(ADVANCED) DATABASE SYSTEMS

(DATABASE MANAGEMENTS)

PROF. DR. HASAN HÜSEYIN BALIK

(7TH WEEK)
4. OUTLINE

4. Implementation
4.1 Introduction to SQL
4.2 Advanced SQL
4.3 Database Application Development
4.4 Data Warehousing
4.2 ADVANCED SQL
 OBJECTIVES
 Define terms
 Write single and multiple table SQL queries

 Define and use three types of joins

 Write noncorrelated and correlated subqueries

 Understand and use SQL in procedural

languages (e.g. PHP, PL/SQL)
 Understand triggers and stored procedures

 Discuss SQL:2011 standard and its

enhancements and extensions
 PROCESSING MULTIPLE TABLES
 Join–a relational operation that causes two or more
tables with a common domain to be combined into a
single table or view
 Equi-join–a join in which the joining condition is
based on equality between values in the common
columns; common columns appear redundantly in the
result table
 Natural join–an equi-join in which one of the
duplicate columns is eliminated in the result table
The common columns in joined tables are usually the primary key
of the dominant table and the foreign key of the dependent table in
1:M relationships.
 PROCESSING MULTIPLE TABLES
 Outer join–a join in which rows that do not have
matching values in common columns are
nonetheless included in the result table (as
opposed to inner join, in which rows must have
matching values in order to appear in the result
table)

 Union join–includes all data from each table

that was joined
Visualization of different join types with results returned in
shaded area
THE FOLLOWING SLIDES INVOLVE QUERIES
OPERATING ON TABLES FROM THIS ENTERPRISE
DATA MODEL
Pine Valley Furniture Company Customer_T and Order_T tables
with pointers from customers to their orders

These tables are used in queries that follow

EQUI-JOIN EXAMPLE
 For each customer who placed an order, what is
the customer’s name and order number?

Customer ID
appears twice in the
result
EQUI-JOIN EXAMPLE – ALTERNATIVE
SYNTAX

INNER JOIN clause is an alternative to WHERE clause, and is

used to match primary and foreign keys.

An INNER join will only return rows from each table that have
matching rows in the other.

This query produces same results as previous equi-join example.

 NATURAL JOIN EXAMPLE
 For each customer who placed an order, what is the
customer’s name and order number?
Join involves multiple tables in FROM clause

Note: From Fig. 7-1, you see that only

ON clause performs the equality
10 Customers have links with orders.
check for common columns of the
two tables  Only 10 rows will be returned from
this INNER join
 OUTER JOIN EXAMPLE
 List the customer name, ID number, and order number
for all customers. Include customer information even for
customers that do have an order.

LEFT OUTER JOIN clause Unlike INNER join, this

causes customer data to will include customer
appear even if there is no rows with no matching
corresponding order data order rows
Outer Join
Results

Unlike
INNER join,
this will
include
customer
rows with no
matching
order rows
 MULTIPLE TABLE JOIN EXAMPLE
 Assemble all information necessary to create an invoice for order
number 1006

Four tables
involved in
this join

Each pair of tables requires an equality-check condition in the WHERE clause,

matching primary keys against foreign keys.
Results from a four-table join (edited for readability)

From CUSTOMER_T table

From From PRODUCT_T table

From
ORDER_T ORDERLINE_T
table table
SELF-JOIN EXAMPLE

The same table is

used on both sides
of the join;
distinguished using
table aliases

Self-joins are usually used on tables with unary relationships.

Example of a self-join

From Chapter 2

Unary
1:N
PROCESSING MULTIPLE TABLES USING
SUBQUERIES
 Subquery–placing an inner query (SELECT
statement) inside an outer query
 Options:
 In a condition of the WHERE clause
 As a “table” of the FROM clause
 Within the HAVING clause
 Subqueries can be:
 Noncorrelated–executed once for the entire outer query
 Correlated–executed once for each row returned by the
outer query
 SUBQUERY EXAMPLE
 Show all customers who have placed an order
The IN operator will test to see if
the CUSTOMER_ID value of a
row is included in the list
returned from the subquery

Subquery is embedded in parentheses. In

this case it returns a list that will be used
in the WHERE clause of the outer query
 JOIN VS. SUBQUERY
 Some queries could be accomplished by either a
join or a subquery

Join version

Subquery version
Graphical depiction of two ways to answer a query
with different types of joins
Graphical depiction of two ways to answer a query
with different types of joins
CORRELATED VS. NONCORRELATED
SUBQUERIES
 Noncorrelated subqueries:
 Do not depend on data from the outer query
 Execute once for the entire outer query

 Correlated subqueries:
 Make use of data from the outer query
 Execute once for each row of the outer query
 Can use the EXISTS operator
 Processing a noncorrelated subquery

A noncorrelated subquery processes completely before the outer query begins.

 CORRELATED SUBQUERY EXAMPLE
 Show all orders that include furniture finished in natural
ash.
The EXISTS operator will return a
TRUE value if the subquery resulted
in a non-empty set, otherwise it
returns a FALSE

 A correlated subquery always refers to The subquery is testing

an attribute from a table referenced in for a value that comes
the outer query from the outer query
 Processing a
correlated
subquery Subquery refers to outer-
query data, so executes once
for each row of outer query

Note: Only the

orders that
involve products
with Natural
Ash will be
included in the
final results.
 ANOTHER SUBQUERY EXAMPLE /(DERIVED TABLE)
 Show all products whose standard price is higher than
the average price
One column of the subquery is an
Subquery forms the derived aggregate function that has an alias
table used in the FROM clause name. That alias can then be
of the outer query
referred to in the outer query.

The WHERE clause normally cannot include aggregate functions, but because
the aggregate is performed in the subquery its result can be used in the outer
query’s WHERE clause.
 UNION QUERIES
 Combine the output (union of multiple queries)
together into a single result table

First query

Combine

Second query
Combining queries using UNION
Note: With
UNION queries,
the quantity and
data types of the
attributes in the
SELECT clauses
of both queries
must be identical.
 CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS USING
CASE KEYWORD
This is available with
newer versions of SQL,
previously not part of
the standard
Figure 7-10
MORE COMPLICATED SQL QUERIES
 Production databases contain hundreds or
even thousands of tables, and tables could
include hundreds of columns.
 So, sometimes query requirements can be very
complex.
 Sometimes it’s useful to combine queries,
through the use of Views.
 If you use a view (which is a query), you could
have another query that uses the view as if it
were a table.
EXAMPLE OF QUERY USING A VIEW
TIPS FOR DEVELOPING QUERIES
 Be familiar with the data model (entities and
relationships)
 Understand the desired results
 Know the attributes desired in results
 Identify the entities that contain desired
attributes
 Review ERD
 Construct a WHERE equality for each link
 Fine tune with GROUP BY and HAVING clauses
if needed
 Consider the effect on unusual data
QUERY EFFICIENCY CONSIDERATIONS

 Instead of SELECT *, identify the specific

attributes in the SELECT clause; this helps
reduce network traffic of result set
 Limit the number of subqueries; try to make
everything done in a single query if possible
 If data is to be used many times, make a
separate query and store it as a view
GUIDELINES FOR BETTER QUERY
DESIGN
 Understand how indexes are used in query
processing
 Keep optimizer statistics up-to-date
 Use compatible data types for fields and literals
 Write simple queries
 Break complex queries into multiple simple parts
 Don’t nest one query inside another query
 Don’t combine a query with itself (if possible avoid
self-joins)
GUIDELINES FOR BETTER QUERY
DESIGN (CONT.)
 Create temporary tables for groups of queries
 Combine update operations
 Retrieve only the data you need
 Don’t have the DBMS sort without an index
 Learn!
 Consider the total query processing time for ad hoc
queries
ENSURING TRANSACTION INTEGRITY
 Transaction = A discrete unit of work that must
be completely processed or not processed at all
 May involve multiple updates
 If any update fails, then all other updates must be
cancelled
 SQL commands for transactions
 BEGIN TRANSACTION/END TRANSACTION
 Marks boundaries of a transaction
 COMMIT
 Makes all updates permanent
 ROLLBACK
 Cancels updates since the last COMMIT
An SQL Transaction sequence (in pseudocode)
 DATA DICTIONARY FACILITIES
 System tables that store metadata
 Users usually can view some of these tables
 Users are restricted from updating them
 Some examples in Oracle 12c
 DBA_TABLES – descriptions of tables
 DBA_CONSTRAINTS – description of constraints
 DBA_USERS – information about the users of the
system
 Examples in Microsoft SQL Server 2014
 sys.columns – table and column definitions
 sys.indexes – table index information
 sys.foreign_key_columns – details about columns in
foreign key constraints
 SQL:2008
ENHANCEMENTS/EXTENSIONS
 User-defined data types (UDT)
 Subclasses of standard types or an object type
 Analytical functions (for OLAP)
 CEILING, FLOOR, SQRT, RANK, DENSE_RANK, ROLLUP, CUBE,
SAMPLE,
 WINDOW–improved numerical analysis capabilities
 New Data Types
 BIGINT, MULTISET (collection), XML
 CREATE TABLE LIKE–create a new table similar to an
existing one
 MERGE
SQL:2008 ENHANCEMENTS
(CONT)
 Programming extensions
 Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM)
 Capability
to create and drop code modules
 New statements:
 CASE,IF, LOOP, FOR, WHILE, etc.
 Makes SQL into a procedural language

 Oracle has propriety version called

PL/SQL, and Microsoft SQL Server has
Transact/SQL
ROUTINES AND TRIGGERS
 Routines
 Program modules that execute on demand
 Functions–routines that return values and
take input parameters
 Procedures–routines that do not return
values and can take input or output
parameters
 Triggers–routines that execute in
response to a database event (INSERT,
UPDATE, or DELETE)
Triggers contrasted with stored procedures

Procedures are called explicitly

Source: adapted from Mullins, 1995.

Triggers are event-driven
 Simplified trigger syntax, SQL:2008

Example DML Trigger

Example DDL Trigger

Syntax for creating a routine, SQL:2011

Example stored procedure

Calling the procedure

EMBEDDED AND DYNAMIC SQL
 Embedded SQL
 Includinghard-coded SQL statements in a
program written in another language such as
C or Java
 Dynamic SQL
 Ability
for an application program to generate
SQL code on the fly, as the application is
running
 REASONS TO EMBED SQL IN 3GL

 Can create a more flexible, accessible

interface for the user
 Possible performance improvement

 Database security improvement; grant

access only to the application instead of
users