Annex1B to DepEd Order No. 42, s.

2016
GRADES 1 TO 12 School Grade Level ELEVEN/TWELVE
DAILY LESSON
LOG Teacher Learning Area PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Teaching Dates and Quarter FIRST

Time
I.OBJECTIVES Unpacked Objective/s:

 Define Big Bang  Describe stellar  Cite the contributions  Explain how the  LONG QUIZ
nucleosynthesis; and nucleosynthesis and of J.J. Thomson, concept of atomic
 Give evidence for and the evolution of stars; Ernest Rutherford, number led to the
describe the formation and Henry Moseley, and synthesis of new
 Give evidence for and Niels Bohr to the elements in the
of light elements during
describe the formation understanding of the laboratory.
Big Bang. of heavier elements structure of the atom.
during star formation  Describe the nuclear
and evolution. model of the atom and
the location of its major
components (protons,
neutrons, and
electrons).
WEEK 1 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

Writer’s Name SHERRY E. SHERRY E. MERRY ANN GO MERRY ANN GO

MAGALLANES MAGALLANES (IMELDA NHS) (IMELDA NHS)
(IMELDA NHS) (IMELDA NHS)
A. Content The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
Standards
1. the formation of the elements during the Big Bang 3. how the concept of the atom evolved from ancient
and during stellar evolution. Greek to the present.
2. the distribution of the chemical elements and the
isotopes in the universe.
B. Performance The learners should be able to:
Standards
 make a creative representation of the historical development of the atom or the chemical element
C. Learning MELC/CODE:
 Competencies /
Code:  Give evidence for and describe the formation of  Explain how the concept of atomic number led to
heavier elements during star formation and evolution the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory
(S11/12PS-IIIa-2) (S11/12PS-IIIb-11)

Menu of strategies:
1. Inquiry - based approach,
2. Scientific method approach,
3. Differentiated instruction technique
II.CONTENT  How the elements found in the universe were formed  How the idea of atom, along with the idea of the
elements evolved
III.LEARNING
RESOURCES
A. References

1. Teacher’s Guide 13-17 59-60 61-62

pages
2. Learner’s
Materials pages
3. Textbooks pages  249-260 (Science and  249-260 (Science and
Technology III- Technology III-
Chemistry Textbook. Chemistry Textbook.
DepEd. Reprint Edition DepEd. Reprint Edition
2006 2009. Vibal 2006 2009. Vibal
Publishing House Inc.) Publishing House Inc.)
4. Additional  Quipper: Unit 1:
Materials pages Nucleosynthesis: The
from learning Beginning of the
Resources (LR) Elements, Lesson 2:
portal Stellar Evolution and
the Formation of
Heavier Elements
B. Other Learning  https://  https://  Carlo A. de Castro,  Quipper Lesson 3.3
Resource www.google.com/ www.sciencedaily.com/ and Melodee M.E. de
search?q=big%20bang terms/ Castro. 2005. The
%20nucleosynthesis&t big_bang_nucleosynthe Dynamics of Science
bm sis.htm and Technology-
PHYSICS. FNB
  https://  https:// Educational, Inc.
www.google.com/ en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
search? Stellar_nucleosynthesis
q=cosmology&tbm=isc
h&ved  https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
 https:// CNO_cycle
www.google.com/
search?q=girl-teacher-  https://
clipart-5&source en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Proton
 https:// %E2%80%93proton_ch
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ ain_reaction
Big_Bang_nucleosynth
esis  https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Triple-alpha_process

 https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
CNO_cycle

 https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Proton
%E2%80%93proton_ch
ain_reaction

 https://
www.youtube.com/
watch?
v=LKUPAk5049M
IV.PROCEDURES Inquiry-Based Learning Using 7E Model

A. Reviewing Review: Review: Review: Recall:

previous lesson or
presenting the ACTIVITY 1: Activity ACTIVITY: Activity Title:  What is an atom?  What is an element?
new lesson. Title: “4 PICS ONE “Name the Element!” An element is the
Atom is the smallest
ELICIT WORD!” (offline) (offline) unit or building blocks simplest substance
of matter; cannot be that cannot be broken
Objective: This activity will Objective: This activity will created nor destroyed; down by chemical
allow the students to recall allow the students to recall reactions.
remains unchanged
few concepts about atoms. few concepts about the  What comprises an
Problem: What is an previous topic on the during a chemical
element?
atom? formation of light elements. reaction. It is composed of one
Hypothesis: Atom is the Problem: What are some  Why do you think atom only.
basic unit of matter. examples of light that it is important to Direction: Based from the
Materials: elements? us? given images, write the
1. pen Hypothesis: Hydrogen, Without atoms there name of the elements that
2. activity sheets Helium and Lithium. can be found in them.
would not be a
3. pictures of atoms Materials:
1. pen functioning world,
Procedure: 2. Activity sheets because atom makes
1. Below are sample 3. pictures of water, up matter and matter
pictures of atoms. balloon and battery make up everything in
Analyze the pictures the world.
below and guess what Procedure:
is being described by 1. Show pictures of water, But do we know what an
the pictures. balloon and battery. atom really looks like? Let
us go on a historical tour
2.
of the atom’s discovery!

Match the given pictures

with the listed names
below.

A. Ernest Rutherford
B. Niels Bohr
Answer the guide C. Dmitri Mendeleev
questions below.
D. Henry Moseley
Guide Questions: E. JJ Thomson Answer
1. What is being 2. Answer the guide Key:
described by the questions below.
pictures above? Helium, aluminum, iron,
atom Guide Questions: gold, carbon, Salt / sodium
 2. What is an atom? 1. Which element that is F. Atom chloride and carbon
It is the basic unit of present in water dioxide.
matter. contains 2 atoms?
3.What are the three Hydrogen
subatomic particles of 2. What elements are
an atom? needed to make a
Protons, electrons and balloon float?
neutrons. Hydrogen and helium
A B
3. What element is found
Conclusions: in a battery?
Based from the result of Lithium
the activity performed, is
your hypothesis correct? Conclusions:
Yes. Therefore, I conclude Based from the result of
that atom is the basic unit the activity performed, is
of matter. your hypothesis correct?
Yes, Therefore, I conclude
that some examples of
light elements are C D
hydrogen, helium and
lithium.

E F

 How are they

connected with each
other?
Each of them has
contributions to the
understanding of
structure of the atom.

B. Establishing a  Define Big Bang  Describe stellar  Cite the contributions  Explain how the
purpose for the nucleosynthesis and of J.J. Thomson, concept of atomic
 lesson. nucleosynthesis; and the evolution of stars; Ernest Rutherford, number led to the
ENGAGE  Give evidence for and and Henry Moseley, and synthesis of new
describe the formation  Give evidence for and Niels Bohr to the elements in the
describe the formation ofunderstanding of the laboratory.
of light elements during
heavier elements during starstructure of the atom.
Big Bang. formation and evolution.  Describe the nuclear
model of the atom and
the location of its major
components (protons,
neutrons, and
electrons.
C. Presenting II. GUIDED/PRACTICE Activity #1: Activity Title: Activity 1: Activity Title: Activity 1: Activity Title:
examples/instance ACTIVITY Nucleosynthesis Game The Contribution! Atom (offline)
s of the new (offline and online) (offline)
lesson. Activity #2: Activity Title: In this activity, you would
ENGAGE “Let’s Count Particles” Objectives: In this activity, Problem: What did Dalton be able to picture out what
(offline) the students are asked to Thomson Rutherford and an atom looks like with all
demonstrate some Bohr contribute to the its subatomic particles.
Objectives: In this activity, examples of reactions atomic theory? Problem: How does an
the students are asked to that lead to the formation of Hypothesis: Rutherford atom look like with all its
count the number of different elements from had found the positively subatomic particles?
protons and neutrons in an hydrogen and helium. charged nucleus in the Hypothesis: The atom
element. Problem: How is hydrogen middle of has a center called
Problem: How is and helium formed? every atom using his Gold nucleus and this contains
hydrogen and helium Hypothesis: The low- Foil Experiment. He also the protons (+) and the
formed? mass elements, hydrogen proposed there were neutrons (neutral). The
Hypothesis: The fusion of and helium, negatively charged electrons (-) surrounds the
a proton (p) and a neutron were produced in the hot, electrons revolving around nucleus and is located on
(n) yielded a high-energy dense conditions of the the the electron clouds.
subatomic particle called a birth of the universe itself. nucleus. Bohr. Bohr belie Materials:
photon (γ) and an atom of Approximately 15 billion ved Rutherford's predictio  Circle-cut papers
deuterium (D), an isotope years ago the universe n was correct, but it wasn't  Gumdrops or round
of hydrogen-containing began as an extremely hot complete. clay (3 green, 4 red, 3
one proton and one and dense region of Materials: purple)
neutron. radiant energy, the Big  Pen  Pen
Materials: Bang. Immediately after  Activity sheets  Stapler
 pen its formation, it began to Instruction: Show a chart  Toothpicks
 activity sheets expand and cool. showing the scientists and  Activity sheet
Procedures: Materials: their attributes or Procedure:
1. Below is a chart  pen discoveries on the other 1. Draw a “+” sign on
showing different  activity sheets side. three circle-cut papers, a
elements. Observe the  red marbles 1. Below is a table “0” on four circle-cut
chart carefully and supply  blue marbles showing different scientist. papers, and a “- “sign on
the corresponding value of  ball magnet 2. Choose the name of the three circle-cut papers.
the elements mass  two six-sided dice scientist that matches the 2. Staple the plus stickers
number, atomic number, attributes listed and write it to the green gumdrops,
 chart of nuclides
protons and neutrons. on the second column of the minus papers to the
(accessible through the
the table. blue gumdrops, and the
link below)
zero papers to the red
a. Dmitri Mendeleev gumdrops.
The Chart of the Nuclides
b. Ancient Greeks 3. Combine the plus and
Joint Institute for Nuclear
c. Ernest Rutherford zero gumdrops with the
Astrophysics Center for the
d. John Dalton broken toothpicks to form
Evolution of Elements
e. Henry Moseley the nucleus.
(JINA-CEE). 2017. ‘Chart
f. Joseph John Thomson
of Nuclides’
g. James Chadwick Possible Answer:
http://www.jinaweb.org/
h. Niels Bohr GUMDROP ATOM
outreach/marble/Marble
%20Nuclei
%20Project%20-%20Quick SCIEN ATTRIBUTES
%20Reference TISTS
Answer Key: %20Sheet.pdf b. Matter is
Ancien made up of
chart of nuclides t particles
Greek called atoms
s
Be 4 d. johnAtom is
Dalton indivisible and 4. Answer the guide
12 6 indestructible. questions.
36 18 They do not
change during
Guide Questions:
12 12 10 chemical
1. What was the identity
reaction.
H 1 1 of the element formed?
a. Founder of
Lithium
Dmitri periodic law.
2. Identify the three
Mende The elements
parts of an atom.
2.Answer the guide Procedure: leev in the periodic
electron, proton, neutron
questions below. 1. Secure the required table were 3. If one electron is
materials. Neutrons will be arranged in removed, what charge
Guide Questions: represented by blue order of does the atom have?
1.What element has a marbles while protons will increasing positive
mass number of 4? be represented by red atomic mass. 4. If an electron, a
Beryllium marbles. f. He discovered proton, and a neutron
2.What is the mass 2. Students starts with a Josep the electrons would be added from the
number, and the number single hydrogen nucleus: 1 h John – the first setup, what element
of protons of Carbon? red marble stuck to a ball Thoms subatomic would it be?
12 and 6 magnet. on particles to be beryllium
3.What is the mass 3. Rolls two dice and do discovered 5. What is one example
number and atomic the corresponding due to the use of how engineers use
number of Argon? reactions: of cathode ray their knowledge of
36 and 18 tube. atoms to create new
4.What is the atomic c. He discovered technologies?
number, number of earnes protons and They can create different
protons and neutrons of t hypothesized ions and different alloys.
Magnesium? Ruther the existence One from the following
12,12 and 10 ford of neutron. answers can be given: a.
5. How is hydrogen and e. Atomic engineers use their
helium formed? Henry Theory. He knowledge of the atoms in
Hypothesis: Mosel organized water or air to develop
The fusion of a proton (p) 4. ey periodic table technologies to fight water
and a neutron (n) yielded in order of or air pollution; b.
a high-energy subatomic increasing engineers use atoms to
particle called a photon (γ) atomic create lasers for medicine,
Answer the guide
and an atom of deuterium number that industry and consumer
questions below.
(D), an isotope of allows for a products, semiconductors
hydrogen-containing one new and more with unique properties
Guide Questions:
proton and one neutron. accurate way used in cellphones and
1. Which nuclear
to organize computers, and other
reactions have your
Conclusions: elements for it useful technological
nuclei undergone?
Based from the result of can predict materials.
formation of different
the activity performed, is the existence 6. How will you describe
elements from
your hypothesis correct? of elements an atom with all its
hydrogen and helium.
Yes. Therefore, I conclude that hadn’t subatomic particles?
2. How are heavier
that the fusion of a proton been The atom has a center
elements created from
(p) and a neutron (n) discovered called the nucleus and
hydrogen and
yielded a high-energy this contains the protons
subatomic particle called a helium? yet. It took (+) and the neutrons
photon (γ) and an atom of After the hydrogen in scientists 30 (neutral). The electrons (-)
deuterium (D), an isotope the star's core is years to fill in surrounds the nucleus
of hydrogen-containing exhausted, the star can all of his and is located on the
one proton and one fuse helium to form predictions. electron clouds.
neutron. progressively heavier h. He suspected
elements, carbon and Niels that electrons Conclusions:
oxygen and so on, until Bohr revolved in Based from the result of
iron and nickel quantized the activity performed, is
are formed. Up to this orbit and your hypothesis correct?
point, the fusion developed the Yes. Therefore, I conclude
process releases atomic that the atom has a center
energy. The formation structure. called nucleus and this
of elements g. Discovered contains the protons (+)
heavier than iron and James the neutron in and the neutrons
nickel requires an input Chad the nucleus. (neutral). The electrons (-)
of energy. wick surrounds the nucleus
3. How did the elements and is located on the
form from nuclear Guide Questions: electron clouds.
reaction? 1. How important is it to
Heavy elements can know the attributes of
be formed from light these scientists?
ones by nuclear fusion Because of them, we can
reactions; these identify, experiment, and
are nuclear reactions in learn how to understand
which atomic nuclei and create new elements.
merge together. During 2. What are the
the formation of the contributions of
universe in the so- Rutherford and Bohr to
called big bang, only the formulation of
the lightest elements atomic theory?
were formed: hydrogen, Ernest
helium, lithium, and Rutherford discovered
beryllium. the nucleus of the atom
in 1911. In Rutherford's
Conclusions: planetary model of the
Based from the result of atom, the electrons move
the activity performed, is through space around the
your hypothesis correct?
Yes. Therefore, I conclude tiny positive nucleus
that hydrogen and helium like planets orbiting the
formed because of the low- sun. In his model, the
mass elements, hydrogen nucleus is at the center
and helium, containing the protons
were produced in the hot, and neutrons while the
dense conditions of the electrons revolve around
birth of the universe itself. the nucleus. There is no
explanation of why the
Teacher’s Notes electrons are in orbit.
The activity is used to
emphasize that the
discussion will focus on
reactions involving
subatomic particles.
The Bohr model shows
that the electrons in atoms
are in orbits of differing
energy around the
nucleus (think of planets
orbiting around the
sun). Bohr used the term
energy levels (or shells) to
describe these orbits of
differing energy. Bohr's
model made us of
quantum ideas. It uses
energy levels instead of
orbits. However, it cannot
explain atoms heavier

than hydrogen.

Conclusions:
 Based from the result of
the activity performed, is
your hypothesis correct?
Yes. Therefore, I conclude
that Rutherford had found
the positively charged
nucleus in the middle of
every atom using his Gold
Foil Experiment. He also
proposed there were
negatively charged
electrons revolving around
the
nucleus. Bohr. Bohr belie
ved Rutherford's predictio
n was correct, but it wasn't
complete.
D. Discussing new Activity Title: “Formation II.GUIDED/PRACTICE Now that we know the Activity 2: Activity Title:
concepts and practicing of Light Elements” ACTIVITY history of atom, Complete Me: (offline)
new skills #1. (offline)  Have you ever seen an
EXPLORE Activity #2: Activity Title: atom? Problem: What is trans
Objective: This activity will Stellar Evolution (offline)  How do atoms really uranium Element?
allow the students to look like? Hypothesis: The prefix
understand how lighter Objectives: In this activity, ''trans'' means ''beyond''
elements are form during the students are asked to Activity 2: Activity Title: so the trans uranium
the big bang. identify the contents of the Paper Plate Atom elements are those with
Problem: What different layers of a star at (offline) atomic numbers greater
evidences were found in a certain stage of stellar than 92. There are only 26
the formation of the lighter evolution. Objective: This activity elements that fit into this
elements during the Big Problem: Which stage of allows the students to category. Of these, the
Bang? stellar evolution is unique describe the nuclear only elements that have
Hypothesis: Formation of to high mass stars? model of an atom and the been observed in nature
hydrogen, helium and Hypothesis: From Red location of its major are neptunium
lithium Giant to Supernova: components. and plutonium, which
The Evolutionary Path Problem: How are you have atomic numbers 93
Materials: of High Mass Stars. going to describe the and 94, respectively.
 Activity sheets Once stars that are 5 nuclear model of an atom Material:
 Pen times or more massive and the location of its  Pen
than our Sun reach the red
Procedure: giant phase, their core major components?  Activity sheets
1.Read the short passage temperature increases as Hypothesis: Atom is the  Periodic table of
in the activity sheet. carbon atoms are formed smallest unit of a matter. It elements
How do light elements from the fusion of helium has electrons located on Instruction:
form? atoms. the electron clouds that 1. Complete the table of
Big bang nucleosynthesis Materials: surrounds the nucleus trans uranium elements
(BBN) started 100 seconds D. pen which is the center of the below using your periodic
after the big bang, as the E. Activity sheets atom that contains the table of elements.
rapid expansion of the Procedure: protons and neutrons. 2. On the first column,
singularity combined with 1. Below is a picture Materials: Write the Element symbol
the rapid cooling led to the showing the Layers of a  Pen of an element.
deceleration of the star. Identify (A) the  3 different colors of 3. Write the element name
subatomic particles. You contents of each layer in clay or round chewing on the second column,
may use Option B to the illustration and (B) gums and
emphasize the importance identify the type of star  red, blue and orange) 4. On the third column
of counting subatomic being illustrated.  paper plate Write the atomic number
particles in the nucleus.  markers or color of the given element.
Layers of a Star pencils
One nucleosynthesis lasts Procedure:
around three minutes and 1. Using a clay or a
produces two stable Answer Key: chewing gum make a
isotopes each for model of an atom.
hydrogen (H) and helium Contents of the different 2. Each one of the
(He) as well as lithium (Li) layers of a star clay/chewing gum colors
atoms and some isotopes will represent a different
of beryllium (Be). Detailed part of the atom:
reactions are shown in Red – electron Answer Key:
slides 10 to 16. Blue – proton
2. Answer the guide Orange - neutrons
A. The fusion of a proton questions below. 3. Use the markers or
(p) and a neutron (n) color pencils to represents
yielded a high-energy Guide Questions: the electron path for each
subatomic particle called a 1. What are the layers of of your electrons. These
photon (γ) and an atom of a star? are orbits around the
deuterium (D), an isotope A star during most of its life nucleus, so make them a
of hydrogen-containing is a main-sequence star, little wider in the middle
one proton and one which consists of and narrow at the ends. Guide Questions:
neutron. a core, radiative and 1. How are trans
B. Two deuterium nuclei
may fuse together to form convective zones, uranium elements
either (1) the radioactive H a photosphere, Possible Answer: synthesized?
isotope tritium (T, with one a chromosphere and PAPER PLATE ATOM These are elements with
p and two n) and one p, or a corona. MODEL: atomic number greater
(2) the isotope helium-3 2. What are the contents than 92. They are
(He-3, with two p and one of each layer in the synthesized using a
n) along with one n. illustration? particle
C. Helium-4 (He-4, with yellow – inert hydrogen, accelerator.
two p and two n) may be red – hydrogen fusion, 2. What is the Element
formed through (1) the green -helium and blue – symbol for americium
fusion of one p and a T inert carbon. and plutonium?
atom, (2) the fusion of D 3. What type of star being Americium - Am and
with T, and (3) the fusion illustrated? 4. Answer the guide Plutonium – Md
of D with He-3. red giant questions below. 3. What is the atomic
2.Answer the guide 4. How does a star number for californium?
questions below. become a red giant? Guide Questions: 98
When stars first begin to 1. What are the things 4. How can we find
Guide questions: fuse hydrogen to helium, needed to have an atomic number?
1.What is the first they lie on the zero-age atom? Go to the Periodic Table
element formed during main sequence. The core You need protons, of Elements. The atomic
the Big Bang? of a red giant is neutrons number is the number of
Hydrogen isotope contracting, but the outer and electrons. protons in an atom of an
(deuteron) layers are expanding as a 2. What are the element. In our example,
2.What evidences were result of hydrogen fusion in components of a plutonium atomic
found in the formation of a shell outside the core. nucleus? number is 94 in the
the lighter elements The star gets larger, protons and neutrons periodic table.
during the Big Bang? redder, and more luminous 3. How will you have a 5. What is trans
Formation of hydrogen, as it expands and cools. charged ion? uranium Element?
helium and lithium 5. Which stage of stellar Ions can be produced by The prefix ''trans'' means
evolution is unique to gaining or losing ''beyond'' so the trans
Conclusions: high mass stars? electrons. uranium elements are
Based from the result of From Red Giant to 4. How will you describe those with atomic
the activity performed, is Supernova: the nuclear model of an numbers greater than 92.
your hypothesis correct? The Evolutionary Path atom and the location of There are only 26
Yes. Therefore, I conclude of High Mass Stars. its major components? elements that fit into this
that Once stars that are 5 Atom is the smallest unit category. Of these, the
formation of hydrogen, times or more massive of a matter. It has only elements that have
helium and lithium were than our Sun reach the red electrons located on the been observed in nature
some of the evidences giant phase, their core electron clouds that are neptunium
 found in the formation of temperature increases as surrounds the nucleus and plutonium, which
the lighter elements during carbon atoms are formed which is the center of the have atomic numbers 93
the Big Bang from the fusion of helium atom that contains the and 94, respectively.
atoms. protons and neutrons.
Conclusions: Conclusions:
Based from the result of Conclusions: Based from the result of
the activity performed, is Based from the result of the activity performed, is
your hypothesis correct? the activity performed, is your hypothesis correct?
Yes. Therefore, I conclude your hypothesis correct? Yes. Therefore, I conclude
that from Red Giant to Yes. Therefore, I conclude that the trans uranium
Supernova is the stage that Atom is the smallest elements are those with
were stellar evolutionary unit of a matter. It has atomic numbers greater
path of high mass stars is electrons located on the than 92. There are only 26
unique. Once stars that electron clouds that elements that fit into this
are 5 times or more surrounds the nucleus category. Of these, the
massive than our Sun which is the center of the only elements that have
reach the red giant phase, atom that contains the been observed in nature
their core temperature protons and neutrons. are neptunium
increases as carbon atoms and plutonium, which
are formed from the fusion have atomic numbers 93
of helium atoms. Teacher’s Notes and 94, respectively.
The activity will
supplement the student’s
knowledge on the
components of
atoms, nuclei and ions.

E. Developing mastery  What is Big Bang  What is stellar  What is an atom?  How was the concept
(Leads to Formative theory? formation and Atoms consist of a of atomic number led
Assessment 3) The Big Bang theory is evolution? nucleus made of to the synthesis of
EXPLAIN a cosmological model Stellar evolution is the protons and neutrons new elements in the
 of the observable process by which orbited by laboratory?
universe from the a star changes over electrons. Atoms are The existing
earliest known periods the course of time. the basic units of hypothesis of Moseley:
through its subsequent Stars with at least half matter and the defining that the elements’
large-scale evolution. the mass of the Sun structure of elements. atomic number, was
This theory describes can also begin to The term "atom" uniquely tied to their
how the universe generate energy comes from the Greek “positive charge”, or
expanded from an through the fusion of word for indivisible, the number of protons
initial state of helium at their core, because it was once they had. This
extremely high density whereas more-massive thought discovery allowed for a
and high temperature stars can fuse heavier that atoms were the better arrangement of
and offers a elements along a series smallest things in the the periodic table, and
comprehensive of concentric shells. universe and could not predicted elements
explanation for a broad  What is stellar be divided. that were not yet
range of observed nucleosynthesis? discovered. When the
phenomena, including (Stellar nucleosynthesis atomic structure. elements were
the abundance of light is the formation of arranged according to
elements, the cosmic heavier elements by  W h e r their
e atomic numbers,
c a n y
microwave background fusion reaction of there were four gaps in
radiation (CMB) lighter elements. The the table. These
radiation, and large- evolution of star is elements were later
scale structure. governed by two synthesized in the
 What is cosmology? competing forces, laboratory through
Cosmology is the gravity pushing in and electrons, protons, and NUCLEAR
branch of science that pressure from fusion neutrons? TRANSMUTATIONS.
focuses on the origin, pushing out. If gravity electrons-in the
evolution, and fate of wins, the star collapses, electron cloud that
the universe. if pressure wins, the surrounds the nucleus; Synthesis of New
It is an intersection of star expands. Stars protons-in the center Elements The periodic
several fields including spend most of their of an atom-the table of elements provided
chemistry, physics, and lifetimes in a steady nucleus; neutrons-in insights not only on how
astronomy. It can be state when these two the center of atom – these atoms might interact
classified based on the forces balance each the nucleus. to form compounds
nature of the theories other. Stellar  Why do you think predicted by Dalton, but
involved. Nucleosynthesis is the atomic models are also how atoms can be
1.Religious or formation of heavier important? transformed to other
mythological elements by fusion Atomic models are
cosmology is based on reaction of lighter important because, th
elements.). ey help us visualize
 religious beliefs,  How does stellar the interior atoms. This caught the
including the concepts nucleosynthesis of atoms and interest of Rutherford and
of creation ex nihilo occur? molecules, and pursued this study with
and God creating the (Stellar nucleosynthesis thereby predicting Moseley using nuclear
universe as written in is the process by which properties of matter. reactions. A nuclear
the book of Genesis. elements are created transmutation reaction is a
2.Physical cosmology within stars by Contributions of J.J. reaction involving the
is based on scientific combining the protons Thomson, Ernest transformation of one
theories, wherein and neutrons together Rutherford, Henry element or isotope into
scientists from different from the nuclei of Moseley, and Niels Bohr another element. In 1919,
fields aim to decipher lighter elements. to the understanding of Rutherford successfully
the universe's physical Fusion inside stars the structure of the carried out the first nuclear
origin. transforms hydrogen atom. transmutation reaction. He
 What lighter elements into helium, heat, and bombarded alpha particles
were formed during radiation. Heavier (helium nuclei) from
the Big Bang? elements are created radium directed to the
Hydrogen isotope in different types of nitrogen nuclei. He
(deuteron), helium and stars as they die or showed that the nitrogen
lithium. explode). nucleus reacted to the
 What evidences were  How were the heavier alpha particle to form an
found in the elements formed? oxygen nucleus. The
formation of lighter (Some of the heavier reaction is written as:
elements during Big elements in the
Bang? periodic table are However, both alpha
Formation of hydrogen, created when pairs of particles and atomic nuclei
helium and lithium neutron stars collide are positively charged, so
 How did lighter cataclysmically and they tend to repel each
elements form during explode, researchers other. Therefore, instead
Big Bang? have shown for the first of using fast-moving alpha
1.The fusion of a time. particles synthesizing new
proton (p) and a Light elements like elements, atomic nuclei
neutron (n) yielded a hydrogen and are often bombarded with
high-energy subatomic helium formed during neutrons (neutral
particle called a photon the big bang, and those particles) in particle
(γ) and an atom of up to iron are made by accelerators. This problem
deuterium (D), an fusion in the cores of was solved by particle
isotope of hydrogen- stars). accelerators. A particle
containing one proton  What are the heavier accelerator is a device
that is used to speed up
and one neutron. elements? The Billiard Ball particles (e.g. protons,
A phenomenon known A heavy element is model of the atom neutrons, alpha particles)
as the deuterium an element with an to overcome the repulsion
bottleneck can be atomic number greater between the particles and
traced to deuterium’s than 92. The first heavy the target atomic nuclei by
low binding energy element is neptunium using magnetic and
(energy required to (Np), which has an electrical fields. It is used
split its nucleus into its atomic number of 93. was proposed by John to synthesize new
components) and Some heavy Dalton in the early 1800s. elements.
subsequent destruction elements are produced He thought atoms were
by photons at intensely in reactors, and some small, hard spheres with In 1937, American
high temperatures. are produced artificially
no internal parts. physicist Ernest Lawrence
A decrease in in cyclotron
Because Dalton thought synthesized element with
temperature enabled experiments. atoms were the smallest atomic number 43 using a
deuterium to stabilize particles of matter, he linear particle accelerator.
and eventually initiate envisioned them as solid, He bombarded
the BBN cascade, hard spheres, molybdenum (Z=42) with
which then led to the like billiard (pool) balls, fast-moving neutrons. The
formation of other light so he used newly synthesized
elements such as wooden balls to model th element was named
helium, lithium, and em. Dalton added these Technetium (Tc) after the
beryllium. so the model atoms could Greek word technêtos
 What heavier be joined together with meaning “artificial.” Tc
2. Two deuterium elements were formed hooks and used was the first man-made
nuclei may fuse during stellar to model compounds. element.
together to form either evolution?
(1) the radioactive H carbon, oxygen, Thomson proposed the In
isotope tritium (T, with nitrogen, neon up to plum pudding model of
one p and two n) and iron. the atom, which had 1940, Dale Corson,
one p, or (2) the  What evidences were negatively-charged Kenneth Mackenzie, and
isotope helium-3 (He-3, found in the formation electrons embedded Emilio Segre discovered
with two p and one n) of heavier elements within a positively-charged element with atomic
along with one n. during star "soup." number 85. They
formation? bombarded atoms of
3. Helium-4 (He-4, with Nuclear fusion took bismuth (Z=83) with fast
two p and two n) may place that led to the moving alpha particles in a
be formed through (1) creation of heavier
the fusion of one p and elements such as
a T atom, (2) the fusion
 of D with T, and (3) the carbon, oxygen, neon J.J. Thomson's experime cyclotron. A cyclotron is a
fusion of D with He-3. etc. nts with cathode ray tubes particle accelerator that
Fusion of protons,  How did heavier showed that uses alternating electric
neutrons, deuterons elements form during all atoms contain tiny field to accelerate particles
and alpha particles. stellar negatively charged that move in a spiral path
nucleosynthesis? subatomic particles or in the presence of a
Fusion reaction of light electrons. magnetic field. Element-85
Big Bang Theory elements inside the star was named astatine from
through p-p fusion, Ernest the Greek word astatos
It is a cosmological model triple alpha process, Rutherford discovered meaning unstable.
describing the advent of etc. The two other elements
the expansion of the with atomic numbers 61
universe approximately The Synthesis of Heavier and 87 were discovered
13.8 billion years ago. Elements The big bang through studies in
model was able to explain radioactivity. Element-61
The universe began as a how light elements such as (promethium) was
the nucleus of the atom
singularity: a hot, dense hydrogen, helium, lithium discovered as a decay
in 1911. In Rutherford's
and beryllium were product of the fission of
point which contained all planetary model of the
produced. As the universe uranium while element-87
space, time, matter and cooled down, protons and atom, the electrons move
(francium) was discovered
energy surrounded by neutrons started reacting to through empty space
as a breakdown product of
around the tiny positive
"nothing". form deuterium, which actinium. Scientists were
nucleus
consequently reacts in a also able to figure out
The singularity expanded cascade of reactions to like planets orbiting the
synthesis of elements
sun.
in the nothingness not form tritium and heavier heavier than uranium. In
through an explosion elements. Few minutes the 1930s, the heaviest
The Bohr model shows
(contrary to what the name after the big bang, the element known was
that the electrons in atoms
suggests) but a rapid yet universe is filled with uranium, with an atomic
are in orbits of differing
abundant number of number 92. By early
peaceful process of energy around the nucleus
hydrogen and helium 1940s, Edwin McMillan
inflation. (think of planets orbiting
atoms, and some lithium and Philip Abelson proved
around the
and beryllium. that an element having an
The universe cooled as it sun). Bohr used the term
atomic number 93 could
expanded, and matter— energy levels (or shells) to
No elements heavier than be created. They used a
existing as protons, beryllium are formed during particle accelerator to
neutrons, electrons, and BBN because of the bombard uranium with
protons—were scattered in relatively short period of neutrons and created an
an energy-rich plasma time before the element with an atomic
number 93 which they
soup. temperature dropped describe these orbits of named neptunium. At the
significantly. At very low differing energy. end of 1940, element-94
Nucleosynthesis or nuclear temperature, there is not was synthesized by Glenn
fusion between protons enough energy to fuse Moseley discovered Seaborg, Edwin McMillan,
and neutrons occurred in more neutrons to existing the atomic number of Joseph Kennedy, and
the plasma soup and nuclei. each element using x- Arthur Wahl. They
eventually led to the rays, which led to more bombarded uranium with
But you know that the accurate organization of deuterons (particles
formation of the nuclei of periodic table of elements
the periodic table. We will composed of a proton and
light elements. does not end on beryllium. cover his life and a neutron) in a cyclotron.
There are a lot of elements discovery of the Element-94 was named
Electrons then started to far bigger than beryllium. relationship plutonium. Elements with
interact with the nuclei How are these heavier between atomic number atomic numbers greater
produced from nuclear elements formed? Just like and x-ray frequency, than 92 (the atomic
fusion through the process the universe continued to known as Moseley's Law. number of uranium) are
of recombination. expand, the story of called transuranium
nucleosynthesis did not elements. Hence,
Newly-formed atoms end at big bang neptunium and plutonium
moved through space until nucleosynthesis are both transuranium
gravity collapsed them, elements. They are
Stellar Nucleosynthesis Electron Cloud Model of unstable, so they decay
resulting in the formation
and the Formation of Erwin Schrödinger and radioactively into other
of celestial bodies such as Stars Elements heavier Werner Heisenberg. elements. All transuranium
stars and galaxies. than beryllium were formed The electron cloud elements are artificially
through stellar model was developed in generated or synthetic
The expansion of the nucleosynthesis. Stellar 1926 by Erwin elements. They are
universe is still ongoing, nucleosynthesis is the Schrödinger and Werner prepared using nuclear
with space traveling faster process by which elements Heisenberg. reactors or particle
than both matter and are formed within stars. The model is a way to accelerators.
energy. Hydrogen and helium help visualize the most
formed from BBN begin probable position
The theory explains that combining in nuclear fusion of electrons in an atom.
the universe is constantly reactions, releasing The electron cloud
expanding. tremendous amount of
The theory can also light, heat and radiation.
explain the origin of the These nuclear fusion
universe and the elements reactions will be discussed
in the next lesson.
 model is currently the
accepted model of an
atom.

The theory states that the

universe is dynamic, and Formation of Main
this can be proven using Sequence Stars All stars
scientific evidence. are born from clouds of gas
1. In 1910, Vesto Slipher and dust called nebulae or
and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz molecular clouds that
observed a phenomenon collapsed due to gravity.
called redshift, in which As a cloud collapses, it
most spiral galaxies were breaks into smaller
moving away from the fragments which contract
earth. to form a superhot stellar
2. In 1927, Belgian core called protostar. The
Catholic priest Georges protostar continues to
Lemaitre proposed an accumulate gas and dust
alternative idea that the from the molecular cloud,
universe is expanding and continues to contract
3. In 1929, Edwin Hubble while the temperature
calculated the distances increases.
between the earth and
several galaxies using the When the core temperature
redshift of light, and his reaches about 10 million K,
observations on how nuclear fusions and other
distant galaxies were nuclear reactions begin.
moving away from the Hydrogen will start
Earth and one another combining with one
further supported the another in a series of
theory of the expansion of proton-proton fusion
the universe. reactions. This cascade of
4. In 1965, Robert Wilson proton reactions will be
and Arno Penzias discussed in detail in the
discovered the existence next lesson.
of cosmic microwave
background radiation Formation of Red Giants
(CMBR)—noise described Sooner, the proton-proton
as a low, steady humming chain reactions will exhaust
sound which they believed all hydrogen in the core of
to be energy remains— a main sequence star.
through the Holmdel horn Helium, which is the
antenna. product of these nuclear
5. In 2014, astronomers fusion reactions, will
and scientists estimated become the major
the universe to be 13.8 component of the core.
billion years old, with 5% Hydrogen fusion becomes
of its composition existing significant on the outer
as ordinary matter. shell, while some of it is
also fused to the core’s
Cosmology is the branch surface. When most of the
of science that focuses on hydrogen in the core is
the origin, evolution, and fused into helium, fusion
fate of the universe. stops and the pressure in
It is an intersection of the core decreases.
several fields including Gravity squeezes the star
chemistry, physics, and to a point that helium
astronomy. It can be hydrogen burning occur.
classified based on the Helium is converted to
nature of the theories carbon in the core via
involved. alpha processes,
increasing the star’s core
1.Religious or mythological density. These processes,
cosmology is based on which involve helium atoms
religious beliefs, including (also called alpha
the concepts of creation ex particles), will be discussed
nihilo and God creating the in detail in the next lesson.
universe as written in the Meanwhile, hydrogen is
book of Genesis. converted to helium in the
2.Physical cosmology is shell surrounding the core,
based on scientific increasing the temperature
theories, wherein scientists up to 10 million kelvins.
from different fields aim to This increase in
decipher the universe's temperature is
physical origin. accompanied with an
increase in pressure that
pushes inert hydrogen
away from the core. The
star, at this point, has
become a red giant.

Formation of a White
Dwarf from Low Mass
Stars When the majority of
Most of the laws of the the helium in the core has
universe were established been converted to carbon,
by early philosophers and the rate of alpha fusion
scientists. processes decreases.
3.Nicolaus Copernicus Gravity again squeezes the
proposed the heliocentric star. The star’s fuel is
nature of the universe. depleted and over time, the
4.Isaac Newton extended outer material of the star is
the laws of classical blown off into space as
physics to the universe planetary nebula. The only
through the introduction of thing that remains is the
the law of universal hot and inert carbon core.
gravitation. The star becomes a white
5.Albert Einstein's theory
of relativity suggested that
the universe is dynamic in
nature. dwarf.

How do light elements Formation of a Multiple-

form? Shell Red Giant from
Big bang nucleosynthesis Massive Stars Unlike low
(BBN) started 100 seconds mass stars, the fate of a
after the big bang, as the massive star (or high mass
rapid expansion of the star) is different. A massive
singularity combined with star has enough mass
the rapid cooling led to the such that temperature and
deceleration of the pressure increase to a
subatomic particles. You point where carbon fusion
may use Option B to can occur. The star goes
emphasize the importance through a series of stages
of counting subatomic where heavier elements
particles in the nucleus. are fused in the core and in
the shells around the core.
One nucleosynthesis lasts The element oxygen is
around three minutes and formed from carbon fusion;
produces two stable neon from oxygen fusion;
isotopes each for silicon from neon fusion;
hydrogen (H) and helium and iron from silicon fusion.
(He) as well as lithium (Li) The star then becomes a
atoms and some isotopes multiple-shell red giant.
of beryllium (Be). Detailed
reactions are shown in
slides 10 to 16.

1.The fusion of a proton

(p) and a neutron (n)
yielded a high-energy
subatomic particle called a Formation of a
photon (γ) and an atom of Supernova When the core
deuterium (D), an isotope can no longer produce
of hydrogen-containing energy to resist gravity, the
one proton and one star is doomed. Gravity
neutron. squeezes the core until the
star explodes and releases
a large amount of energy.
The star explosion is called
a supernova. The
explosion also releases
massive amount of high
A phenomenon known as energy neutrinos which, in
the deuterium bottleneck turn, breaks nucleons and
can be traced to release neutrons. These
deuterium’s low binding neutrons are picked up by
energy (energy required to nearby stars and lead to
split its nucleus into its the creation of elements
components) and heavier than iron.
subsequent destruction by
photons at intensely high
temperatures.
A decrease in temperature
enabled deuterium to
stabilize and eventually
initiate the BBN cascade,
Evidences of Stellar
which then led to the
Evolution and
formation of other light
Nucleosynthesis The
elements such as helium,
crucial piece of evidence
lithium, and beryllium.
that support the stellar
evolution and
2. Two deuterium nuclei nucleosynthesis theory
may fuse together to form include the discovery of the
either (1) the radioactive H interstellar medium of gas
isotope tritium (T, with one and dust during the early
p and two n) and one p, or part of the 20th century.
(2) the isotope helium-3 Other pieces of evidence
(He-3, with two p and one come from the study of
n) along with one n. different stages of
formation happening in
different areas in space
and piecing them together
to form a clearer picture.
Energy in the form of
infrared radiation (IR) is
detected from different
stages of star formation.
For instance, astronomers
measure the IR released
3. Helium-4 (He-4, with
by a protostar and
two p and two n) may be
compare it to the IR from a
formed through (1) the
nearby area with zero
fusion of one p and a T
extinction. Extinction in
atom, (2) the fusion of D
astronomy means the
with T, and (3) the fusion
absorption and scattering
of D with He-3.
of electromagnetic
radiation by gases and
 dust particles between an
emitting astronomical
object and an observer.
The IR measurements are
used to approximate the
energy, temperature, and
pressure in the protostar.

F. Developing  What is Big Bang  What is stellar  What is an atom?  How was the
mastery (Leads to theory? formation and Atoms consist of a concept of atomic
Formative The Big Bang theory is evolution? nucleus made of number led to the
Assessment 3) a cosmological model Stellar evolution is the protons and neutrons synthesis of new
EXPLAIN of the observable process by which orbited by elements in the
universe from the a star changes over electrons. Atoms are laboratory?
earliest known periods the course of time. the basic units of The existing
through its subsequent Stars with at least half matter and the defining hypothesis of Moseley:
large-scale evolution. the mass of the Sun structure of elements. that the elements’
This theory describes can also begin to The term "atom" atomic number, was
how the universe generate energy comes from the Greek uniquely tied to their
expanded from an through the fusion of word for indivisible, “positive charge”, or
initial state of helium at their core, because it was once the number of protons
extremely high density whereas more-massive thought they had. This
and high temperature stars can fuse heavier that atoms were the discovery allowed for a
and offers a elements along a series smallest things in the better arrangement of
comprehensive of concentric shells. universe and could not the periodic table, and
explanation for a broad  What is stellar be divided. predicted elements
range of observed nucleosynthesis? that were not yet
phenomena, including Stellar nucleosynthesis discovered. When the
 the abundance of light is the formation of atomic structure. elements were
elements, the cosmic heavier elements by arranged according to
microwave background fusion reaction of  W h e r their
e atomic numbers,
c a n y
radiation (CMB) lighter elements. The there were four gaps in
radiation, and large- evolution of star is the table. These
scale structure. governed by two elements were later
 What is cosmology? competing forces, synthesized in the
Cosmology is the gravity pushing in and laboratory through
branch of science that pressure from fusion electrons, protons, and NUCLEAR
focuses on the origin, pushing out. If gravity neutrons? TRANSMUTATIONS.
evolution, and fate of wins, the star collapses, (electrons-in the
the universe. if pressure wins, the electron cloud that
It is an intersection of star expands. Stars surrounds the nucleus; Synthesis of New
several fields including spend most of their protons-in the center Elements The periodic
chemistry, physics, and lifetimes in a steady of an atom-the table of elements provided
astronomy. It can be state when these two nucleus; neutrons-in insights not only on how
classified based on the forces balance each the center of atom – these atoms might interact
nature of the theories other. Stellar the nucleus). to form compounds
involved. Nucleosynthesis is the  Why do you think predicted by Dalton, but
1.Religious or formation of heavier atomic models are also how atoms can be
mythological elements by fusion important? transformed to other
cosmology is based on reaction of lighter Atomic models are atoms. This caught the
religious beliefs, elements. important because, th interest of Rutherford and
including the concepts  How does stellar ey help us visualize pursued this study with
of creation ex nihilo nucleosynthesis the interior Moseley using nuclear
and God creating the occur? of atoms and reactions. A nuclear
universe as written in Stellar nucleosynthesis molecules, and transmutation reaction is a
the book of Genesis. is the process by which thereby predicting reaction involving the
2.Physical cosmology elements are created properties of matter. transformation of one
is based on scientific within stars by element or isotope into
theories, wherein combining the protons Contributions of J.J. another element. In 1919,
scientists from different and neutrons together Thomson, Ernest Rutherford successfully
fields aim to decipher from the nuclei of Rutherford, Henry carried out the first nuclear
the universe's physical lighter elements. Moseley, and Niels Bohr transmutation reaction. He
origin. Fusion inside stars to the understanding of bombarded alpha particles
 What lighter elements transforms hydrogen the structure of the (helium nuclei) from
were formed during into helium, heat, and atom.
the Big Bang? radiation. Heavier
 Hydrogen isotope elements are created The Billiard Ball radium directed to the
(deuteron), helium and in different types of model of the atom nitrogen nuclei. He
lithium. stars as they die or showed that the nitrogen
 What evidences were explode. nucleus reacted to the
found in the  How were the heavier alpha particle to form an
formation of lighter elements formed? oxygen nucleus. The
elements during Big (Some of the heavier reaction is written as:
Bang? elements in the was proposed by John
Formation of hydrogen, periodic table are Dalton in the early 1800s. However, both alpha
helium and lithium created when pairs of He thought atoms were particles and atomic nuclei
 How did lighter neutron stars collide small, hard spheres with are positively charged, so
elements form during cataclysmically and no internal parts. they tend to repel each
Big Bang? explode, researchers Because Dalton thought other. Therefore, instead
1.The fusion of a have shown for the first atoms were the smallest of using fast-moving alpha
proton (p) and a time. particles of matter, he particles synthesizing new
neutron (n) yielded a Light elements like envisioned them as solid, elements, atomic nuclei
high-energy subatomic hydrogen and hard spheres, are often bombarded with
particle called a photon helium formed during like billiard (pool) balls, neutrons (neutral
(γ) and an atom of the big bang, and those so he used particles) in particle
deuterium (D), an up to iron are made by wooden balls to model th accelerators. This problem
isotope of hydrogen- fusion in the cores of em. Dalton added these was solved by particle
containing one proton stars). so the model atoms could accelerators. A particle
and one neutron.  What are the heavier be joined together with accelerator is a device
A phenomenon known elements? hooks and used that is used to speed up
as the deuterium A heavy element is to model compounds. particles (e.g. protons,
bottleneck can be an element with an neutrons, alpha particles)
traced to deuterium’s atomic number greater Thomson proposed the to overcome the repulsion
low binding energy than 92. The first heavy plum pudding model of between the particles and
(energy required to element is neptunium the atom, which had the target atomic nuclei by
split its nucleus into its (Np), which has an negatively-charged using magnetic and
components) and atomic number of 93. electrons embedded electrical fields. It is used
subsequent destruction Some heavy within a positively-charged to synthesize new
by photons at intensely elements are produced elements.
high temperatures. in reactors, and some
A decrease in are produced artificially In 1937, American
temperature enabled in cyclotron physicist Ernest Lawrence
deuterium to stabilize experiments. synthesized element with
and eventually initiate  What heavier atomic number 43 using a
linear particle accelerator.
 the BBN cascade, elements were formed "soup." He bombarded
which then led to the during stellar J.J. Thomson's experime molybdenum (Z=42) with
formation of other light evolution? nts with cathode ray tubes fast-moving neutrons. The
elements such as carbon, oxygen, showed that newly synthesized
helium, lithium, and nitrogen, neon up to all atoms contain tiny element was named
beryllium. iron. negatively charged Technetium (Tc) after the
 What evidences were subatomic particles or Greek word technêtos
2. Two deuterium found in the formation electrons. meaning “artificial.” Tc
nuclei may fuse of heavier elements was the first man-made
together to form either during star Ernest element.
(1) the radioactive H formation? Rutherford discovered
isotope tritium (T, with Nuclear fusion took In
one p and two n) and place that led to the
one p, or (2) the creation of heavier 1940, Dale Corson,
isotope helium-3 (He-3, elements such as Kenneth Mackenzie, and
with two p and one n) carbon, oxygen, neon Emilio Segre discovered
along with one n. etc. element with atomic
the nucleus of the atom
 How did heavier in 1911. In Rutherford's number 85. They
3. Helium-4 (He-4, with elements form during bombarded atoms of
planetary model of the
two p and two n) may stellar bismuth (Z=83) with fast
atom, the electrons move
be formed through (1) nucleosynthesis? moving alpha particles in a
through empty space
the fusion of one p and Fusion reaction of light cyclotron. A cyclotron is a
around the tiny positive
a T atom, (2) the fusion elements inside the star particle accelerator that
nucleus
of D with T, and (3) the through p-p fusion, uses alternating electric
like planets orbiting the
fusion of D with He-3. triple alpha process, field to accelerate particles
sun.
Fusion of protons, etc. that move in a spiral path
neutrons, deuterons in the presence of a
The Bohr model shows
and alpha particles. The Synthesis of Heavier magnetic field. Element-85
that the electrons in atoms
Elements The big bang are in orbits of differing was named astatine from
model was able to explain energy around the nucleus
Big Bang Theory how light elements such as (think of planets orbiting
hydrogen, helium, lithium around the
It is a cosmological model and beryllium were
describing the advent of produced. As the universe sun). Bohr used the term the Greek word astatos
meaning unstable.
the expansion of the cooled down, protons and The two other elements
universe approximately neutrons started reacting to with atomic numbers 61
13.8 billion years ago. form deuterium, which and 87 were discovered
consequently reacts in a through studies in
The universe began as a cascade of reactions to energy levels (or shells) to radioactivity. Element-61
singularity: a hot, dense form tritium and heavier describe these orbits of (promethium) was
point which contained all elements. Few minutes differing energy. discovered as a decay
after the big bang, the product of the fission of
space, time, matter and
universe is filled with Moseley discovered uranium while element-87
energy surrounded by abundant number of the atomic number of (francium) was discovered
"nothing". hydrogen and helium each element using x- as a breakdown product of
atoms, and some lithium rays, which led to more actinium. Scientists were
The singularity expanded and beryllium.
accurate organization of also able to figure out
in the nothingness not the periodic table. We will synthesis of elements
through an explosion No elements heavier than cover his life and heavier than uranium. In
(contrary to what the name beryllium are formed during discovery of the the 1930s, the heaviest
suggests) but a rapid yet BBN because of the relationship element known was
peaceful process of relatively short period of between atomic number uranium, with an atomic
time before the and x-ray frequency, number 92. By early
inflation.
temperature dropped known as Moseley's Law. 1940s, Edwin McMillan
The universe cooled as it significantly. At very low and Philip Abelson proved
temperature, there is not that an element having an
expanded, and matter—
enough energy to fuse atomic number 93 could
existing as protons, more neutrons to existing be created. They used a
neutrons, electrons, and nuclei. particle accelerator to
protons—were scattered in Electron Cloud Model of bombard uranium with
an energy-rich plasma But you know that the Erwin Schrödinger and neutrons and created an
soup. periodic table of elements Werner Heisenberg. element with an atomic
does not end on beryllium. The electron cloud number 93 which they
Nucleosynthesis or nuclear There are a lot of elements model was developed in named neptunium. At the
fusion between protons far bigger than beryllium. 1926 by Erwin end of 1940, element-94
How are these heavier Schrödinger and Werner was synthesized by Glenn
and neutrons occurred in
elements formed? Just like Heisenberg. Seaborg, Edwin McMillan,
the plasma soup and the universe continued to
The model is a way to Joseph Kennedy, and
eventually led to the expand, the story of
help visualize the most Arthur Wahl. They
formation of the nuclei of nucleosynthesis did not probable position bombarded uranium with
light elements. end at big bang of electrons in an atom. deuterons (particles
nucleosynthesis composed of a proton and
Electrons then started to a neutron) in a cyclotron.
interact with the nuclei Stellar Nucleosynthesis Element-94 was named
produced from nuclear and the Formation of plutonium. Elements with
fusion through the process Stars Elements heavier atomic numbers greater
than beryllium were formed than 92 (the atomic
of recombination. through stellar The electron cloud number of uranium) are
nucleosynthesis. Stellar model is currently the called transuranium
Newly-formed atoms nucleosynthesis is the accepted model of an elements. Hence,
moved through space until process by which elements atom. neptunium and plutonium
gravity collapsed them, are formed within stars. are both transuranium
resulting in the formation Hydrogen and helium elements. They are
formed from BBN begin unstable, so they decay
of celestial bodies such as
combining in nuclear fusion radioactively into other
stars and galaxies. reactions, releasing elements. All transuranium
tremendous amount of elements are artificially
The expansion of the
light, heat and radiation. generated or synthetic
universe is still ongoing, These nuclear fusion elements. They are
with space traveling faster reactions will be discussed prepared using nuclear
than both matter and in the next lesson. reactors or particle
energy. accelerators.

The theory explains that

the universe is constantly
expanding.
The theory can also
explain the origin of the
universe and the elements Formation of Main
Sequence Stars All stars
are born from clouds of gas
and dust called nebulae or
molecular clouds that
collapsed due to gravity.
As a cloud collapses, it
breaks into smaller
fragments which contract
to form a superhot stellar
core called protostar. The
The theory states that the protostar continues to
universe is dynamic, and accumulate gas and dust
this can be proven using from the molecular cloud,
scientific evidence. and continues to contract
1. In 1910, Vesto Slipher while the temperature
and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz increases.
observed a phenomenon
called redshift, in which When the core temperature
most spiral galaxies were reaches about 10 million K,
moving away from the nuclear fusions and other
earth. nuclear reactions begin.
2. In 1927, Belgian Hydrogen will start
Catholic priest Georges combining with one
Lemaître proposed an another in a series of
alternative idea that the proton-proton fusion
universe is expanding reactions. This cascade of
3. In 1929, Edwin Hubble proton reactions will be
calculated the distances discussed in detail in the
between the earth and next lesson.
several galaxies using the
redshift of light, and his Formation of Red Giants
observations on how Sooner, the proton-proton
distant galaxies were chain reactions will exhaust
moving away from the all hydrogen in the core of
Earth and one another a main sequence star.
further supported the Helium, which is the
theory of the expansion of product of these nuclear
the universe. fusion reactions, will
4. In 1965, Robert Wilson become the major
and Arno Penzias component of the core.
discovered the existence Hydrogen fusion becomes
of cosmic microwave significant on the outer
background radiation shell, while some of it is
(CMBR)—noise described also fused to the core’s
as a low, steady humming surface. When most of the
sound which they believed hydrogen in the core is
to be energy remains— fused into helium, fusion
through the Holmdel horn stops and the pressure in
antenna. the core decreases.
5. In 2014, astronomers Gravity squeezes the star
and scientists estimated to a point that helium
the universe to be 13.8 hydrogen burning occur.
billion years old, with 5% Helium is converted to
of its composition existing carbon in the core via
as ordinary matter. alpha processes,
increasing the star’s core
 density. These processes,
Cosmology is the branch which involve helium atoms
of science that focuses on (also called alpha
the origin, evolution, and particles), will be discussed
fate of the universe. in detail in the next lesson.
It is an intersection of Meanwhile, hydrogen is
several fields including converted to helium in the
chemistry, physics, and shell surrounding the core,
astronomy. It can be increasing the temperature
classified based on the up to 10 million kelvins.
nature of the theories This increase in
involved. temperature is
accompanied with an
1.Religious or mythological increase in pressure that
cosmology is based on pushes inert hydrogen
religious beliefs, including away from the core. The
the concepts of creation ex star, at this point, has
nihilo and God creating the become a red giant.
universe as written in the
book of Genesis. Formation of a White
2.Physical cosmology is Dwarf from Low Mass
based on scientific
Stars When the majority of
theories, wherein scientists
the helium in the core has
from different fields aim to
been converted to carbon,
decipher the universe's the rate of alpha fusion
physical origin. processes decreases.
Gravity again squeezes the
star. The star’s fuel is
depleted and over time, the
outer material of the star is
blown off into space as
planetary nebula. The only
thing that remains is the
hot and inert carbon core.
The star becomes a white
Most of the laws of the dwarf.
universe were established
by early philosophers and
scientists.
1. Nicolaus Copernicus
proposed the heliocentric
nature of the universe.
2. Isaac Newton extended Formation of a Multiple-
the laws of classical Shell Red Giant from
physics to the universe Massive Stars Unlike low
through the introduction of mass stars, the fate of a
the law of universal massive star (or high mass
gravitation. star) is different. A massive
3. Albert Einstein's theory star has enough mass
of relativity suggested that such that temperature and
the universe is dynamic in pressure increase to a
nature. point where carbon fusion
can occur. The star goes
How do light elements through a series of stages
form? where heavier elements
Big bang nucleosynthesis are fused in the core and in
(BBN) started 100 seconds the shells around the core.
after the big bang, as the The element oxygen is
rapid expansion of the formed from carbon fusion;
singularity combined with neon from oxygen fusion;
the rapid cooling led to the silicon from neon fusion;
deceleration of the and iron from silicon fusion.
subatomic particles. You The star then becomes a
may use Option B to multiple-shell red giant.
emphasize the importance
of counting subatomic
particles in the nucleus.

One nucleosynthesis lasts

around three minutes and
produces two stable
isotopes each for Formation of a
hydrogen (H) and helium Supernova When the core
(He) as well as lithium (Li) can no longer produce
atoms and some isotopes energy to resist gravity, the
of beryllium (Be). Detailed star is doomed. Gravity
reactions are shown in squeezes the core until the
slides 10 to 16. star explodes and releases
a large amount of energy.
1.The fusion of a proton The star explosion is called
(p) and a neutron (n) a supernova. The
yielded a high-energy explosion also releases
subatomic particle called a massive amount of high
photon (γ) and an atom of energy neutrinos which, in
deuterium (D), an isotope turn, breaks nucleons and
of hydrogen-containing release neutrons. These
one proton and one neutrons are picked up by
neutron. nearby stars and lead to
the creation of elements
heavier than iron.

A phenomenon known as
the deuterium bottleneck
can be traced to
deuterium’s low binding Evidences of Stellar
energy (energy required to Evolution and
split its nucleus into its Nucleosynthesis The
components) and crucial piece of evidence
subsequent destruction by that support the stellar
photons at intensely high evolution and
temperatures. nucleosynthesis theory
A decrease in temperature include the discovery of the
enabled deuterium to interstellar medium of gas
stabilize and eventually and dust during the early
initiate the BBN cascade, part of the 20th century.
which then led to the Other pieces of evidence
formation of other light come from the study of
elements such as helium, different stages of
lithium, and beryllium. formation happening in
different areas in space
2. Two deuterium nuclei and piecing them together
to form a clearer picture.
may fuse together to form
Energy in the form of
either (1) the radioactive H
isotope tritium (T, with one infrared radiation (IR) is
p and two n) and one p, or detected from different
(2) the isotope helium-3 stages of star formation.
(He-3, with two p and one For instance, astronomers
n) along with one n. measure the IR released
by a protostar and
compare it to the IR from a
nearby area with zero
extinction. Extinction in
astronomy means the
absorption and scattering
of electromagnetic
radiation by gases and
dust particles between an
emitting astronomical
3. Helium-4 (He-4, with object and an observer.
two p and two n) may be The IR measurements are
formed through (1) the used to approximate the
fusion of one p and a T energy, temperature, and
atom, (2) the fusion of D pressure in the protostar.
with T, and (3) the fusion
of D with He-3.
G. Finding practical III. INDEPENDENT III. INDEPENDENT III. INDEPENDENT III. INDEPENDENT
applications of PRACTICE ACTIVITY PRACTICE ACTIVITY PRACTICE ACTIVITY PRACTICE ACTIVITY
concepts and
skills in daily living Activity 3: Activity Title: ACTIVITY 3: Activity Activity 3: Activity Title: Activity 3: Title: Make
ELABORATE “Nuclei Fusion” Title: “Let’s Form an The Atomic Models of Me Up (offline)
(OFFLINE) Element!” (online) Dalton, Thomson, Ernest
Rutherford, Henry Problem: how can
Objective: This activity will Objective: This activity will Moseley, Niels Bohr, elements be created?
allow the students to trace allow the students to trace Schrödinger and Werner Hypothesis: A
how lighter elements form how heavier elements form Heisenberg (offline) synthetic element is one
through nuclei fusion. through different fusion of 24
Problem: What are the reactions. Problem: Why do you chemical elements that
different particles needed Problem: What are think atomic models are do not occur naturally on
to form lighter elements? processes in forming important? Earth: they have
Hypothesis: Deuteron, heavier elements? Hypothesis: been created by human
proton, neutron and alpha Hypothesis: Fusion Atomic models are manipulation of
particle. reaction of light elements important because, they fundamental particles in a
Materials: inside the star through p-p help us visualize the nuclear reactor, a particle
 Pen fusion, triple alpha interior of atoms and accelerator, or the
process, etc. molecules, and thereby explosion of an atomic
 activity sheets
Materials: predicting properties of bomb; thus, they are
Procedure:
1.Read the passage  device with internet matter. called "synthetic",
 pen Materials: "artificial", or "man-made".
provided in the activity
sheet.  activity sheet  Activity sheets Materials:
Procedure:  Pen  Activity sheets
HOW DO LIGHT 1. Using the device with Procedure:  Pen
ELEMENTS FORM? internet, watch the video 1. Below are the pictures Procedure:
on fusion reactions. Click of atomic models of 1. Read the mini lesson
1.The fusion of a proton the link below. Dalton, J.J. Thomson, above about “How did the
(p) and a neutron (n) https://www.youtube.com/ Ernest Rutherford, Henry concept of atomic number
yielded a high-energy watch?v=LKUPAk5049M Moseley, Niels Bohr, lead to the synthesis of
subatomic particle called a 2. If internet is not Erwin Schrödinger and new element in the
photon (γ) and an atom of available, please refer to Werner Heisenberg. laboratory”.
deuterium (D), an isotope the pictures (CNO cycle, 2. Answer the guide
of hydrogen-containing Atomic models questions below.
one proton and one
neutron. Guide Questions:
A phenomenon known as 1. What is a nuclear
the deuterium bottleneck proton-proton cycle, and A. Billiard Ball Model of transmutation reaction?
can be traced to triple alpha cycle below. Dalton Is a reaction involving the
deuterium’s low binding transformation of one
energy (energy required to element or isotope into
split its nucleus into its 3. Answer the guide B. another element.
components) and questions below. 2. What is a particle
subsequent destruction by Plum Pudding Model off accelerator and How are
photons at intensely high Guide Questions: JJ Thompson new elements
temperatures. 1. What are the different synthesized using a
A decrease in temperature processes involve in the particle accelerator?
enabled deuterium to formation of heavier Is a device that is used to
stabilize and eventually elements? speed up particles (e.g.
initiate the BBN cascade, CNO cycle, p-p fusion, protons, neutrons, alpha
which then led to the triple alpha process. C. particles) to overcome the
formation of other light 2. How do they differ to Planetary Model of Ernest repulsion between the
elements such as helium, each other? Rutherford particles and the target
lithium, and beryllium. P-p process adds proton atomic nuclei by using
one at a time, and can magnetic and electrical
2. Two deuterium nuclei occur only if the kinetic D. fields. It is used to
may fuse together to form energy (i.e. temperature) synthesize new elements.
either (1) the radioactive H of the protons is high 3. How was the concept
isotope tritium (T, with one enough to overcome their of atomic number led to
p and two n) and one p, or mutual electrostatic the synthesis of new
(2) the isotope helium-3 repulsion; BOHR MODEL elements in the
(He-3, with two p and one In the CNO cycle laboratory?
n) along with one n. four protons fuse, using E. The existing hypothesis of
carbon, nitrogen, and Moseley: that the
3. Helium-4 (He-4, with oxygen isotopes as elements’ atomic number,
two p and two n) may be catalysts, to produce was uniquely tied to their
formed through (1) the one alpha particle, “positive charge”, or the
two positrons and Moseley Atomic Model number of protons they
fusion of one p and a T
atom, (2) the fusion of D two electron neutrinos; and had. This discovery
with T, and (3) the fusion Triple-alpha process is a allowed for a better
set of nuclear F. arrangement of the
of D with He-3. E periodic table, and
Fusion of protons, fusion reactions by which
neutrons, deuterons and three helium-4 nuclei l predicted elements that
(alpha particles) are e were not yet discovered.
alpha particles.
transformed into carbon. c When the elements were
arranged according to
2. Answer the guide Conclusions: tron Cloud Model of their atomic numbers,
questions below. Based from the result of Erwin Schrödinger and there were four gaps in
the activity performed, is Werner Heisenberg. the table. These elements
Guide Questions: your hypothesis correct? were later synthesized in
1.What are the different Yes. Therefore, I conclude the laboratory through
particles needed in the that the processes in 2. Explain the flaws of the NUCLEAR
formation of lighter forming heavier elements following models by TRANSMUTATIONS.
elements? is the answering the guide 4. Is it still to possible to
Deuteron, proton, neutron Fusion reaction of light questions below. synthesize new
and alpha particle. elements inside the star elements using
2.How did hydrogen through p-p fusion, triple Guide Questions: advanced particle
isotope form? alpha process, etc. 1. What is the flaws of a accelerators nowadays?
Fusion of 1 proton and 1 John Daltons Billiard Why? Why not? Answers
neutron particle. Ball Model? may vary, but the fact that
3. How did Helium form? The atom was depicted as he was able to predict and
Fusion of two deuteron indivisible. postulated chemical laws,
particles. 2. How about the flaws his works has become
of JJ Thompson Plum the foundation of other
Conclusions: Based from Pudding Model? great ideas.
the result of the activity The atom had electrons 5. How can elements be
performed, is your but protons and created?
hypothesis correct? Yes. neutrons were not A synthetic element is
Therefore, I conclude that included yet. one of 24
the different particles 3. What was wrong with chemical elements that
needed to form lighter Ernest Rutherford do not occur naturally on
elements are deuteron, model? Earth: they have
proton, neutron and alpha The nucleus is at the been created by human
particle. center containing the manipulation of
protons fundamental particles in a
and neutrons while the nuclear reactor, a particle
electrons revolve around accelerator, or the
the nucleus. There explosion of an atomic
is no explanation why the bomb; thus, they are
electrons are in orbit. called "synthetic",
4. What was wrong with "artificial", or "man-made".
Bohr Model
Made us of quantum Conclusions:
ideas. It uses energy Based from the result of
levels instead the activity performed, is
of orbits. However, it your hypothesis correct?
cannot explain atoms Yes. Therefore, I conclude
heavier than hydrogen. that the existing
5. What was wrong with hypothesis of Moseley:
Moseley Model? that the elements’ atomic
flaw in the table: the number, was uniquely tied
position predicted by an to their “positive charge”,
element's atomic weight or the number of protons
did not always match the they had. This discovery
position predicted by its allowed for a better
chemical properties. In arrangement of the
these cases, elements periodic table, and
were positioned in the predicted elements that
periodic table according to were not yet discovered.
their properties, rather When the elements were
than their atomic weight. arranged according to
6. What is the flaws of their atomic numbers,
an Electron Cloud Model there were four gaps in
- This is the most realistic the table. These elements
of all the models. were later synthesized in
Makes use of probability the laboratory through
to describe the location NUCLEAR
and energy of the TRANSMUTATIONS.
electrons.
7. What is the most
realistic atomic model?
The most realistic is the
Electron Cloud Model.
8. Why do you think
atomic models are
important?
Atomic models are
important because, they
help us visualize the
interior of atoms and
molecules, and thereby
predicting properties of
matter.
 Conclusions:
Based from the result of
the activity performed, is
your hypothesis correct?
Yes. Therefore, I conclude
that Atomic models are
important because, they
help us visualize the
interior of atoms and
molecules, and thereby
predicting properties of
matter.
H. Making generalization  What is Big Bang  What is stellar  What is an atom?  How was the concept
and abstractions about theory? formation and Atoms consist of a of atomic number led
the lesson The Big Bang theory is evolution? nucleus made of to the synthesis of
ELABORATE a cosmological model Stellar evolution is the protons and neutrons new elements in the
of the observable process by which orbited by laboratory?
universe from the a star changes over electrons. Atoms are The existing
earliest known periods the course of time. the basic units of hypothesis of Moseley:
through its subsequent Stars with at least half matter and the defining that the elements’
large-scale evolution. the mass of the Sun structure of elements. atomic number, was
This theory describes can also begin to The term "atom" uniquely tied to their
how the universe generate energy comes from the Greek “positive charge”, or
expanded from an through the fusion of word for indivisible, the number of protons
initial state of helium at their core, because it was once they had. This
extremely high density whereas more-massive thought discovery allowed for a
and high temperature stars can fuse heavier that atoms were the better arrangement of
and offers a elements along a series smallest things in the the periodic table, and
comprehensive of concentric shells. universe and could not predicted elements
explanation for a broad  What is stellar be divided. that were not yet
range of observed nucleosynthesis? discovered. When the
phenomena, including Stellar nucleosynthesis atomic structure. elements were
the abundance of light is the formation of arranged according to
elements, the cosmic heavier elements by  W h e r their
e atomic numbers,
c a n y
microwave background fusion reaction of there were four gaps in
radiation (CMB) lighter elements. The the table. These
radiation, and large- evolution of star is elements were later
scale structure. governed by two synthesized in the
 What is cosmology? competing forces, electrons, protons, and laboratory through
Cosmology is the gravity pushing in and neutrons? NUCLEAR
branch of science that pressure from fusion (electrons-in the TRANSMUTATIONS.
focuses on the origin, pushing out. If gravity electron cloud that
evolution, and fate of wins, the star collapses, surrounds the nucleus;
the universe. if pressure wins, the protons-in the center Synthesis of New
It is an intersection of star expands. Stars of an atom-the Elements The periodic
several fields including spend most of their nucleus; neutrons-in table of elements provided
chemistry, physics, and lifetimes in a steady the center of atom – insights not only on how
astronomy. It can be state when these two the nucleus). these atoms might interact
classified based on the forces balance each  Why do you think to form compounds
nature of the theories other. Stellar atomic models are predicted by Dalton, but
involved. Nucleosynthesis is the important? also how atoms can be
1.Religious or formation of heavier Atomic models are transformed to other
mythological elements by fusion important because, th atoms. This caught the
cosmology is based on reaction of lighter ey help us visualize interest of Rutherford and
religious beliefs, elements. the interior pursued this study with
including the concepts  How does stellar of atoms and Moseley using nuclear
of creation ex nihilo nucleosynthesis molecules, and reactions. A nuclear
and God creating the occur? thereby predicting transmutation reaction is a
universe as written in Stellar nucleosynthesis properties of matter. reaction involving the
the book of Genesis. is the process by which transformation of one
2.Physical cosmology elements are created Contributions of J.J. element or isotope into
is based on scientific within stars by Thomson, Ernest another element. In 1919,
theories, wherein combining the protons Rutherford, Henry Rutherford successfully
scientists from different and neutrons together Moseley, and Niels Bohr carried out the first nuclear
fields aim to decipher from the nuclei of to the understanding of transmutation reaction. He
the universe's physical lighter elements. the structure of the bombarded alpha particles
origin. Fusion inside stars atom. (helium nuclei) from
 What lighter elements transforms hydrogen radium directed to the
were formed during into helium, heat, and nitrogen nuclei. He
the Big Bang? radiation. Heavier The Billiard Ball showed that the nitrogen
Hydrogen isotope elements are created model of the atom nucleus reacted to the
(deuteron), helium and in different types of was proposed by John alpha particle to form an
lithium. stars as they die or oxygen nucleus. The
 What evidences were explode. reaction is written as:
found in the  How were the heavier
formation of lighter elements formed?
 elements during Big Some of the heavier Dalton in the early 1800s. However, both alpha
Bang? elements in the He thought atoms were particles and atomic nuclei
Formation of hydrogen, periodic table are small, hard spheres with are positively charged, so
helium and lithium created when pairs of no internal parts. they tend to repel each
 How did lighter neutron stars collide Because Dalton thought other. Therefore, instead
elements form during cataclysmically and atoms were the smallest of using fast-moving alpha
Big Bang? explode, researchers particles of matter, he particles synthesizing new
1.The fusion of a have shown for the first envisioned them as solid, elements, atomic nuclei
proton (p) and a time. hard spheres, are often bombarded with
neutron (n) yielded a Light elements like like billiard (pool) balls, neutrons (neutral
high-energy subatomic hydrogen and so he used particles) in particle
particle called a photon helium formed during wooden balls to model th accelerators. This problem
(γ) and an atom of the big bang, and those em. Dalton added these was solved by particle
deuterium (D), an up to iron are made by so the model atoms could accelerators. A particle
isotope of hydrogen- fusion in the cores of be joined together with accelerator is a device
containing one proton stars. hooks and used that is used to speed up
and one neutron.  What are the heavier to model compounds. particles (e.g. protons,
A phenomenon known elements? neutrons, alpha particles)
as the deuterium A heavy element is Thomson proposed the to overcome the repulsion
bottleneck can be an element with an plum pudding model of between the particles and
traced to deuterium’s atomic number greater the atom, which had the target atomic nuclei by
low binding energy than 92. The first heavy negatively-charged using magnetic and
(energy required to element is neptunium electrons embedded electrical fields. It is used
split its nucleus into its (Np), which has an within a positively-charged to synthesize new
components) and atomic number of 93. "soup." elements.
subsequent destruction Some heavy J.J. Thomson's experime
by photons at intensely elements are produced nts with cathode ray tubes In 1937, American
high temperatures. in reactors, and some showed that physicist Ernest Lawrence
A decrease in are produced artificially all atoms contain tiny synthesized element with
temperature enabled in cyclotron negatively charged atomic number 43 using a
deuterium to stabilize experiments. subatomic particles or linear particle accelerator.
and eventually initiate  What heavier electrons. He bombarded
the BBN cascade, elements were formed molybdenum (Z=42) with
which then led to the during stellar fast-moving neutrons. The
formation of other light evolution? newly synthesized
elements such as carbon, oxygen, element was named
helium, lithium, and nitrogen, neon up to Technetium (Tc) after the
beryllium. iron. Greek word technêtos
meaning “artificial.” Tc
 2. Two deuterium  What evidences were Ernest was the first man-made
nuclei may fuse found in the formation Rutherford discovered element.
together to form either of heavier elements
(1) the radioactive H during star In
isotope tritium (T, with formation?
one p and two n) and Nuclear fusion took 1940, Dale Corson,
one p, or (2) the place that led to the Kenneth Mackenzie, and
isotope helium-3 (He-3, creation of heavier Emilio Segre discovered
the nucleus of the atom
with two p and one n) elements such as element with atomic
in 1911. In Rutherford's
along with one n. carbon, oxygen, neon number 85. They
planetary model of the
3. Helium-4 (He-4, with etc. bombarded atoms of
atom, the electrons move
two p and two n) may  How did heavier bismuth (Z=83) with fast
through empty space
be formed through (1) elements form during moving alpha particles in a
around the tiny positive
the fusion of one p and stellar cyclotron. A cyclotron is a
nucleus
a T atom, (2) the fusion nucleosynthesis? particle accelerator that
like planets orbiting the
of D with T, and (3) the (Fusion reaction of light uses alternating electric
sun.
fusion of D with He-3. elements inside the star field to accelerate particles
Fusion of protons, through p-p fusion, that move in a spiral path
The Bohr model shows
neutrons, deuterons triple alpha process, in the presence of a
that the electrons in atoms
and alpha particles. etc.). magnetic field. Element-85
are in orbits of differing
energy around the nucleus was named astatine from
Big Bang Theory The Synthesis of Heavier (think of planets orbiting
Elements The big bang around the
It is a cosmological model model was able to explain sun). Bohr used the term
describing the advent of how light elements such as energy levels (or shells) to the Greek word astatos
the expansion of the hydrogen, helium, lithium describe these orbits of meaning unstable.
universe approximately and beryllium were differing energy. The two other elements
13.8 billion years ago. produced. As the universe with atomic numbers 61
cooled down, protons and and 87 were discovered
The universe began as a neutrons started reacting to through studies in
singularity: a hot, dense form deuterium, which radioactivity. Element-61
consequently reacts in a (promethium) was
point which contained all
cascade of reactions to discovered as a decay
space, time, matter and form tritium and heavier Moseley discovered product of the fission of
energy surrounded by elements. Few minutes the atomic number of uranium while element-87
"nothing". after the big bang, the each element using x- (francium) was discovered
universe is filled with rays, which led to more as a breakdown product of
The singularity expanded abundant number of accurate organization of actinium. Scientists were
in the nothingness not hydrogen and helium the periodic table. We will also able to figure out
through an explosion atoms, and some lithium cover his life and synthesis of elements
(contrary to what the name and beryllium. discovery of theheavier than uranium. In
relationship the 1930s, the heaviest
suggests) but a rapid yet
No elements heavier than between atomic number element known was
peaceful process of beryllium are formed during and x-ray frequency, uranium, with an atomic
inflation. BBN because of the known as Moseley's Law. number 92. By early
relatively short period of 1940s, Edwin McMillan
The universe cooled as it time before the and Philip Abelson proved
expanded, and matter— temperature dropped that an element having an
existing as protons, significantly. At very low atomic number 93 could
neutrons, electrons, and temperature, there is not be created. They used a
protons—were scattered in enough energy to fuse Electron Cloud Model of particle accelerator to
an energy-rich plasma more neutrons to existing Erwin Schrödinger and bombard uranium with
nuclei. Werner Heisenberg. neutrons and created an
soup.
The electron cloud element with an atomic
Nucleosynthesis or nuclear But you know that the model was developed in number 93 which they
periodic table of elements 1926 by Erwin named neptunium. At the
fusion between protons
does not end on beryllium. Schrödinger and Werner end of 1940, element-94
and neutrons occurred in There are a lot of elements Heisenberg. was synthesized by Glenn
the plasma soup and far bigger than beryllium. The model is a way to Seaborg, Edwin McMillan,
eventually led to the How are these heavier help visualize the most Joseph Kennedy, and
formation of the nuclei of elements formed? Just like probable positionArthur Wahl. They
light elements. the universe continued to of electrons in an atom. bombarded uranium with
expand, the story of The electron cloud deuterons (particles
Electrons then started to nucleosynthesis did not composed of a proton and
interact with the nuclei end at big bang a neutron) in a cyclotron.
nucleosynthesis Element-94 was named
produced from nuclear
plutonium. Elements with
fusion through the process Stellar Nucleosynthesis atomic numbers greater
of recombination. and the Formation of than 92 (the atomic
Stars Elements heavier number of uranium) are
Newly-formed atoms than beryllium were formed called transuranium
moved through space until through stellar elements. Hence,
gravity collapsed them, nucleosynthesis. Stellar neptunium and plutonium
resulting in the formation nucleosynthesis is the are both transuranium
of celestial bodies such as process by which elements elements. They are
stars and galaxies. are formed within stars. model is currently the unstable, so they decay
Hydrogen and helium accepted model of an radioactively into other
The expansion of the formed from BBN begin atom. elements. All transuranium
universe is still ongoing, combining in nuclear fusion elements are artificially
with space traveling fasterreactions, releasing generated or synthetic
tremendous amount of elements. They are
than both matter and
light, heat and radiation. prepared using nuclear
energy. These nuclear fusion reactors or particle
reactions will be discussed accelerators.
The theory explains that
in the next lesson.
the universe is constantly
expanding.
The theory can also
explain the origin of the
universe and the elements

Formation of Main
Sequence Stars All stars
are born from clouds of gas
and dust called nebulae or
molecular clouds that
collapsed due to gravity.
As a cloud collapses, it
The theory states that the breaks into smaller
universe is dynamic, and fragments which contract
this can be proven using to form a superhot stellar
scientific evidence. core called protostar. The
1. In 1910, Vesto Slipher protostar continues to
and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz accumulate gas and dust
observed a phenomenon from the molecular cloud,
called redshift, in which and continues to contract
most spiral galaxies were while the temperature
moving away from the increases.
earth.
2. In 1927, Belgian When the core temperature
Catholic priest Georges reaches about 10 million K,
Lemaître proposed an nuclear fusions and other
alternative idea that the nuclear reactions begin.
universe is expanding Hydrogen will start
3. In 1929, Edwin Hubble combining with one
calculated the distances another in a series of
between the earth and proton-proton fusion
several galaxies using the reactions. This cascade of
redshift of light, and his proton reactions will be
observations on how discussed in detail in the
distant galaxies were next lesson.
moving away from the
Earth and one another Formation of Red Giants
further supported the Sooner, the proton-proton
theory of the expansion of chain reactions will exhaust
the universe. all hydrogen in the core of
4. In 1965, Robert Wilson a main sequence star.
and Arno Penzias Helium, which is the
discovered the product of these nuclear
existence of cosmic fusion reactions, will
microwave background become the major
radiation (CMBR)— component of the core.
noise described as a Hydrogen fusion becomes
low, steady humming significant on the outer
sound which they shell, while some of it is
believed to be energy also fused to the core’s
remains—through the surface. When most of the
Holmdel horn antenna. hydrogen in the core is
5. In 2014, astronomers fused into helium, fusion
and scientists stops and the pressure in
estimated the universe the core decreases.
to be 13.8 billion years Gravity squeezes the star
old, with 5% of its to a point that helium
composition existing as hydrogen burning occur.
ordinary matter. Helium is converted to
carbon in the core via
alpha processes,
Cosmology is the branch increasing the star’s core
of science that focuses on density. These processes,
the origin, evolution, and which involve helium atoms
fate of the universe. (also called alpha
It is an intersection of particles), will be discussed
several fields including in detail in the next lesson.
Meanwhile, hydrogen is
chemistry, physics, and converted to helium in the
astronomy. It can be shell surrounding the core,
classified based on the increasing the temperature
nature of the theories up to 10 million kelvins.
involved. This increase in
temperature is
1.Religious or mythological accompanied with an
cosmology is based on increase in pressure that
religious beliefs, including pushes inert hydrogen
the concepts of creation ex away from the core. The
nihilo and God creating the star, at this point, has
universe as written in the become a red giant.
book of Genesis.
2.Physical cosmology is Formation of a White
based on scientific
Dwarf from Low Mass
theories, wherein scientists
Stars When the majority of
from different fields aim to
the helium in the core has
decipher the universe's been converted to carbon,
physical origin. the rate of alpha fusion
processes decreases.
Gravity again squeezes the
star. The star’s fuel is
depleted and over time, the
outer material of the star is
blown off into space as
planetary nebula. The only
thing that remains is the
hot and inert carbon core.
Most of the laws of the The star becomes a white
universe were established dwarf.
by early philosophers and
scientists.
1. Nicolaus Copernicus
proposed the heliocentric
nature of the universe. Formation of a Multiple-
2. Isaac Newton extended Shell Red Giant from
the laws of classical Massive Stars Unlike low
physics to the universe mass stars, the fate of a
through the introduction of massive star (or high mass
the law of universal star) is different. A massive
gravitation. star has enough mass
3. Albert Einstein's theory such that temperature and
of relativity suggested that pressure increase to a
the universe is dynamic in point where carbon fusion
nature. can occur. The star goes
through a series of stages
How do light elements where heavier elements
form? are fused in the core and in
Big bang nucleosynthesis the shells around the core.
(BBN) started 100 seconds The element oxygen is
after the big bang, as the formed from carbon fusion;
rapid expansion of the neon from oxygen fusion;
singularity combined with silicon from neon fusion;
the rapid cooling led to the and iron from silicon fusion.
deceleration of the The star then becomes a
subatomic particles. You multiple-shell red giant.
may use Option B to
emphasize the importance
of counting subatomic
particles in the nucleus.

One nucleosynthesis lasts

around three minutes and
produces two stable Formation of a
isotopes each for Supernova When the core
hydrogen (H) and helium can no longer produce
(He) as well as lithium (Li) energy to resist gravity, the
atoms and some isotopes star is doomed. Gravity
of beryllium (Be). Detailed squeezes the core until the
reactions are shown in star explodes and releases
slides 10 to 16. a large amount of energy.
The star explosion is called
1.The fusion of a proton a supernova. The
(p) and a neutron (n) explosion also releases
yielded a high-energy massive amount of high
subatomic particle called a energy neutrinos which, in
photon (γ) and an atom of turn, breaks nucleons and
deuterium (D), an isotope release neutrons. These
of hydrogen-containing neutrons are picked up by
one proton and one nearby stars and lead to
neutron. the creation of elements
heavier than iron.

A phenomenon known as
the deuterium bottleneck
can be traced to Evidences of Stellar
deuterium’s low binding Evolution and
energy (energy required to Nucleosynthesis The
split its nucleus into its crucial piece of evidence
components) and that support the stellar
subsequent destruction by evolution and
photons at intensely high nucleosynthesis theory
temperatures. include the discovery of the
A decrease in temperature interstellar medium of gas
enabled deuterium to and dust during the early
stabilize and eventually part of the 20th century.
initiate the BBN cascade, Other pieces of evidence
which then led to the come from the study of
formation of other light different stages of
elements such as helium, formation happening in
lithium, and beryllium. different areas in space
and piecing them together
to form a clearer picture.
2. Two deuterium nuclei
Energy in the form of
may fuse together to form
infrared radiation (IR) is
either (1) the radioactive H
detected from different
isotope tritium (T, with one
stages of star formation.
p and two n) and one p, or
For instance, astronomers
(2) the isotope helium-3
measure the IR released
(He-3, with two p and one
by a protostar and
n) along with one n.
compare it to the IR from a
nearby area with zero
 extinction. Extinction in
astronomy means the
absorption and scattering
of electromagnetic
radiation by gases and
dust particles between an
emitting astronomical
object and an observer.
The IR measurements are
used to approximate the
3. Helium-4 (He-4, with energy, temperature, and
two p and two n) may be pressure in the protostar.
formed through (1) the
fusion of one p and a T
atom, (2) the fusion of D
with T, and (3) the fusion
of D with He-3.

I. Evaluating Directions: Choose the Directions: Choose the Direction: Choose the Direction: Choose the
learning letter of the best answer. letter of the best answer. letter of the best answer. letter of the best answer.
ELABORATE Encircle the letter of your Encircle the letter of your Write the letter of your Write the letter of your
answer. answer on the space answer on the space
 answer. provided before each provided before each
1. Which best defines Big number. number.
Bang nucleosynthesis? 1. Which describes stellar __A__1. Which Of the
A. A hot plasma in which nucleosynthesis? following physicist 1. Which of the following
energy is distributed A. The formation of proposed the plum are trans uranium
evenly all throughout. heavier elements by pudding model of elements?
B. The formation of atomic the atom? A. carbon
fusion reaction of
nuclei through the a. Thompson B. mercury
combination of protons lighter elements in b. Bohr C. neptunium
and neutrons during the the core of the star. c. Moseley D. californium
Big Bang. B. The heavier d. Rutherford 2. How did Corson,
C. The birth of elementary elements were __A__2. What is the Mackenzie, and Segre
particles in the beginning formed through charge of the subatomic synthesize astatine?
of time fusion reaction of particle that was A. They bombarded
D. The unending discovered by Ernest molybdenum with
hydrogen and
expansion of the universe Rutherford? neutrons.
helium outside the A. positive B. They bombarded
2. Which is NOT an star. B. negative rutherfordium with
evidence in the formation C. The fusion of C. both a and b protons.
of light elements during the hydrogen and D. no charge C. They bombarded
big bang? beryllium as __C__3. Where can you californium with
A. Formation of hydrogen universe cools find the electrons? deuterons.
isotopes A. In the center of the D. They bombarded
down.
B. Fusion of tritium and 1 atom bismuth atoms with alpha
proton to form helium D. The fusion of proton B. Outside the center particles.
C. Formation of lithium and two neutrons. of the atom 3. Which of the following
D. Formation of Xenon. C. In the electron nucleus did Ernest
3.Which describes the 2. What heavier elements cloud that Lawrence use to
formation of hydrogen were formed during the surrounds the synthesize technetium?
isotope? stellar evolution? nucleus A. astatine-83
A. Fusion of 1 proton and A. Carbon, oxygen, D. Some in the B. molybdenum-42
1 neutron nitrogen, neon up to nucleus, some in C. promethium-61
B.2 protons fused with 2 iron the electron cloud. D. francium-87
neutrons B. Hydrogen, helium and __C__4. What is the first
C. fusion of 3 protons and lithium subatomic particle that 3. Which of the following
3 neutrons C. Hydrogen, carbon, was discovered due to the describe trans uranium
D. fusion of 1 deuterium lithium and neon use of cathode ray tube? elements?
and 1 neutron D. Carbon and oxygen A. Protons A. They are unstable.
B. Neutrons B. They decay
4. How are light elements C. Electrons radioactively.
formed during big bang? 3. How were heavier D. both a and b C. They are synthetic.
A. Through fusion of elements formed during __A__5. What is the D. They are naturally
protons and neutrons as star formation? charge of the subatomic occurring.
universe cools down particle that was 4. Which of the following
A. Fusion reaction of
B. Fusion of helium and discovered by Ernest characteristics of
lithium as the temperature lighter elements Rutherford? neutrons is the main
increases took place in the A. positive reason why scientists
C. Protons combined with core of the star. B. negative prefer using them
neutrons as universe B. Fusion reaction of C. both a and b instead of alpha
‘temperature increases heavy elements took D. no charge particles in
D. Fusion of two lithium place in the star. synthesizing new
atoms before the universe Answer Key: elements?
C. Fusion of proton and
cools down 1. A A. neutral charge
tritium during big 2. A B. mass number
5.Which describes the bang. 3. C C. location in the
formation of helium during D. Nuclear reaction of 4. C nucleus
the big bang? lighter elements. 5. A D. size
A. fusion of 1 tritium and 1
proton 4. Which is NOT a Answer Key:
B. Fusion of 1 proton and 1. C, D
process of forming
1 neutron 2. D
C. 2 protons fused with 2 heavier elements during 3. B
neutrons star formation? 4. A, B, C
D. fusion of 3 protons and A. CNO cycle 5. A
3 neutrons B. R-process
C. Proton-proton chain
Answer Key: D. Triple-alpha process
1. B
2. D
3. A 5. What evidences were
4. A found in the formation
5. A of heavier elements
during the stellar
nucleosynthesis?
A. Nuclear fusion that
led to the formation
of deuteron and
 lithium.
B. Nuclear fission that
led to the formation
of hydrogen and
helium.

C. Nuclear fusion that

led to the formation
of carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen and neon.
D. Nuclear fission that
led to the formation
of primary particles.

Answer Key:
1. A
2. A
3. A
4. B
5. D
J. Additional Match Column A with Match Column A with  Draw the atomic
activities for Column B. Write the letter Column B. Write the letter structure of Boron.
application or of the correct answer on of the correct answer on Label the following:
remediation the space provided before the space provided before a. Proton
EXTEND each number. each number. b. Neutron
c. Electron
COL d. Nucleus
COLUMN
UMN e. Electron cloud
B
A
__1. A. Can
CNO occur only
proce if
ss the kineti
c
energy of
the
protons is
high
 enough to
Answer Key: overcome
1.B their
2.C mutual el
3.A ectrostatic
COLU COLUMN repulsion
MN A B B. The
__2.
__1. A. fusion combinati
P-p
Hydro of 2 on of two
proce
gen protons or more
ss
isotop and 1 nuclei.
e neutron C. A set
B. fusion of nuclear
__2. fusion rea
of 1 proton
Heliu ctions by
and 1
m __3. which
neutron
C. fusion Stella three heli
of 2 r um-4 nucl
__3. Nucle ei (alpha
protons
Tritium osynt particles)
and 2
neutrons hesis are
__4. transform
Big D. ed
Bang protons,ne into carbo
Nucle utron,deut n.
osynth eron __4. D.
esis Triple Four prot
E. the alpha ons fuse,
__5. advent proce using
Light ss carbon,
expansion
eleme nitrogen,
of the and
nts universe oxygen
isotopes
4.E as
5.D catalysts,
to
produce
 one alpha
particle,
two positr
ons and
two electr
on
neutrinos
E. The
formation
of heavier
__5.
elements
Nucle
ar by fusion
Fusio reaction
n of lighter
elements

Answer Key:
1.D
2.A
3.E
4.C
5.B
V. REMARKS

VI. REFLECTION

A. No. Of learners
who earned 80%
in the evaluation
B. No. Of learners
who require
additional
activities for
remediation who
scored below 80%
C. Did the remedial
lessons work? No.
 Of learners who
have caught up
with the lesson.
D. No. Of learners
who continue to
require
remediation.
E. Which of my
teaching
strategies worked
well? Why did
these work?
F. What difficulties
did i encounter
which my principal
or supervisor can
help me solve?
G. What innovation
or localized
materials did I
use/discover
which I wish to
share with other
teachers?
Prepared by:

SHERRY ERAN MAGALLANES

Teacher – I

MERRY ANN GO
Teacher -