Extracting the main idea

1. What is the main point of each paragraph? Match the paragraph numbers on the left
with the topics on the right. Note: There are two extra topics that you don‟t need.

1. a Rules of behaviour.
b Other meals of the day.
2. c What happened first thing in the morning.
d The food that was eaten.
3. e What happened at the end of the meal.
4. f His mother‘s role at the meal.
Choose the best option to complete the sentences according to the text.
1 At breakfast, the writer:
a ate the same as everyone else.
b ate the same as the other men.
c ate the same as the other children.
2 His mother:
a did not sit at breakfast with the family.
b sat among the men at breakfast.
c supervised the meal.
3 While they were eating:
a the children did not speak to the adults.
b only the adults could speak.
c there was generally silence.
4 The writer:
a served himself from the meat dish.
b served his father from the meat dish.
c was served by his father from the meat dish.
5 Usually the writer was given:
a more food than he needed.
b just about enough food.
c less food than he wanted.

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6 At the end of the meal, the children and apprentices gave thanks to their parents because:
a both parents expected them to.
b their mother expected them to.
c their father expected them to.
7 The children were told off and punished:
a by both their mother and father.
b by their mother.
c by their father.
5.3.3. Vocabulary in Context
1. Match the words on the left, which are highlighted in the text, with their meanings on
the right.
1 dawn a in the same way
2 presided b the amount of food for one person
3 mere c the breaking of a rule
4 strict d more than enough
5 cast my gaze e the time of day when light first appear
6 jabber f told that you have done something wrong
7 frowned upon g made angry or upset
8 reprimanded h firm, severe
9 portion i spoke angrily to someone because they have done something
wrong
10 plentiful j disapproved of
11 bow k to be in charge of a formal meeting or ceremony
12 likewise l to bend the top part of your body forward in order to show respect
13 offended m simple
14 rebuked n a special right that someone
15 transgression o look at
16 prerogative p talk quickly and not very clearly

5.4. Speaking
5.4.1. Expressing Opinion
1. Next to these headings write as many relevant expressions as you can.
• Giving an opinion

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• Saying you don‘t have an opinion
• Trying to change someone‘s opinion
• Asking someone‘s opinion
• Interrupting
• Agreeing
• Partly agreeing
• Disagreeing
• Reaching a conclusion
2. Add these expressions to the relevant groups.
1 Personally, I think …
2 Have you considered that …?
3 Maybe
4 You can‘t mean that!
5 I absolutely agree with what you have said.
6 I‘m of the opinion that …
7 I see things differently.
8 I really can‘t say.
9 Look at it this way …
10 I‘d just like to say …
11 You are right.
12 With respect to what you have said, I think …
13 If I may say so, …
14 Well, that‘s settled then.
15 Would you agree that …?
16 That‘s true up to a point.
17 I‘m afraid I must disagree with you.
18 What‘s your feeling about this?

3.Work in a group and discuss each of the statements below.

• Allow each person to give their opinion.
• Use some of the language of discussion above.
• Come to a group conclusion on the extent to which you all agree or disagree with each
statement. Report back to the rest of the class.
A happy family life

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4. Work in a small group and discuss the following.
1 How many people are there in the family in the picture? Who are they? Where do they live?
What do they do? Do they look like a happy family? Why do you think so?
2 Think of the ingredients for a happy family life.
• Brainstorm your ideas.
• One member of the group should make notes of the points you make. Be prepared to justify
them.
• When you are ready, share your ideas with the rest of the class.

How to Express Your Opinion in English

Suppose you are with a group of friends discussing the greatest inventions of the 20th
century.
One friend says, ―I think the computer was the best invention. There‘s no question about it.‖
Another friend says, ―I disagree! Have you forgotten that airplanes exist?‖
The first one responds with, ―Actually, today‘s airplanes could not operate without
computers.‖
Knowing how to express your opinion in English is valuable whether you are speaking or
writing. In today‘s program we will look at phrases you can use to share your point of view.
Common phrases

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 Many phrases are suitable in everyday speech and some types of writing, such as
on blogs and personal websites. You have probably already seen or used some of these
phrases:
 I think…
 I believe…
 I feel…
 In my opinion… and
 I would say…
For example, imagine you have your own food website. Today you‘re writing or talking
about the world‘s best street food. You might say:

In my opinion, Bangkok has the best street food.

Add strength
But suppose you wanted to make the statement stronger. You can do it by adding an adverb
or adjective. For example:
 I really think…
 I strongly believe…
 I truly feel… or
 In my honest opinion…
In addition, giving reasons for your opinion adds strength to the claim. Let‘s hear the street
food statement again:

In my honest opinion, Bangkok has the best street food. I have never seen more choices of
what to eat – and everything I’ve tried has been delicious!
Formal phrases
Next, let‘s look at a few phrases that are more common in formal situations. You might, for
example, hear one of these at a business meeting or a conference, or in a formal paper:
 From my point of view…
 From my perspective…
 In my view… or
 It seems to me that…
Here‘s an example:

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 In my view, cruise ships should be banned. They produce massive amounts of waste and use
the dirtiest fuel in the world.
Though phrases like ―In my view…‖ are usually more formal than ones like ―I think,‖ there
is no rule for where or when you can use them. It‘s often a matter of personal choice.
Asking for opinions
So, imagine you‘ve expressed yourself. But what about the opinion of others? Often, when
we express an opinion or suggestion, it‘s a good idea to ask other people for theirs. Phrases
like these help show our desire to hear from others:
 What do you think of…?
 What are your thoughts on…?
 How do you feel about…? and
 What’s your opinion on…?
You can use these questions in many kinds of situations. You might ask, for instance:
What’s your opinion on Futbol Club Barcelona?
How do you feel about the new art director?
What are your thoughts on tonight’s activities?
Agreeing & disagreeing
Finally, let‘s talk about agreeing and disagreeing.
Agreeing is the easy part. To show agreement, you can use short, clear statements. Let‘s
suppose a friend says, ―I think summer is way more fun than winter!‖ You might show you
agree by giving one of these responses:
 So do I.
 Me too.
 Definitely.
 I agree. or
 I couldn’t agree more.
Note that, ―agree‖ is a verb in English, so be careful not to say, ―I am agree‖ for the
present tense verb.
You can also give reasons for your agreement:

I completely agree! I couldn’t live without beach days and outdoor festivals.
But what if a person says something you disagree with?
With close friends or family, we can use informal, direct phrases to say we disagree. You
might say something like:

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 I disagree!
 I don’t agree. or
 Yeah, but…
Here‘s how that sounds:

Yeah, but winter has just as many fun things to do. You just have to dress warmly.
At other times, such as in discussions of more serious subjects, or in professional situations,
these phrases can be too direct.
Suppose people at work or school are sharing opinions about politics or religious beliefs or
something equally sensitive. For such times, your language should be more polite.
So, instead of saying ―I totally disagree!‖ or ―You‘re wrong!‖ you might say one of these:
 I’m not sure I agree with you on…
 I’m sorry but I don’t agree. or
 I’m afraid I disagree.
Another common way to disagree politely is to tell the person you respect their opinion
before sharing your own. Try phrases like these:
 I see what you’re saying but…
 You have a point there but… or
 I understand where you’re coming from but…
Listen to a short exchange:

We’re paying sky-high rents and other costs. Our business would save a lot of money by
changing cities.

I see what you’re saying but, in my view, now is not the right time to leave Los Angeles. The
city offers too many incentives.

5.5. Writing
Writing: Memories
Unlike a novel, a biography concerns real events in someone‘s life. There are many
biographies
of famous people, alive and dead, and some famous people write their autobiographies.
However, you don‘t need to be famous to write an autobiography. Everybody‘s life contains
interesting events which deserve to be written about, whatever your background.

89
1. On your own, think of some interesting, happy, proud, sad, funny, daring or
embarrassing childhood memories.
They could be about:
• a family custom that you remember well (for example, how you used to spend a religious
holiday; the family duties you had to do).
• an incident that you remember, something that happened to you or someone else in the
family
(for example, a time when you broke something important or expensive).

2.Talk about your memories with a partner.

3.Choose five memories and write notes on each one: try to select a range of different
types of memories.
4. Write a short paragraph about each of your five memories. Each paragraph should
be between 70 and 150 words. Your piece of writing can be called Memories.
Begin each paragraph like this:
• I remember the time when I was about … years-old and …
• On another occasion, …
• Next, I’m going to describe …
• Another memory is of …
• Finally, a very happy memory of …

5.When you have finished a first draft of your writing, check your work carefully and
make any necessary changes. Then write a final version.

6.Spend some time reading the memories of other students in the class.

A formal letter
1. write a letter to a friend about meal time traditions in your part of Ethiopia. This is a
formal letter, but not a business letter: it is more like an essay in which you are putting
forward your point of view.

Follow these steps:

1 Begin by looking back at the text in the Reading exercise and thinking back to the points

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you made in your discussion in exercise 4 on page 18.
2 Decide whether you are going to say that meal times in your area were generally similar
or different.
3 Make a list of the points to include in your letter. Here are two possible ways of doing it.
Example 1:
a Similarities between traditional family meals in my region and in Guinea.
b Differences.
c Modern meal times.
Example 2:
a Comparison of who eats together and who presides over the meal in the writer‘s account
and in my region.
b Comparison of how food is served.
c Comparison of what is eaten.
d Comparison of how children behave.
4 Think of a suitable introductory paragraph, for example:
• say why you are writing
• comment on the extract by the author politely
• say what you are going to discuss in your letter.
5 Think of a suitable concluding paragraph, for example:
• sum up your points
• think of a polite way of closing.
6 Make sure you remember the conventions of formal letter writing (see below).
7 Write a rough draft of your letter:
• Set out your letter following the conventions of formal letter writing.
• Divide up what you have to say into about five paragraphs (including the introduction and
conclusion) according to the number of points you want to make.
• Link your points with suitable discourse markers where appropriate.
8 Check your draft carefully to make sure:
• your ideas are logical and clearly expressed
• your spelling, grammar and punctuation are accurate.
9 Now write a final, neat version of your letter on a clean page of your exercise book.

2. Identify the parts of the formal letter in the diagram below. Write the letters into the
blank spaces of the letter.

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a sender‘s name e date
b receiver‘s name f sender‘s address
c body of letter g sender‘s signature
d opening salutation h closing salutation
i receiver‘s address

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UNIT SIX

6.1. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE, CONTRAST, REASON AND RESULT

6.1.1. CLAUSE OF PURPOSE

We use certain clauses to show why somebody does something. These are called clause of
purpose. They are introduced with the following words or expressions.

To + infinitive

The most common way to express purpose in English is to + infinitive.

 The student worked hard to pass the test.

In order to/so as to + infinitive

In order to or so as to + infinitive are more common in formal English, mainly in writing.

The negative forms are in order not to and so as not to + infinitive.

 We were asked to stay in order to finish the project.

 He left home early in order not to be late.
 Use a plastic hammer so as to avoid damage.
 They walked quietly so as not to wake up the children.

We can also use the structure in order for someone/something to do something.

 We need to mobilize the media in order for the Government to listen to us.
 Three different surgeries were necessary in order for him to survive.

So that

We can also use so that + subject + verb to express purpose. We normally use a modal
verb with this connector, e.g. could, can, would, etc.

 We left early so that we could park near the centre.

 He made some flashcards so that it would be easier for his mum to remember the
instructions.
 So that + can/will – used for a present or future reference
 So that +could/would – used for a past reference

In order that

 I study my lessons very hard in order that I can pass the exams.
 I gave you the money in order that you might go home.

For + noun

We can also use for + noun to express purpose.

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  We went to the bar for a drink.
 Would you like to go to the park for a run?

For + -ing – used to express purpose and/or function of something – This function on the
air conditioner is for reducing humidity.

Negatives
For negative purpose we use:

 In order not to/so as not to + infinitive – we walked in quietly so as not to wake

up the children.
 Prevent + noun/pronoun + from + ing – I parked the car under a tree to prevent it
from getting too hot.

In case + clause

To express purpose, we can also use in case + subject + verb. We use this form to talk about
precautions, when we do something because something not wanted might happen.

In case + present tense – present or future reference

 Take your hat in case it gets too hot.
 I won’t tell Selamawit in case she tells everyone else.
In case + past tense – used for past reference
 We took an umbrella in case it rained.

6.1. 2. CLAUSES OF CONTRAST/CONCESSION

Clauses of contrast (or concession) are used to show the difference between two statements.
We can use although, even though, though Despite/in spite of, however, etc.

Although, even though, though

We can use although/even though/though at the beginning or in the middle of a

sentence followed by a clause (subject + verb). We NEVER use a comma
after although/ even though/ though.

 Although/Even though/though we had a bad game, we won.

 We won, although/even though we had a bad game.

Despite/in spite of (prepositions)

Despite and in spite of are normally followed by a noun or a –ing verb. They can go at the
beginning or in the middle of the sentence.

 Despite/In spite of the rain, we went to the concert.

 They arrived despite/in spite of leaving very early.

We can use a clause (subject + verb) after despite/in spite of + the fact that.

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  We went out despite/in spite of the fact that it was raining.

Other wars of expressing contrast

However

We use however to connect two different sentences. We normally use however at the
beginning of the second sentence after a full stop (.) or a semi-colon (;). However is
ALWAYS followed by a comma.

 We didn’t like the hotel. However, we had a fantastic time.

 We went to the beach; however, the weather wasn’t perfect.
 However: The motorist argued violently; however, the police man kept calm.

We can also use however at the end of the sentence.

 We didn’t like the hotel. We had a fantastic time, however.

But: The student did his best but he failed.

Nevertheless: The student did his best; nevertheless, he failed.
Whereas: Whereas the motorist argued violently, the police man kept very calm.

6.1.3. CLAUSES OF REASON

When we want to explain the reason why something happened or why someone did
something, we use a clause of reason introduced by a conjunction (as, since, because) or a
noun phrase introduced by because of, due to, owing to, or on account of.

Because

We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the beginning or at the end
of a sentence (at the end is more common). A comma is used when the clause of reason is at
the beginning of the sentence.

 We didn’t go because it was raining heavily.

 Because the event was cancelled, they lost their deposits.

As/since

We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by subject + verb
and can be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. However, as and since are more
formal expressions, and more common in written than in spoken English.

 The government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain are forecast for the
entire weekend.
 As/Since the roads were blocked; the victims had to be rescued by helicopter.

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Because of

We use because of before a noun.

 The concert was postponed because of the heavy rain.

Due to/owing to/on account of

We can also use due to/owing to/on account of before a noun. They mean ‗because of‘ but
are more formal.

 The event was cancelled due to/owing to/on account of lack of interest.
 I couldn’t enjoy the meal due to/owing to/on account of their constant arguing.

6.1. 4. CLAUSES OF RESULT

We use clauses of result to talk about the result of an action or situation.

So

We can use so + subject + verb at the end of a sentence to mean ‗this is why‘.

 We didn’t have anything to do, so we decided to rent a film.

 I worked very hard today, so I’m exhausted.

For this reason

We normally use for this reason at the beginning of a sentence. We use a comma after it.

 Rent is very expensive in Boston. For this reason, we decided to move to Ohio.
 He threatened to commit suicide. For this reason, we kept him under surveillance.

As a result/consequently/therefore

As a result, consequently and therefore are more formal and more common in written
language. They are normally used at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma.

 The flight was delayed due to the storm. As a result, many passengers complained.
 Animals were his only true passion. Therefore/Consequently, he decided to
study biology.

We can also use consequently and therefore in mid position (before the verb, after be as the
main verb, or after the first auxiliary verb).

 You have been a real asset to the company. We have therefore/consequently decided
to promote you.

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6.2. Modal Verbs of Certainty and Possibility

6.2.1. Certainty in the present

To express certainty in the present, we use must
To express certainty in the past, we use must have +v3

Must
We use must when we feel sure that something is true because there‘s very strong evidence.
Examples:
 She looks weak and pale. She must be ill. The speaker is sure that she is ill.
 The traffic policeman is stopping all cars turn by turn. He must be checking a licence.
Instead of must, we can use have to/ has to

Examples:
 The teacher has been working for eight hours without rest. He has to be tired
 The teachers have been working for eight hours without rest. They have to be tired

6.2.2. Certainty in the past

When we consider some present evidence and draw a reasonably certain conclusion about
what happened in the past, we use must have +v3 /had to +present infinitive.

Example:
Marry: Abebe and Feleke are brothers. They live together and quarrel every day. Whenever
they quarrel; they throw glasses at each other.
Belete: They must have broken a lot of glasses. Or: They had to break glasses.
 Must not have + past participle- when we draw the conclusion that something did
NOT happen
Example:
 The car is still dirty. Paul must not have washed it yet.
6.2.3. Can‟t /couldn‟t- If we are sure that something is IMPOSSIBLE
Example:
 Child to mother: I am thirsty, Mammy.
 Mother: You can‟t/couldn‟t be thirsty. You have just drunk two glasses of water.
6.2.4. Can‟t/ couldn‟t +have +v3- When we are certain that something was IMPOSSIBLE
Example:
A: I saw Hana in a hotel yesterday.
B: You can‟t/ couldn‟t have seen here. She spent the whole day at home.

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6.2.5. Present or future possibility
May /might / could
We use might, may or could to say that we think something is possible but we‘re not sure.
Example:

Almaz: What are you going to do tomorrow?

Hana: I am not sure. I may go to Addis. (Perhaps a 50% chance)

I am not sure. I could go to Addis. (Perhaps less than a 30% chance)
I am not sure. I might go to Addis. (Perhaps a 30% chance)

6.2.6. Past possibility

Might/ may / could +have + v3
We use might, may or could with the perfect infinitive to say that we think something was
possible but we aren‟t sure.
Assaminew: One of our goats is missing,
Meskerm: It may have been stolen.

It might have been stolen.

It could have been stolen.

6.3. REPORT WRITING

This study advice sheet highlights common features in written reports and
makes recommendations for clear presentation and a conventional format.

6.3.1. What is a report?

A report is a more highly structured form of writing than an essay, and is designed so that it
can be read quickly and accurately; though reports are not necessarily read from beginning
to end. Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the
information was gathered as much as the information itself. Reports should be organised
for the convenience of the intended reader. Reports are written on a wide range of subjects
for a wide variety of reasons.
Before writing any report you should identify the objective and the preferred
conventions of structure and presentation. This is as true for reports you write at
university as it is for reports written in employment.
All reports attempt to communicate findings for one reason or another, whether to inform
decision makers, change public opinion or maintain a record of development. Whenever
you write a report you must bear in mind why you are writing and who you are writing for.
All reports have an intended reader. Put yourself in his/her position. What does he/she
need to know?

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 6.3.2. Stages in report writing
The following stages are involved in writing a report:

 Planning your work;

 Collecting your information;
 Organising and structuring your information;
 Writing the first draft;
 Checking and re-drafting.
Draw up an outline structure for your report and set the work within a sensible time scale for
completion by the given deadline. One common structure is based on the 4 P‘s: position,
problem, possibilities, and proposal. This means you outline the current position, describe
the problem, examine the range of possibilities and decide on a proposal (Hemingway,
1993). Some of the most time-consuming parts of the process are collecting and selecting
your information, and checking and revising your report.

 Clarify your terms of reference – what brief are you working to?
 Decide on the main sections of your report – what instructions have you been
given?
6.3.3. Structuring your report
Check with your tutor to find out what your report should include and how it should be
presented. The following elements are however common to many reports:
• Title page
This should include the title of the report (which should give a precise indication of the
subject matter), the author(s)‘s name(s), module, and the date.
• Acknowledgements
You should acknowledge any help you have received in collecting the information for
the report, for example from staff in your department, support services or external
companies.
• Contents
You should list all the main sections of the report in sequence with the page numbers they
begin on. If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in your report, these should be
listed separately under a title such as ‗List of Illustrations‘ together with the page numbers
on which they appear.
• Abstract or executive summary
This should be a short paragraph summarising the main contents of the report. It should
include a short statement of the main task, the methods used, conclusions reached and any
recommendations made. The abstract or summary should be concise, informative and
independent of the report. The summary may have more than one purpose: it reminds the
reader what they have read but it is also useful to busy managers or professors who may
not always read the full report.

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• Introduction
This should give the context and scope of the report and should include your terms of
reference (what have you been asked to find out?) State your objectives clearly, define the
limits of the report, outline the method of enquiry, give a brief general background to the
subject of the report e.g. the company or procedure, and indicate the proposed
development.
• Methodology
In this section you should state how you carried out your enquiry. What form did your
enquiry take? Did you carry out interviews or questionnaires, how did you collect your
data? What measurements did you make? How did you choose the subjects for your
interviews?
• Results or findings
Present your findings in as simple a way as possible. The more complicated the
information looks, the more difficult it will be to interpret. Graphs, charts and diagrams
help your reader identify key results and will break the flow of written text.
• Discussion
This is the section where you analyse and interpret your results drawing from the information
which you have collected, explaining its significance. Identify important issues and suggest
explanations for your findings. Outline any problems encountered and try and present a
balanced view.
• Conclusions and recommendations
This is the section of the report which draws together the main issues. It should be expressed
clearly and should not present any new information. You may wish to list your
recommendations in a separate section or include them with the conclusions.

• References
It is important that you give precise and accurate details of all the work by other authors
which has been referred to within the report. References are normally listed in alphabetical
order by the authors' names or in numerical order. Check your Department handbook to find
out what referencing format is required by your Department.

 Appendices
An appendix contains additional related information which is not essential to read but can be
consulted if the reader wishes. However, the interpretation of the report should not depend on
this being read. You could include details of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of
terms, or other such information.

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