Rout ledge Library Editions

WOMEN OF
TROPICAL AFRICA

A N T H R O PO L O G Y A ND ET H N O G R A PH Y
 Routledge Library Editions
Anthropology and Ethnography

AFRICA
In 26 Volumes

I Spirit Mediumship and Society in Africa Beattie &

Middleton
II Custom & Politics in Urban Africa Cohen
III Urban Ethnicity Cohen
IV Order and Rebellion in Tribal Africa Gluckman
V Death, Property and the Ancestors Goody
VI The Family Estate in Africa G ray & Gulliver
VII Tradition and Transition in East Africa Gulliver
VIII The Human Factor in Changing Africa Herskovits
IX African Ecology and Human Evolution Ho well &
Bourliere
X The Nandi of Kenya Huntingford
XI Fields of Change among the Iteso of Kenya Karp
XII The Niger Journal of Richard and
John Lander Hallett
XIII Defeating Mau Mau Leakey
XIV Mau Mau and the Kikuyu Leakey
XV Urbanization as a Social Process Little
XVI Family and Social Change in an
African City Marris
XVII Widows and their Families Marris
XVIII Tribes without Rulers Middleton & Tait
XIX Neighbours and Nationals in an
African City Ward Parkin
XX The Last Trek Patterson
XXI Women of Tropical Africa Paulme
XXII Hunger and Work in a Savage Tribe Richards
XXIII Leopards and Leaders Ruel
XXIV Western Civilization and the Natives
of South Africa Schapera
XXV East African Societies Shorter
XXVI The Samburu Spencer
 WOMEN OF
TROPICAL AFRICA

EDITED BY DENISE PAULME

O Routledge
Taylor & Francis Croup

LONDON AND NEW YORK

 I
SBN978-1-136-53297-9
ISBN 978-
1-13653-297-
9( ebk)
(ebk)
 WOMEN OF
TROPICAL AFRICA
Edited by
Denise Paulme
Translated by
H. M. Wright

LONDON
ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL
 Translated from the French
FEMMES D ’AFRIQUE NOIR

First published in Great Britain in 1963

by Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd
Broadway House, 68-74 Carter Lane
London, E.C.4
Printed in Great Britain
by Charles Birchall and Sons, Limited
Liverpool and London
® 1960 Mouton & Co
© 1963 Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd
No part o f this book may be reproduced
in any form without permission from
the publisher, except for the quotation
o f brief passages in criticism
 CONTENTS

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE, by H. M. Wright page ix

INTRODUCTION, by Denise Pauline, Research Director
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Vie section; in charge o f the
African Department o f the Musee de VHomme 1
CONIAGUI WOMEN (Guinea), by Monique Gessain,
assistant at the Musee de VHomme 11
Woman as the kinship link—The position of
women: childhood; adolescence; marriage—The
mother: pregnancy; the baby; the child; the
initiate—Adult men and women.
THE POSITION OF WOMEN IN A PASTORAL
SOCIETY (The Fulani WoDaaBe, Nomads of the Niger),
by Marguerite Dupire, research fellow (C.N.R.S.) 47
Introduction: the reputation of Bororo women;
separation of the sexes—Social status: upbringing;
marriage and the new social roles involved, re­
lations between husband and wife, the married
woman and her husband’s family, the married
woman and her children, the married woman and
her natal family—Economic status: division of
labour; property belonging to women—Political
and legal status—Conclusion.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE POLITICAL ORGAN­
IZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES, by Annie M. D.
Lebeuf, research fellow (C.N.R.S.) 93
Introduction—Societies with a centralized
State: direct exercise of power; joint sovereignty,
couple or triad, “ mother” and “ sister” of the
king; women of the royal lineage, alliances and
allegiances—Societies without a centralized
State: women as village heads; women as district
chiefs—Special institutions—Secret societies.
v
NZAKARA WOMEN (Central African Republic), by Anne
Laurentin, M.D., research fellow (C.N.R.S.) 121
Introduction—The first period, before coloni­
zation: Natelege, princess and pioneer—Second
period, colonization: Kafi, the old slave-woman;
Songombi, the waif princess—Third period,
women of today: Nakpangi; Nabate, wife of the
ancestors.
WOMEN OF BURUNDI: A STUDY OF SOCIAL
VALUES, by Ethel M. Albert, University o f California 179
Introduction—Women in Rundi society—
Women at home, feminine roles—How women
can become influential in a patriarchal society.
WOMEN OF DAKAR AND THE SURROUNDING
URBAN AREA, by Solange Falade, M.D., research
fellow (C.N.R.S.) 217
Introduction—Upbringing, marriage, house­
hold tasks—Motherhood: pregnancy, the baby
—Polygyny—Divorce and widowhood—Econo­
mic status.
ANALYTICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, by M. Perlman and 231
M. P. Moal
Journals, Congresses, Conferences—Social and
legal status—Family life—Initiation—Women’s
associations—Work—Ornaments—Political act­
ivities—Ritual functions—Education, emancipa­
tion—Schools—Adult education.
INDEX OF AUTHORS 295
GENERAL INDEX 301
 PLATES
(Between pages 230 and 231)

I. A Coniagui woman. Little girls begin looking after

the babies at a very early age.
II. A Bassari woman carrying her youngest child.
III. Coniagui girls wear jewellery from the age of six or seven.
IV. An old woman pouring out the sacrificial beer.
V. A WoDaaBe Bororo woman (Cameroon).
VI. A group of young WoDaaBe girls ready to take part in
a dance.
VII. A WoDaaBe Bororo woman with children.
VIII. A naming ceremony.
IX. Natelege Kitte, woman-chief.
X. Nakpangi and Sango.
XI. Songombi, the waif princess.
XII. Nabate, the wife of the ancestors.
XIII. A Tutsikazi.
XIV. A Hutu “matriarch”.
XV and XVI. Burundi landscapes.
This page intentionally left blank
 TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE
I SHOULD LIKE to thank all those who have helped me on
various technical points.
Dr D. W. Arnott very kindly gave me advice on English trans­
literation problems in general, and on transliteration of Fula words
in particular; M. de Dampierre and Professor A. N. Tucker did the
same for Nzakara terms. If their recommendations have not always
been followed to the letter, this is because in order to simplify matters
for printers and readers, some diacritical marks have been omitted,
and the French system of using capitals instead of special letters in
words such as WoDaaBe has been retained. I have sought to give
the English form for tribal and geographical names where this
differs from the French, but, at the request of the editor, Mme
Denise Paulme, an exception has been made for the Coniagui
(the English form for which would be Konyagi), on the plea that
this is the spelling accepted by the Coniagui themselves. Further
exceptions have been made for Sultan Bangassou and his wife
Natelege, on the grounds that they are historical figures known
under these names.
Dr K. P. Wachsmann was most helpful in supplying information
about the usir, the bar zither used by the Coniagui. I am greatly
indebted to him, as without this information I should have been
lost to know how to translate the description of the instrument.
I have been fortunate in being able to consult Dr Judith Djamour
and Dr Maurice Freedman on problems of anthropological
terminology as they arose, and am grateful to both for giving so
generously of their time and expert knowledge. If I have not always
found the correct English equivalent for French terms, this is my
fault, not theirs.
I am also grateful to the International African Institute for
allowing me to consult their catalogues and use their library, and
to the staff for their unfailing helpfulness in answering my queries.
This greatly facilitated work on the Annotated Bibliography,
which I have occasionally supplemented by giving reference to
English editions of works cited.
The essay “Women of Burundi: A Study of Social Values” was
translated by its author, Ethel M. Albert.
H.M.W.
ix
This page intentionally left blank
 IN T R O D U C TIO N
Denise Paulme
THE SIX ESSAYS collected here are all by women who are
professional anthropologists (two of them being physicians in
addition), and are based on fieldwork carried out in Africa by the
authors within the last ten years.
Avoiding the usual preconceptions about the inferior position of
women in a traditional African setting, each essay deals with woman
in her everyday life and with the problems that particularly concern
her. This is a new approach, for, since ethnographic research has
almost always been exclusively carried out with the help of, and
among, the male part of the population, the picture that has
emerged has to a large extent been the image which the men, and
the men alone, have of their society. It is well known that travellers
in a foreign land, whether men or women, find difficulty in making
contact with the womenfolk and in getting into conversation with
them; and when, to the barriers of language and custom, are added
those arising in a colonial situation between rulers and subjects, the
difficulty becomes almost insuperable. When African women see a
female foreigner making a direct approach for information to the
men of the village, starting discussions with them, and entering
places and sometimes even attending ceremonies to which they, as
women, are not admitted, they show no interest in her at all at first.
But, once their curiosity is aroused, they tend to be ironical and
severely critical: how can a woman, whose proper tasks are looking
after the home and the children, behave in a way that seems to deny
her very nature? Besides, why should any attention be paid to the
opinions of this foreigner who, from the very moment of her
arrival, has taken the men’s side in the eternal battle which is every
day liable to flare up through some incident, either trifling or
serious? And there can be no doubt as to which side she is on: has
she not lent a sympathetic ear to the men’s complaints—shame on
her, shame on them!—and already written down on paper the
reproaches that husbands and fiances are forever casting at their
womenfolk as if they expected the women to allow themselves to
1
 Denise Paulme
be treated like servants? And when the foreigner finally comes to
visit the women, she will be met with reserve or even open hostility,
and as often as not will find her efforts rewarded by a refusal to
admit her.
The relationship is vitiated on both sides by deep-seated pre­
judices. During my first period of fieldwork in Africa, after nine
months spent in an area of the French Sudan I was able to follow
the general trend of a conversation without understanding every
word or venturing to speak very much. One day, crouched in the
shade of a wall in the courtyard of a house, I whiled away the hot
hours half asleep, while near me two young women were delivering
vigorous blows with a pestle, pounding millet for the evening meal.
Comparing their lives with mine, I was vaguely congratulating
myself on not having to do a chore like theirs, day in and day out,
when I overheard one of the women say something like this to the
other: “ That girl makes me tired with her everlasting paper and
pencil: what sort of a life is that?” The lesson was a salutary one,
and I have never forgotten it.
This difficulty in making contact with the womenfolk may explain
the paucity of material concerning African women. It was only as a
result of her unusual qualifications and of the exceptional circum­
stances of the serious riots in Aba in 1929-30 that Mrs. Leith-Ross
was entrusted with the task of conducting an enquiry among Ibo
women, the results of which appeared in her book African Womens
Its interest and charm are as fresh as ever, but at what cost! We
only know something about the Pondo women of the Cape because
Monica Hunter happened to have learnt their language in her
childhood.2 These are isolated examples, and we have to admit that
nothing exists in French to compare, for instance, with the astonish­
ing biography of Baba o f Karo, whose story, although she actually
lived in Nigeria during the first half of the twentieth century, might
have come straight out of the Arabian Nights.3 The essays which
follow are a first attempt to fill a serious gap. We hope that they
will be succeeded by others.
The first thing that strikes one on reading these contributions is
how widely varied the modes of life are which they describe. There
are agriculturalists of more or less permanent settlement, pastoral-
ists living in straw huts and following their herds from one grazing
land to another, or again a complex stratified society with masters,
servants and slaves and a strict system of clientage where sub­
ordinates provide subsistence products for a patron who is bound
to protect them from the exactions of others, this being the mode
from the bottom of the pyramid to the solitary sovereign at its
2
 Introduction
apex. No society is the same as another. Each one regards itself as,
and is and remains unique. What is there in common between a
Coniagui peasant and a Fulani herdsman, a Nzakara princess and
a Twa slave?

All the more remarkable, then, is the persistence of certain

common features in the life of women. Almost everywhere a large
measure of pre-marital sexual freedom is permitted to girls—
provided they use it with discretion. Almost everywhere, too, a
married woman shows an enduring attachment to her natal family,
while the members of her husband’s family, among whom she
lives, continue to be strangers to her, and often hostile strangers.
Marriage is regarded as a lesser evil, the necessary but imperfect
means of concluding alliances and of ensuring the survival of the
group by providing it with legitimate offspring. Finally, everywhere
we see the primary importance of the mother, the very core of the
African family, even for her adult and married sons, even in
3
 Denise Paulme
Muslim societies. It was to her mother that Camara Laye dedicated
the account, barely disguised as fiction, of her childhood: “ Woman
of the fields, woman of the rivers, woman of the great riverbanks,
O you, my mother, I am thinking of you . . .”4
* * *
African marriage customs have often been condemned on the
grounds that they debase women: polygyny, child-betrothal,
widow inheritance, and all methods of transferring women without
their consent are cited as evidence. Further on in this book will be
found the comments of Dr. S. Falade, a psycho-analyst, herself
an African, on polygyny and on marriages arranged by parents for
their children.5
Writers who disapprove of these customs also mention the heavy
burden laid on women by the division of labour; the submissive
attitude a wife must adopt towards her husband; the generally
acknowledged right of a man to beat his wife; and finally the fact
that marriage gives rise to little intimacy between spouses. The usual
conclusion drawn is that women are oppressed and exploited, have
no freedom of action, and are held in low esteem.
In this judgment by the outside observer there lurks a hidden
assumption: that any divergence from the Western ideal necessarily
implies a lower status for women. What is left out of account here
is that the Western ideal presupposes a fairly high standard of
living, with a household in which the husband is sole provider and
the wife is supplied by him with domestic help or with appliances
for coping with the rough work; and further, that in actual fact such
a standard is only enjoyed by a minority. Far more common is the
type of household which we know only too well in our part of the
world, in which the wife contributes her earnings and in addition
performs, without help, all the domestic tasks; and this type of
household is never found in Africa. There, a wife’s contribution
to the needs of the household is direct and indispensable, and her
husband is just as much in need of her as she is of him. Thus in
some respects her status is higher than that of a wife who is entirely
dependent on her husband.
But, it will be argued, owing to the jealous defence on the part of
African husbands of their property rights, there is no such thing as
joint ownership by spouses (except among the Fulani, where the
sadaakU the gift of the groom, is held jointly by the couple,
although the wife never enjoys more than, rights of usufruct with
regard to the sadaaki: she receives the usufruct, that is to say the
milk from the cows, without ever being able to dispose of the
4
 Introduction
capital which will later revert to her children). But a wife enjoys
similar rights: she has control over goods acquired by her own
labour; and wherever women choose to trade rather than till the
soil, they may acquire independent control of quite large amounts
of cash.
Some informants are emphatically and genuinely of the opinion
that women spend their whole lives under male dominance, sub­
mitting first to the authority of their father or their mother’s
brother (according to the kinship system which prevails), and later
to that of their husband. Moreover, these informants will add,
women never attain legal independence: a woman cannot sue or be
sued in her own name, and is not answerable for her actions. Her
labour belongs to her husband and if she earns any money, for
instance by engaging in petty trading, only with his consent can she
herself enjoy the profit. Apart from her clothes, and at most a piece
of jewellery, everything she has belongs to her husband and can be
claimed by his heir. A man may have several legal wives and will be
allowed a mistress, but a woman must remain faithful to her
husband. Finally, women lead secluded lives from puberty onwards,
their activities restricted to domestic tasks, this being particularly
the case among Islamised peoples. If this persuasively drawn picture
did indeed correspond to reality, the role of women could certainly
be said to be a subservient one. In fact, however, it merely expresses
a fondly entertained masculine ideal which does not tally with the
realities of everyday life.
On the other hand, it would be equally erroneous to imagine that
masculine dominance is entirely mythical. It must be remembered
that it was nineteenth century theoreticians who evolved the idea of
the matriarchy, to which some recent works still refer. A study of
the facts shows that it is very rare to find political power vested in
a woman. The case of the Lovedu, mentioned below by Annie
Lebeuf, remains an isolated instance; and there the institution of
the rainmaking sacred queen was the outcome of a revolution and
of incest, and is not more than 150 years old. It is less rare to find
the association of a man and a woman: the king and his mother;
and sometimes power is wielded by three individuals forming a
totality: the king, his mother, and his sister.
The rules of descent and of residence are basic to all forms of
social structure. Descent in the female line (matrilineal) is found
in a number of African societies, as in the Congo or on the west
Atlantic coast. In this system the role elsewhere filled by the father
usually devolves upon the mother’s brother. As for residence, a
young couple may settle with the husband’s family (patrilocal
5
 Denise Paulme
residence) or with the wife’s (matrilocal residence), but it is
extremely unusual to find permanent matrilocal residence, for
after a longer or shorter period with his wife’s kin, a husband
generally succeeds in bringing his household to live with his own
kinsfolk. It can readily be imagined that a system which combines
matrilineal descent and patrilocal residence, with their conflicting
pulls, may give rise to some tricky problems, as is the case with the
Coniagui, described here by Monique Gessain. But whatever the
system may be, the position of women within it is neither superior
nor inferior to that of the men, but simply different, and comple­
mentary.
Judging by my own experience, which has been limited to four
societies (the Dogon of the Mali, the Kissi of the Guinea forests,
the coastal Baga, and the Bete of the Ivory Coast), I am inclined to
think that women, what with their role as mothers and their work
in the home, in their gardens, and in the market-place, have quite
a wide area in which to exercise their authority. It is true that
ideally a woman is expected to behave with a certain amount of
diffidence, and when in public to speak less than men do, unless
the subject under discussion concerns her personally, and in
general to “ busy herself with her household and not worry about
other matters” . Nevertheless she is often to be seen at the surround­
ing markets, and pays visits—sometimes long ones—to her mother,
or one of her sisters, or, later, to a daughter married and settled
elsewhere. Not only does she have full say regarding the affairs of
her own household, but village women run their own associations
and institutions, and often have their own cults, complementary
to those of the men, so essential for group solidarity.
The influence exerted by women is due rather to their liveliness,
their independent spirit, and their inexhaustible energy, than to
rights recognized by custom, and the manner in which they are
brought up certainly accentuates these innate qualities. In a
patriarchal environment—the system most common in Africa—a
small boy grows up knowing that all his life will be spent within
the same family circle. His childhood home and the land he sees
his elders till will one day be his own property, and after his death
he will continue to haunt the places he has always known, and his
descendants will pay homage at the same altar where he himself
propitiated his ancestors. But a girl very soon learns that she will
have to leave the house, and often the village, where she was born,
and go to live among strangers with a husband who was perhaps
chosen for her at the time of her birth. A married woman always
has two homes and owes a dual allegiance, and if she should change
6
 Introduction
husbands, this will mean another change of scene for her. The
effect of this is that throughout her life she will often be fighting a
lonely battle in defence of her own interests: her home and her
children; and even there she has to relinquish her sons at an early
age. On the other hand, whereas men never seem to conceive of
ties other than those of kinship linked with common residence (so
that acceptance of a stranger in their midst requires recourse to the
fiction of making him a “ brother” or an affine), among women
the mere fact of belonging to the same sex is enough to estab­
lish an active solidarity. An appeal addressed by a woman to
other women will reach far beyond the boundaries of a single
village, and a movement of revolt among women will always be
a serious matter, even if its immediate cause should be of minor
importance.
Women are seldom to be seen taking part in public life, being
absorbed in their own tasks. All the heavy work in the fields is
done by the men—felling trees, burning the scrub, removing stones,
erecting fences to keep out animals, making the furrows or the
holes in which the women and children will place the seed. Later
there will be long months when the men will drowse in the shade,
while the women’s work continues without respite. The whole year
round they have the monotonous task of preparing the meals, and
spend several hours each day fetching water, searching for firewood,
pounding grain, and cooking. They too have work in the fields to
do, for when the rains come, it is the women who do the hoeing of
the crops, “ as often as is necessary”, and they later take part in the
harvest. The housewife also has to provide the ingredients for the
indispensable palm-oil or shea butter sauce, made with dried fish,
leaves, onions, tomatoes and peppers, which serves as a relish to
the daily dish of millet gruel, rice, or mashed yams or cassava.
Finally, when grain stocks are exhausted during the lean weeks
before the harvest, it is the women who provide food for the house­
hold by supplying it with tubers grown in the gardens they tend at
the back of their houses. If foodstuffs still run short, they have to
supplement them by purchases made at the market; but in order
to be able to do so, almost all housewives are obliged to carry on
some form of trade, often on a very small scale, and they prepare
for sale pancakes, balls of crushed peanuts, salt, soap, and powdered
pepper or tobacco. Attendance at the markets, which are held on
fixed days in the surrounding countryside, necessitates journeys—
often long ones—on foot (although nowadays they sometimes go
by lorry), with a load carried on the head, not to mention the baby
astride its mother’s back. It is hardly surprising that fat women are
7
WTA2
 Denise Paulme
rarely to be seen in the African countryside. Most of the women
are thin, the old ones often being mere skeletons.
This picture bears little resemblance to that presented by the
kind of domestic arrangement still frequently found in Europe, in
which the husband is the sole provider and the wife stays in the
background with nothing to do except run the house. In Africa a
married woman has an independent life of her own.
Since the arrival of the Europeans, the new modes of life intro­
duced by them have altered the distribution of tasks in a way that
has too often been disadvantageous for women. The peace imposed
on societies which had either been warlike or had suffered from
the fear of attack, removed one of the principal masculine tasks,
which was that of the defence of the community; and while the
introduction of cash crops may have provided the men with a
substitute for their former warlike activities, women have found
that this has only imposed new burdens on them. The worst of these
is, that when the young men depart, often on a mass scale, for the
plantations and the industrial centres, where they may stay for
several years, only the old men and the women are left to carry out
all the work in the village. In a household where the older sons
have gone away, the younger ones may have to go to bed hungry
because their mother, at the end of her day’s work, is often too
tired to light the fire and prepare supper.
The task of preparing the meals is not without its compensations.
It provides women with a means of exerting pressure when neces­
sary, as when a man is having an affair to which his wife wishes to
raise objections. If he remains deaf to her first remarks, she resorts
to a simple method for curing his faithlessness: one evening, the
husband will find no dinner awaiting him when he comes home.
Aware of his guilt, he does not dare to protest, and goes to bed with
an empty stomach. The next morning, when he gets up, the same
scene is repeated, without a word being said. The husband can do
little about it, for if he starts shouting, his wife’s complaints will
raise all the women of the village against him.
Lastly, it is not necessarily the case that polygyny lowers the
status of wives. Although it has been regarded as a practice which
indicates a contemptuous attitude towards women, it is usually no
more than the required manner of displaying wealth. A chief, or
any other man in a position of power, owes it to himself to have
several wives who will share the household tasks, and will provide
him, not only with affines, but also with a numerous progeny. I
should like to quote here an old district chief, who reckoned that
he had had sixty wives during the course of his life, and who said
8
 Introduction
with a sigh: “ What a lot of trouble they could be . . .” Polygyny is
less often found in actual practice than as an ideal to which every­
one aspires, but it is generally realized what complications may
ensue if a man has several wives in his household. Apart from
the quarrels between the wives, from which the children suffer
more than the husband, there are times when the co-wives come
to an understanding, temporarily at least, in order to present a
demand to their husband and then to make his life unbearable until
he has acceded to it; or the wives of a jealous husband will some­
times conspire together so as to conceal the escapades of one or
other of them. Polygyny, because of its uneven sex ratio, tends to
encourage adultery, for if a wife were to insist upon remaining
faithful to her husband, she might run the risk of going childless.
So she may seek a lover in order to have a child by him. The
arrangement will be accepted by the husband, who will be the
legitimate father—for are not children the greatest wealth of all?
Yet in none of these aspects lie the real defects of polygyny. The
real defects lie in the absence of conjugal intimacy, in the distrust
a husband feels towards his wives whom he may suspect of a
tendency to be in league against him, and in the distrust between
the wives themselves, or their jealousy over each other’s children.
Possible causes of discord are endless, and from this arises the
greatest defect of all: that a young wife, already suffering from the
strain of removal from familiar surroundings, will feel all the more
inclined to withdraw into herself, and will develop latent feelings
of diffidence, or even of hostility, towards the world at large.
* * *

The lives of women everywhere follow the same broad outlines,

even if each individual life may present some deviations from the
general rule.
Everywhere a girl may be betrothed as soon as she is born, and
before she is weaned her parents will have received the first payment
from the family of her future husband. A young girl does not,
however, consider herself in any way bound, for she knows that
she can refuse to marry the spouse chosen for her; whereas a boy
must adopt the role of “ fiance”—one might almost say, of “ suitor”
—and must go courting and express his admiration not only in
words but also by giving presents. “ If you don’t give me the head­
scarf I want for next feast-day, I know plenty of other boys who
will be glad to give it to me.” “ Girls don’t realize how much
fiances have to suffer”, complained a young Kissi boy. There is
almost complete sexual freedom until the time comes for setting
9
 Denise Paulme
up house (or until pregnancy), so long as the proprieties are
observed. The only society among those described here where this
is not the case is that of the Wolof, who are wholly converted to
the Muslim faith. The time when intimacy first occurs varies in
each individual case, and the girl will bestow her favours when it
pleases her to do so. But if she should become pregnant, her
companions will make fun of her, and it may also happen that the
“fiance” will have to suffer the reproaches of the girl’s parents, as
well as public disapproval, for making her pregnant at too early
an age, regardless of the question as to whether he is actually to
blame or not. It would be a total misrepresentation of the facts to
say that in Africa a young girl is sold by her parents to a husband
whom she does not know and against whom she has no legal
redress; taking all the circumstances into account, it would be more
correct to say that she is “loaned” .
When a girl reaches marriageable age she often undergoes clitori-
dectomy along with the companions of her age-group. They are not
allowed contact with men during convalescence, and this period of
seclusion, which used to be quite a long one, is spent in having
their education completed by the older women, who instill into
them the duties they will have to perform when they are married
and the conduct proper to a good wife, and who may, incidentally,
impart to some of them the art of wheedling a husband every time
he seems disinclined to yield immediately to their demands.
Although there is no attempt at formal education of any kind, the
period of seclusion does give girls a clearer idea of their importance
to society, an appreciation that it is women who have life in their
safe keeping and who possess the secrets of birth. Even the most
prosperous family will have its position jeopardized if it has no
daughter-in-law. The lesson is not lost, and a young wife, in the
belief that she is indispensable, may prove recalcitrant to the rules
imposed by the male section of the village. Men have long recog­
nized this problem, and have felt the need to counteract female
anarchy by staging public demonstrations, the most spectacular of
which are those in which the masks are paraded through the village.
Excluded as they are from such activities, the women and children
are unaware of the identity of the figures concealed by the masks
and cloaks, and are persuaded to believe that these are supernatural
beings who will punish any infringements of the established order.
But in the myths the invention of masks is often attributed to a
woman, who stole the disguises abandoned by spirits; only later did
men monopolize the masks and their accompanying symbolic
powers as being the sole means of asserting their authority over
10
 Introduction
their wives, this assertion being essential for the maintenance of
social order. An important role is still played by an old woman in
many of the men’s associations.
The end of the period of seclusion is celebrated by a feast to
which the fiances of the girls contribute, and it is usually fairly
soon after this that they start setting up their own household,
although in some societies the young couple do not start living
together until after the arrival of the first child. The Dogon assured
me that formerly a woman did not go to live with her husband
until a third child had been born. The young girl’s parents do their
utmost to obtain as high a marriage payment as possible, in which
endeavour the mother plays an important role, this being an under­
taking in which she is in the true sense a partner with her husband.
The young man, for his part, will be generous if he has the means
at his disposal, since his prestige depends on it. Nevertheless, greed
and prudence combined may sometimes result in the young girl’s
being allowed to join her husband before the last payment has
been made, with the possible result that there is an indefinite post­
ponement of settlement if the son-in-law finds himself unable to
satisfy the rapacity of his parents-in-law. “ The settlement of the
marriage payment can drag on for ever”, sighed an old woman
who was telling me her life story. When I asked her if anyone had
ever considered the possibility of concluding a marriage without
any presents from the bridegroom, she expressed her disapproval
by saying: “ If the husband did not pay anything, the wife would
be a whore.”
When the day arrives which has at last been decided upon as the
day when the young wife definitely takes up residence with her
husband, a feast is given at the home of the latter. The bride,
dressed in all her finery and wearing all her jewellery, is brought
with great ceremony, often in a hammock such as a chief uses, and
always accompanied by an orchestra. Her kinswomen and friends
display the calabashes, pottery, enamel bowls, bed-clothes and
provisions supplied by the bride’s parents for the new household.
The bridegroom’s mother sings a joyful song: “I shall no longer go
to fetch wood and to fetch water; I shall no longer pound the
grain . . . ” The “ brothers” of the bridegroom let off their guns with
as much noise as possible, and there are dances in which the bride’s
“ sisters” take part, many of whom will fail to return to sleep in
their own beds in the village that night. The ceremony is a purely
civil one, not marked by any kind of sacrificial rite or communal
repast. At the most, the young wife, in some societies, will be
presented to the ancestors, since it is through her that their line is
11
 Denise Paulme
to be continued. Personal status is far less affected by marriage than
it is by initiation, to such an extent that it is sometimes difficult
to establish the exact moment when a girl becomes a married
woman: the first time the meets her fiance? when the marriage is
consummated? when she becomes pregnant? or when the last
instalment of the marriage payment is made? Each and every one
of these possible suggestions may, on the spur of the moment, be
put forward as equally valid.
Everywhere the birth of the first child is a more important event
than the setting-up of the joint household, and it is marked by the
rise of the parents to a higher age-class, whereas there is very often
no special term to differentiate the married from the unmarried
man or woman.
Once she has come to live with her husband’s family, a wife
continues for a long time to be regarded as a stranger. She receives
far from indulgent treatment from her husband’s mother, who
immediately adopts a dictatorial attitude, and may wish to revenge
herself upon her daughter-in-law for the treatment she herself had
once had to endure; and the young wife has little to hope for in the
way of comfort from her husband, who is more likely to be feeling
resentful about all the dresses and jewellery he has had to give her.
Along with regrets at giving up the life she has enjoyed as a young
girl, marriage brings homesickness as well, and the bride does her
utmost to go home as often and for as long as possible, while her
husband, who bears a grudge against her parents-in-law, is reluctant
to see his wife go off on these visits. The beginning of married life
is a difficult period.
Later, many couples stabilize their relationship and lead com­
paratively peaceful lives. However, mutual understanding is only
gradually established between husband and wife, and rarely
expressed. Speaking of the Fulani of Fouta Djallon, an author who
knows them well writes: “ What characterizes married life is the
absence of common ground, of any real union between husband
and wife. The wife leads her life within her husband’s compound a
little as though she were a tenant there; she has her own interests,
her garden, her cattle; she receives visits from her relations, has
a younger sister to stay, or a small brother, or a servant-girl. It is
pathetic to see a man, who in principle is the owner of his wife,
entering into negotiations for borrowing a stool or a calabash
belonging to her . . . In short, she hardly ever enters her husband’s
family without the hope of being able to return home again: she is
on loan to him.”6 And this is among Muslims, for whom, in
principle, the wife is the chattel of her husband. But the gap
12
 Introduction
between husband and wife is just as great in societies which remain
faithful to ancestral cults, in which the wife, by definition an out­
sider, does not participate.
The attitude usually maintained between husbands and wives
belonging to the same village is one of mutual constraint which
can easily change to aggressiveness. Normally this only finds
expression in banter; but should a crisis arise, a certain amount of
antagonism becomes perceptible. If a woman should happen to
have a difficult confinement, her sufferings are usually regarded as
a punishment inflicted by her husband’s ancestors; she will be
accused of adultery, and will have to confess the names of her
lovers. She herself will be convinced that she is the victim of a spell
cast by her husband or by her mother-in-law, who must be annoyed
with her for reasons which she resigns herself to supposing must
remain a mystery. The blame for any and every public calamity,
whether it be a rise in infant mortality, an abnormal drought, a
threatened epidemic, is laid by the men on the women and vice versa.
The importance of this recurrent theme in social life should not
be exaggerated, but it should also not be overlooked. It underlies
the ritual of male initiation, which acts as a safeguard for those
who have undergone it against those who have not, and thus first
and foremost against women.
This general atmosphere of mistrust arises, in part at any rate,
from the horror inspired by blood, and from the feeling that there
are magic dangers inherent in menstruation. It is not only in Africa
that witchcraft is more often practised by women than by men.
Everywhere, contact with a woman who is “impure” is considered
to be a defilement. A woman in this condition will ayoid preparing
food for her husband, and will keep away from the altars, and,
among agriculturalists, from the fields; or among pastoralists, from
the cattle-enclosures. Sometimes there is even a special dwelling on
the outskirts of the settlement set aside for the use of menstruating
women, who have to purify themselves before taking part again in
communal life. Women always have a greater number of taboos
which they must observe. It is generally believed that they are
experts in magic, which they can easily practise by casting a spell
on the food they prepare for their husbands. This fear, joined to
the fact that women are indispensable for the survival of the group,
explains not only many of the taboos surrounding them, but also
the ambiguous relations which exist between the men and women
of a community. The men put up with the presence of their wives
but continue to regard them as strangers, while the women, aware
of their husband’s attitude, will if necessary remind the men that
13
 Denise Paulme
they cannot do without their wives. In some areas men adopt a
different attitude towards women depending upon which of their
acknowledged functions the women are fulfilling. According to
J. Hurault, a Bamileke woman, in so far as she is a descendant of
an ancestress, is respected and even feared by her maternal kin; but
in her role as daughter she is handed over, exchanged, or given
away by her father without consideration for anything but his own
interests, and in her role as wife she is kept under strict discipline
by her husband.7
An African woman sets greater store by her children than by
her husband, for it is only by becoming a mother that she feels
truly fulfilled. Annie Lebeuf refers in her essay to the role played
in many African states by the mother, and sometimes by the sister,
of the king, their thrones being placed side by side with the ruler’s
on all official occasions. In all societies, whether feudal or demo­
cratic, sons, whether princes or peasants, will always remain small
boys in the eyes of their mother, and it is the mother who carries
on the management of the household after the father’s death, who
chooses the first wife, at anyrate, for her sons, and who has most
say in arranging the marriage of her daughters. This predominance
of the mother, who continues to direct her children’s lives even
after they have grown up, is found in all African societies, including
those which have become Muslim. The mother expects to be treated
with respect by her children, and will not resign her position until
the time arrives when her sons are themselves the fathers of
families, and, her vig<!hir now diminished with age, there appears
to be no longer a role for her to play.
By a curious paradox, it is only when she passes beyond child­
bearing age that an African woman at last finds herself accepted
by her husband’s family. Africans are aware of the fact that in her
later years there is little to distinguish a woman from a man, and
whether she be wife of a chief or not, a woman of intelligence whose
family has prospered will have earned the right to be held in
general esteem—an esteem that increases in proportion to the
number of her surviving children.
However, enviable as may be the fate of a matron surrounded by
children and grandchildren who supply her needs just as formerly
she looked after th6irs, it is no more enviable than is pitiable the
position of an old woman, widowed and childless, who was too
old to get remarried, and who finds herself in the care of her
husband’s brothers and nephews. Supported out of charity, and
often undernourished, her death will be felt as a relief. Perhaps no
sooner is she buried than she will be declared to have been a witch,
14
 Introduction
responsible for all the recent misfortunes suffered by the com­
munity. This provides an outlet and a relief for feelings of hostility
—a last service, although an involuntary one, that a woman may
render to the group of people who, all through her life, have been
no more to her than relations by marriage, which is as much as to
say: strangers.
* * *

What does the future offer for African women? These women
who are so independent, so courageous, and so used to relying on
no one but themselves? Already many of them have set up in
businesses of their own. But if they are to do more than simply
make money, they must be given opportunities for exercising their
talent for organization, their energy, and their practical sense.
The number of openings which modern society offers them is
still fairly restricted, since far fewer girls go to school than boys,
while the number who become university students is infinitesimal.
With the exception of midwives who have married a doctor, few
women, whether teachers, nurses, dressmakers or clerks, continue
working after they have married. The idea that a job might be a
vocation, a life’s work, rarely occurs. Most of the young African
girls who take a job only do so while looking for a husband, or in
order to acquire some savings so that they will have more freedom
of choice of one, or because they do not wish to marry too young.
We have seen that it is traditional in Africa to regard marriage
as an active association to which the woman has her daily contri­
bution to make—an idea which is so recent in the West that it is
still only accepted in some sections of society. Unaccustomed to
relying on anyone but herself, the African woman will have no
need to acquire a feeling of self-confidence, since she is already
rarely without one. Perhaps the obstacle she will have most
difficulty in surmounting is that age-old mistrust of the world in
general and of her husband in particular. But I am acquainted with
a sufficient number of African couples and have seen a large enough
number of homes, in the best sense of the word, to be able, in this
respect at least, to take an optimistic view of the future.

NOTES
XS. Leith-Ross, African wo en: a study of the lbo of Nigeria (Faber, 1939).
2Monica Hunter, Reaction to conquest. Effects o f contacts with the Europeans
on the Pondo of South Africa (O.U.P. 1936).
15
 Denise Paulme
3Mary Smith, Baba of Karo: a woman of the Muslim Hausa (Faber, 1954).
4Camara Laye, VEnfant noir (Paris, Plon, 1953). Trans, by James Kirkup,
The dark child (Collins, 1955).
6See below: S. Falade, “Women of Dakar . . .”
6G. Vieillard, “Notes sur les Peuls du Fouta Djallon”, Bull. de VI.F.A.N., I-II
(1940), 85-210.
7J. Hurault, Notes sur la structure sociale des Bamileke (Roneo), p. 12.

16
References

CONIAGUI WOMEN

D e l a c o u r , A., “Les Tenda (Coniagui, Bassari,

Badyaranke) de la Guinee fransaise”, Revue d'Ethnographie
et de Sociologie (Paris, 1912), pp. 287-96 and 370-81;
(1913), pp. 31-52 and 105-53, 2 maps and 10 photographs.

G e ss a in , M., see Lestrange, M. de.

L e s t r a n g e , M. de, “Pour une methode

socio-demographique. Etude du mariage chez les Coniagui et
les Bassari”, Journ. de la Soc. des Africanistes, XXI
(1951), pp. 97-109

— , Les Coniagui et les Bassari, Institut International

Africain, Presses Univer- sitaires de France, 1955, 86
pp., ill., map.

R a n ^ o n , D r . A., Dans la Haute-Gambie, voyage

d'exploration scientifique 1891- 1892, Annales de
l’lnstitut colonial de Marseille, l rt serie, II, 2* annee,
Paris, Soc. d’fiditions scientifiques, 1894, 1 vol., 8vo,
592 pp.

R ic h a r d s , I. A., “Some types of family structure

amongst the Central Bantu” pp. 207-51 in A. R. Radcliffe
Brown and Daryll Forde, African systems o f kinship and
marriage, published for the International African Institute
by the Oxford University Press, 1950.

T £ c h e r , H., “Coutumes des Tenda”, Bull, du Com.

d'Et. Hist. et Scient. de de VA.O.F;, XVI, No. 4
(Oct.-Dec. 1933), pp. 630-66, 1 map, 7 photographs. NOTES
JFor a fuller description of Coniagui and Bassari kinship,
see M. de Lestrange,

1951 and 1955. 2Without entering into comparative studies

with which the present essay is

not concerned, it may be remarked that the Coniagui-Bassari

system is similar

to that of the Bantu of Central Africa (from the central

districts of the Belgian

Congo to the north-eastern plateau of Northern Rhodesia and

the highlands of
Nyasaland) described by A. I. Richards, 1950. theoretically
also the mother of his grandmother, etc. . . . But in
practice it

is rare to find generation depth of this extent in kinship

sentiments and customs. 4Would the affair really have ended
if B had expected A to come and make

him a marriage offer for b'? I think this is unlikely, but

shall not discuss the

question here. 6If the person giving offence is a woman,

reprisals might fall on her own

children, but this was not the case in either of the

examples cited here. 6The stages in the life of a Bassari
woman differ appreciably from those in the

life of a Coniagui woman. The Bassari woman is excised at

an earlier age and

with less ceremonial, she marries earlier, is divorced

oftener, etc. . . . I have

thought it preferable to describe here in greater detail

the life of Coniagui women,

about which I have more information, rather than to keep

making comparisons

between the lives of Coniagui and Bassari women. 7The way

in which Coniagui and Bassari children are brought up
results in

there being a deep differentiation between feminine and

masculine roles, which

undoubtedly facilitates social adaptation among adults.

Hence it seems to me

that the abandonment of certain traditions runs the risk of

interfering with this

adaptation, so essential for the fecundity and for the

efficiency of their social

system. 8A. Delacour, p. 46. 9 As Maupoil’s notes have not

been published, I shall quote them in full. l0The
Instrument in question is a bar zither. (M.G.). nThe tyareg
is in the centre of the village, and it is both the
dwelling of the village head and the place where young
adults who are bachelors live. 12That is to say, Catholics,
as about one in ten of all Coniagui are. 13Each Coniagui
man owns a one-roomed hut where he sleeps, and each woman
two huts at least, in one of which she does the cooking,
while in the other she sleeps with her daughters and the
younger children. At night, when she wants to be with her
husband, she leaves them there and goes to his hut, which
is a short distance away from the women’s huts.
14Biographies are very valuable sources for the kind of
information provided by the above story, as are also long
and repeated interrogations of the same informant,
particularly when they are more in the nature of a
conversation than of a questionnaire. It is possible in
this way to collect a number of significant details
concerning personal relations. 15A schematic outline of an
incident of this kind runs somewhat as follows: an
uninitiated person (a woman or a child) transgresses a
taboo concerning an initiate; the latter strikes the
guilty person a single blow without giving a word of
explanation, and then goes; he returns after having passed
some time with an old man. The incident has never
happened. This recalls another instance of breaking a
taboo which was told me: a small boy when washing his hands
inadvertantly let a few drops of water fall on two men;
without a word, they struck him, got up, and went into the
bush; their father would go and look for them later and
bring them back to the village. This incident coincides in
every detail with the first one, except that the small boy
who was at fault would have his mistake explained to him
several years later, when he was initiated, while to a
woman the men never explain anything. 16A Ran^on, pp. 331,
333 and 337. 17A. Ran?on, pp. 340 and 341. 18H. Techer, pp.
638 and 640. 19A. Delacour, p. 50. 20Cf. M. de Lestrange,
1955. 21 A. Delacour, p. 46. 22A. Delacour, p. 373. 45 23A.
Delacour, p. 46. 24A. Delacour, p. 46. **Falug: young men
who took part in the previous initiation ceremony.
™Dyarar: the young bachelors belonging to the age-class
immediately senior

to that of the falug. Their huts are grouped round the

village head’s in the tyareg. 27A. Ran^on, p. 327.
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17Krige, op. cit. pp. 9-10. 18Krige, op. cit. p. 271.
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197-8. 23Krige, op. cit. pp. 310-11, and E. J. Krige, pp.
265-93. 24J. J. Maquet, p. 47. 25Maquet, op. cit. p. 148.
26H. Kuper, pp. 54-8. 27Kuper, op. cit. p. 70. 28J. Slaski;
Irstam considers that she is both queen and queenmother; L.
de Heusch (p. 121) regards her as representing the ideal,
but forbidden, incestuous spouse. 29In spite of the fact
that the Bamileke do not belong to a single, centralized
State but to a confederation of several states, I have
nevertheless cited them as an example because of the
extremely hierarchical structure of each of these states.
30R. Delaroziere, pp. 46ff. 31C. K. Meek, A Sudanese
kingdom . . ., p. 340. 32C. K. Meek, Tribal studies . . .,
Vol. 1, pp. 335, 346. 33Meek, Tribal Studies, Vol. I, p.
335. 34Meek, Tribal studies, Vol. I, p. 336. 35M. Fortes
(1950), p. 264. 36M. Fortes (1950), p. 257. 37E. L. R.
Meyerowitz, p. 42. 88Meyerowitz, pp. 37ff. 89M. Fortes
(1950), p. 264. 40A. I. Richards (1940), p. 93; and (1934),
p. 271. 41J. Roscoe (1911), p. 84. 42Roscoe, op. cit. p.
236. 43Roscoe, op. cit. pp. 203, 245. 44Roscoe, op. cit.
pp. 283-4. 46J. Roscoe, The Bakitara, pp. 145-9. 46Roscoe,
op. cit. pp. 136-45, 149-55. 47K. Oberg, p. 160. 48J.
Roscoe, The Banyankole, pp. 59, 60. 49K. Oberg, pp. 138-9.
60K. Oberg, pp. 125, 160. 61J. Roscoe, The Banyankole, p.
61. 52The last woman to be given this title, who was known
as Queen Ngalifuru,

reigned over the Bateke plateaux between 1892 (the date of

the death of the Onko

by the side of whom she held this position) and 1956, when
she passed away,

having been the chief authority recognized by the French

administration; it was she

to whom her unfortunate subjects owe the schools and

dispensaries that have been

established. Her role was reinforced by the fact that she

never allowed the

regalia to be taken from her, so that none of the numerous

kings who succeeded

were able to survive after their enthronement. The Onko at

present on the

throne refused to allow her to enthrone him, fearing to

suffer the fate of his

predecessors, and he contents himself with exercising very

much reduced powers. 58This name is also given to the chief
emblem of royalty, which is always

considered to belong to the Wanfitere, even when held by

the Onko. 64S. F. Nadel (1942), p. 147. 66Among the Kotoko,
until fairly recent times, the title of Magira was never

borne by the king's mother, since she was ritually put to

death by her son on the

day of his enthronement; cf. M. Griaule and J. P. Lebeuf,

p. 22. This practice

is also found among the Yoruba; cf. S. Johnson, pp. 46-8,

according to L. de
Heusch, p. 125. 660 . Macleod, p. 160. 67Meek, Tribal
studies, Vol. II, p. 292. B8A. Masson Detourbet, pp. 15,
32. 59A. I. Richards (1934), p. 271. €0J. Roscoe, The
Bakitara, pp. 169, 171, 175; The Baganda, pp. 8, 85. #1C.
G. Seligman, pp. 652-3. 62Delarozi£re, pp. 48fF. #3S. F.
Nadel (1942), pp. 149-50. 640 . MacLeod, pp. 177-8. #5H.
Kuper, pp. 58-9. e8Proyart, p. 60. 87J. Roscoe, (1911), p.
155. e8J. A. Barnes, pp. 89-106. 0BM. Fortes (1950), p.
256. 70Masson Detourbet, p. 30. Their role during these
fishing expeditions may be similar to that played by
certain women among the Sorko fishermen in the Niamey
region mentioned by J. Rouch, p. 48. 71S. F. Nadel (1942),
pp. 147-8. 72S. F. Nadel (1935), pp. 423-47. 73A. Even, pp.
187-95. 74R. Apthorpe. 76K. Little, (1951), pp. 195-6. 76G.
P. Lestrade, p. 315. 77Meek, Tribal studies, Vol. I, p. 5.
78F. Verberke, pp. 52ff. 79The handing-over of kaolin by
the supreme chief to his subordinates was a

significant act indicating the participation of his vassals

in maintaining the vital

forces of their sovereign, the founder of the dynasty, (cf.

T. Theuws). 80K. Little (1951), pp. 177, 196. 81H. A.
Junod, pp. 355-7, 391. 82This institution was prohibited by
a decree promulgated by the Belgian

Government on 31 January 1947, being regarded as “the

practice of polyandry”,

(cf. M. Tew). 83J. Slaski, p. 88. 84P. A. Talbot (1926);

and (1912), pp. 94ff. 85B. Holas, pp. 241-50. 86K. Little
(1951), p. 126. 87K. Little (1951), p. 250; (1948), pp.
1-17. 88K. Little (1951), pp. 196, 249-50. 89D. Forde, p.
17. 90S. Leith-Ross, pp. 105-10. 91S. Leith-Ross, pp.
23-39. WTA 9 This page intentionally left blank
WOMEN OF DAKAR AND THE SURROUNDING URBAN
AREA

II. A Bassari woman carrying her youngest child. III.

Coniagui girls wear jewellery from the age of six or
seven.

IV. An old woman pouring out the sacrificial beer. V. A

WoDaaBe Bororo woman (Cameroon). VII. A WoDaaBe Bororo
woman with children. VIII. A naming ceremony. XI. Songombi,
the waif princess. XII. Nabate, the wife of the ancestors.
XIII. A Tutsikazi. . XV and XVI. Burundi landscapes.
INDEX OF AUTHORS

Abbatucci, S., 249

Acquaye Elmina, J. R., 249

Akeley, M. L. J., 244

Akinsemoyin, K., 288

Albert, A., 249

Alberto, M. S., 253

Alexander, D., 271

Alport, C. J. M., 274

Ames, D., 267

Amon d’Aby, F. J., 233, 235

Appia-Dabit, B., 268, 271

Apthorpe, R., 233, 244

Amot, A. S., 271

Arriens, C., 235

Atangana, N., 233

Aujoulat, L., 252

Ba, A. H., 249

Baege, B., 233

Bal, A., 256

Balandier, G., 256, 268, 276

Balde, S., 264, 278

Baker, T., 233, 235

Barnes, H. F., 249

Baumann, H., 268

Bazely, W. S., 274

B6art, C., 246

Beier, H. U., 235

Belcher, A., 268

Bell, J., 288

Beresford Stooke, G., 248

Bergeret, Y., 278, 288

Bemus, E., 267

Bettelheim, B., 257

Beumier, R., 268

Biebuyck, D., 274 Binet, J., 268, 278 Birahim, B., 254
Blacking, J., 264 Blanchard-Zaborowska, R., 271 Blanluet,
J., 250 Blohm, W., 257 Bohannan, P., 271 Boketshu, B., 250
Bolamba, A. R., 278 Bolya, P., 250 Bongongo, L., 288 Boye,
Dr., 291 Boyle, C. V., 257, 271 Bradley, K., 244 Brandel,
M., 278 Brasseur, M., 248 Brausch, G. E. J. B., 246, 291
Briffault, R., 233 Briod, R., 257 Broomfield, G. W., 288
Brosse, J., 273 Brown. E. F., 245 Brownlee, F., 257 Bryk,
F., 257 Burman, Garber N., 291 Burness, H., 235, 278
Burnet, A. M., 278 Burton, W. F. P., 257, 265 Capelle, G.,
268 Cardinall, A. W., 250 Casqueiro, M. yon Bosse, 244
Catteeu, O. P., 240 Ceston, J. M., 257 Chapman, J., 255
Chardley, F., 255 WTA 20 Index o f Authors

Cheron, G., 257

Child, H. F., 244, 279

Chrapowski, M., 246

Clay, G., 279

Clayes, P. F., 257

Colin, P. M., 291

Collard, J., 241

Comhaire, J., 265, 276, 289

Comhaire-Sylvain, S., 235, 268

Congleton, F.I., 289

Constance-Marie, Sister, 241

Coope, K. B., 289

Cornet, R. P. 241

Costanzo, G. A., 233, 246

Costermans, B., 258

Coulibaly, O., 279

Craste, L., 271

Culwick, A. T. and G. M., 246

Curryer, W. H. S., 254, 289

Cyfer-Diderich, G., 241

Cyville, G., 250

Dardenne, E., 279

Darke, M. E., 289

Darlow, M., 279, 291

Darteville, A., 241

Davies, H. O., 279

Davis, J. M., 279

De Boeck, J., 241

Debra, A., 279

Decapmaker, 241

De Carvalho, A., 279

Decorse, J., 271

Delafosse, M., 236

Deloncle, P., 272

De Heusch, L., 274

De Man, M., 241

Demba, E., 282

Denoel, L., 279

Descampe, E., 274

Dethier, F. M., 258

Devaux, V., 280

Dobson, B., 280

Donner, E., 236, 265

Dooley, C. T., 247

Dosson-Yoyo, M. M., 258

Doucy, A., 241

Douglas, R. L., 280

Driberg, J. H., 246

Dricot, F., 280

Drourega, M., 258

Dugast, I., 236 Dupuis-Yakouba, A., 272 Duperoux, A., 292

Durtal, J., 280 Dutilleux, G., 280 Duvieusart, E., 268
Earthy, E. D., 244, 258, 276 Edme, P., 247 Eiselen, W.,
255 Ekalle, S., 248, 250 Elkan, W., 268 Ellison, R. E.,
250 Ema, A. J. U., 258 Ennis, E. L., 244 Estermann, C.,
258 Evans, J. D., 280 Even, A., 250, 265, 276 Falkner,
D., 276 Fawzi, Saad ed Din, 233, 246 Forde, D., 265
Fortes, M., 236, 281 Fosbrooke, J., 269 Frangoise Marie,
Sister, 242 Franz, H. M., 258 Fraser, Mrs., 292 Frazao,
F. S., 244, 254 Froelich, .T. P., 258 Ganay, S. de, 259
Garnier, C., 234 Geigy, R., 259 Geo. Fourrier, G., 272
Gerda, Sister, 242 Gillard, M. L., 281 Gilles de Pelichy,
Dom, 242 Gluckman, M., 276 Goemaere, G., 272 Gollock, G.
A., 234 Gourdault, J.,234 Green, M., 265 Grosperrin, H.,
250 Gross, B. A., 259 Guelfi, L., 269 Gueye, F. P., 289
Gutman, B., 244, 259 Gwilliam, F. H., 281 Harley, G. W.,
259, 266 Harries, L., 259 Harris, B., 292

Harris, J. S., 236, 269

Hastie, P., 292

Hauferlin, C., 236, 269

Haumant, J. C., 254

Hauser, J., 247

Hay, H., 292

Hellmann, E., 269, 281

Herskovits, M. J., 236

Herzog, R., 272

Hichens, W., 255

Hills-Young, E., 250, 259

Himmelheber, U., 236

Hintze, V., 236, 275

Hoernle, A. W., 259, 260

Holas, B., 255, 260, 272, 281

Holding, E. M., 266, 292

Hollemann, J. F., 281

Holtker, G., 259

Horrel, M., 233, 245

Huber, H., 250, 260

Hulstaert, G., 247, 282

Hunter, M., 282

Huntingford, G. W. B., 272, 277

Intmann, B., 246

lyeki, J. F., 282

Jahoda, G., 282

Janisch, M., 289

Jaulin, R., 242

Jeanne de la Croix, Sister, 289

Jeffreys, M. D. W., 248, 260, 266

Jones, N., 260, 292

Joseph, G., 236

Joseph, H., 275

Joyeaux, C., 271

Junod, H., 245, 256

Kaberry, P. 269, 292

Kabore, D. Y., 277

Kagame, A., 242, 254, 282

Kammer, M., 250

Kane, E., 254

Kellersberger, J. S., 242

Ki, J., 282

King, E. R. G., 290

Kirk-Greene, A. H. M., 260

Koeume, E., 254

Kohler, M., 251, 260

Kouaovi, B. M., 269

Kourouma, K., 277

Krige, E. J., 261, 266, 275, 277 Krige, J. D ., 275, 277

Kruger, F., 260 Kunene, D. P., 245 Kuper, H., 254
Labouret, H., 237 Labracque, E., 251 Ladurantie, G., 290
Lafon, S., 272 La idler, P. W., 251 Laigret, J., 251
Lambert, H. E., 266 Lambin, R., 260 Landes, R., 234
Leakey, L. S. B., 260, 282 Le Ber, A., 282 Lebeuf, J. P.,
251, 269, 272 Leblanc, M., 282 Le Gal, J. R., 272 Leger,
J., 237 Le Goff, G., 282 Leith-Ross, S., 237, 283
Lemaire, C., 234 Lembezat, B., 273 Leques, R., 273
Lestrange, M. de, 237, 251, 256, 261 Letourneau, C., 234
Levare, A., 273 Leyder, J., 251 Lhote, H., 273 Little, K.
L., 237, 266, 283 Lombard, J., 283 Longmore, L., 269, 283
Macklin, R. W., 275 Maclatchy, A., 242, 266 Macmath, A.
M., 283 Macnamara, C. T., 283 Macpherson, K., 254
Macvicar, T., 246 Magdalen, Sister, 283 Mahlobo, G. W.
K., 261, 266 Mair, L., 261 Makanya, V. S., 247 Makonga,
B., 242 Malcolm, L. W. G., 261 Malcolm, W. G. B., 251
Mandrin, J., 277 Mann, M., 292 Maquet, E., 270 Marchal,
R. P., 237 Maree, M. C., 254

Maria Helena, Sister, 243

Marie-Andr6 du Sacr6-Coeur, Sister,

233,237-8,251,254,273,275, 284

Marthey, J., 284

Mass6, L., 248

Maunier, R., 284

Mauny, R., 267

Maurice, P. M., 252, 256

Maxeke, C. M., 245,284

Mayer, P., 261

Medger, E., 245

Mengrelis, T., 261

Mercier, P., 234, 238

Mikolasek, M., 284

Mills Scarborough, E., 233, 238

Missia, 284

Mobe, A. M., 284

Mohr, R., 247

Moller, M. S. G., 252

Moore, G., 277

Mukelebwe Ebwe, 270

Mulenzi, J., 243

Munongo, A., 275

Murray, K. C., 270

Muraz, G., 273

Naigisiki, S., 233, 243

Ndau, 261

Ndongo Mba, M. A., 252

Neatby, H., 284

Nemo, J., 270

Ngoi, P., 252

Ngongama, S., 285

Niakate, B., 252

Nicod, A., 238

Nicollet, A., 285

Nsimbi, M. B., 270

Nthala, S. Y., 254

Nyendwoha, E. S., 233, 246

Nzekwu, O., 262

O’Kelly, E., 267

Olivier, G., 252

Ominde, S. H., 247

Ortoli, H., 252, 256

Ottenberg, P. V., 270,285

Pages, A., 252

Pailloux, R., 238, 243

Patenostre, Dr., 273

Paulme, D., 238, 252,262, 270, 273

Pauwels, H., 247,254 Pauwels, M., 270, 273 Pedrals, D. P.

de, 267, 275 Peeraer, S., 243 Peperty, R., 262 Petit,
M., 285 Petre, M. M., 285 Pires, A. E., 262 Plessers, R.
P., 243 Poivre, Pastor, 234 Posselt, F., 245
Powdermaker, H., 285 PrSvandeau, M. M., 238 Prior, K. H.,
290 Prost, R. P., 239, 273 Ramseyer, P., 262 Raum, O. F.,
262 Rattray, R. S., 239, 247, 256 Read, M., 281, 285
Rehse, H., 277 Rein-Wuhrmann, A., 239 Reitzenstein, F. F.
von, 235 R6tif, A., 285 Reyher, R. H., 255, 286
Reynolds, R., 235 Rhodius, G., 292 Richards, A. I., 262
Richards, G. E., 293 Riehl, A., 243 Rivers-Smith, S., 293
Robertson, M. K., 290 Romero Moliner, R., 239, 248 Ross,
Mrs. McGregor, 290 Rouch, J., 267 Ruam, O. F., 253
Ruffin-Pierre, M. P., 277 Rwitza, K. J., 253 Saakse, J.,
275 Salema, M. J., 233, 245 Schapera, I., 255, 286
Schmidt, A., 239, 248 Schmidt, W., 235 Schnell, R., 262
Schulien, P. M., 262, 273 Seabury, R. I., 275 Segy, L.,
262 Sendanyoye, G., 256 Senghor, L. S., 286 Shannon, M.
I., 286 Shariff, E., 290 Shaw, M., 248, 290 Index of
Authors

Shropshire, D. W. T., 245

Sicard, H. von, 263

Sieber, D. & J., 253

Simons, H. J., 245, 286

Siquet, M., 243

Siret, M., 286

Sloan, A., 245

Smith, M. F., 239

Smith, M. G., 240

Smith, M. M., 293

Sohier, A., 243, 255, 286

Sohier-Brunard, Mme., 287

Sourin, R. P., 263

Soyer-Poskin, D., 233, 244, 291

Spagnolo, L. M., 263

Spelman, N. G., 293

Stappers, L., 244, 253

Storme, M., 275

Strangway, A. K., 271, 287

Talbot, A. P., 240, 249

Tanner, R. E. S., 249

Taraore, D., 240

Tardits, C., 287

Tastevin, C., 267

Temple, O., 240

Teichler, 253

Tew, D., 276

Thiam, B., 274

Thilenius, G., 263

Thomas, N. W., 253

Thurnwald, H., 287

Thurnwald, R., 287

Travele, M., 253

Tullar, L. E., 288

Turnbull, C. M., 267

Twala, R. B., 248, 263 Van Buggenhout, H., 263 Van

Caeneghem, R., 244, 248, 255 Van den Broucke, A., 274 Van
Roye, Rev. Mother, 291 Vansina, J., 276 Vassal, G., 274
Vassal, J., 263 Verbeek, A., 249 Vialle, J., 235 Viard, R.,
240 Villeneuve, A. de, 263 Wagner, G., 253 Wainwright, R.
E., 293 Walk, L., 253, 263 Ward, E. H., 255 Waters, M.
M., 288 Weitzecker, G., 245 Welsh, J., 288 Wens, A. F.,
264 Werner, A., 255 Westermann, D., 240 White, C. M. N.,
249, 264 Wilbois, J., 240 Wilde, R. de, 270 Willoughby,
W. C., 245, 264 Wilson, B. M., 245 Wilson, M., 253, 264
Wrong, M., 288 Yacine, D., 288 Youlou-Konga, H., 276 Zaal,
C., 249 Zaborowski, M., 264 Zenkowsky, S., 277 Zugnoni,
267 This page intentionally left blank
 ANALYTI CAL
B I B L I OGR AP HY

M. Perlman and M. P. Moai

THE FOLLOWING BIBLIOGRAPHY is an analytical one, since
it is our belief that a compilation of this kind is of little use unless
it gives some information, however brief, about the content of the
works listed. Consequently, it is selective rather than exhaustive,
and we have purposely excluded very short articles and those
without any scholarly interest. We have also, to our regret, had to
omit most of the monographs in which chapters occur dealing with
women under one aspect or another (education, work, special
rites, beliefs concerning their magic powers, or the female deities
in African pantheons) where these are not the exclusive, and
indeed where they are not the main, topics of the publications in
question. It would have been impossible for us to go through the
entire Africanist literature.
The choice of headings may cause some surprise. For one thing,
the absence of one on Marriage or on Bridewealth is sure to be
remarked upon, since such matters clearly concern women. But
they concern the men of a society just as much. And how could
we have included works dealing with marriage—with permitted
marriage partners, preferential marriages, rules concerning exog­
amy, rules concerning residence of the married couple—and
excluded those discussing kinship structure, embracing topics such
as the role of the maternal kin or relations between affines, which
come within our field of study? A line had to be drawn somewhere,
and this could only be done arbitrarily. Selection was an arduous
task. We would not care to claim that we had carried it out entirely
successfully.
An asterisk indicates works which could not be consulted, being
absent from the shelves of Paris libraries. The date limit for
publications was fixed at 1st January, 1960.
D.P.
231

W TA 16
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal

JOURNALS, CONGRESSES, CONFERENCES

A journal to consult: African Women. Published by the Department of Education
in Tropical Areas, University of London, Institute of Education.
This journal contains articles principally concerned with the education and
training of women and girls, with their new activities, and with social work,
mainly in British African territories. The articles are followed by book reviews
and by notes and a Personal Column, giving statistics and detailed information
about teachers and appointments of women to official posts.
Conference Inter-Africaine du Travail, 5e Reunion, Lusaka, 1957, Rapports de la
Conference tenue par la Commission de Cooperation Technique en Afrique au
Sud du Sahara (C.C.T.A.).
Appendix III, pp. 131-55, “Emploi des femmes” [Employment of women]:
This report summarizes briefly the replies of the governments taking part in
the Conference to a series of questions on this topic. Introduction: the socio­
logical, economic and educational factors determining the position of African
women wage-earners. Three accounts follow concerning the number and type
of occupations in which women are employed, the questions of legal protection
and of maternity welfare, and future prospects of employment and training, in
British, French, Portuguese and Belgian territories of Africa. Conclusion:
except in South Africa, there has been very little advance in the employment of
women. [See also Inter-African Labour Conference].
Congres Colonial National, 12e Session, Brussels, 1956, La promotion de la femme
au Congo et au Ruanda-Urundi. Rapports et Comptes rendus des Assemblies
Generates des 23 et 24 novembre 1956, 528 pp. map, bibl.
Reports and communications following upon an enquiry conducted by
questionnaire in the Congo, bearing upon four points: Legal and customary
status of women; social work as a means of education; education in schools;
the training and role of European women.
Congres constitutif de l’Union des Femmes de l’Ouest Africain (U.F.O.A.),
Bamako, July 20-23, 1959.
The aim of this Congress was “to form groups and to unite the women of
Africa in the fight for freedom” in order to carry out the following programme:
Defence of the rights of women; child welfare; cultural and social activities;
the fight for peace and for the independence and unity of Negro Africa.
(La Vie Africainey IV (Paris, 1959), 7).
*General Missionary Conference of South Africa, 7th, Lovedale, 1928, The
Realignment o f native life on a Christian basis, Lovedale Institution Press, 1928,
166 pp.
Contains two articles on women: “The reintegration of the social life of
native women and girls”, by Mrs. Hofmeyr; “Social and medical work for
native women and girls in urban areas”, by Mrs. Bridgman.
Inter-African Labour Conference, 5th meeting, Lusaka, 1957, Reports o f the
Conference held by the Commission for Technical Co-operation in Africa South
o f the Saraha (C.C.T.A.), pp. 28-32. [See also Conference Inter-Africaine . . . ]
International Institute of Differing Civilizations (INCIDI), 31st meeting,
Brussels, 1958, Women's role in the development o f tropical and subtropical
countries. Report of the 31st meeting held in Brussels 17-19 September 1958,
Brussels, 1959, 543 pp.
232
 Analytical Bibliography
This compilation contains contributions dealing with the following themes
as they concern localities: the legal, the social and cultural, the political, and the
economic aspects of the role of women; by: Sister Marie-Andre du Sacre-Cceur
(French West Africa [A.O.F.]); F. J. Amon d’Aby (Ivory Coast); E. Mills
Scarborough (Liberia); T. Baker (Nigeria); G. A. Costanzo (Italian Somali­
land); M. J. Salema (Portuguese African provinces); D. Soyer-Poskin (Belgian
Congo); S. Naigisiki (Ruanda); R. Apthorpe (RJiodesia and Nyasaland);
E. S. Nyendwoha (Uganda); M. Horrell (Union of South Africa); and Saad
Ed Din Fawzi (Sudan).
Louvain, Semaine de Missiologie de Louvain, 20e Session, 1950, Le role de la
femme dans les missions, Rapports et Comptes rendus, Brussels, Ed. Univer-
selle, 1951, 274 pp.
Four reports concerning African women, by: Dom Gilles de Pelichy, Mother
Suzanne Van Roye, the Rev. Father Cornet, Sister Fran^oise-Marie.
United Nations Organization, Commission on the Status of Women, 6th meeting
1952, Renseignements sur la condition de la femme dans les territoires sous
tutelle, roneo, 69 pp. (E/CN6/182).
The general condition of women, their legal and political status, opport­
unities for education and employment . . . in the Cameroons, Somaliland,
Ruanda-Urundi, Tanganyika, Togo.
United Nations Organization, Commission on the Status of Women, 11th
meeting, 1957, Le statut de la femme en droit prive.
Report in African Women, II, 4 (1958), 81-2.

SOCIAL AND LEGA L STATUS

General

A tang a n a , N., “La Femme africaine dans la societe”, Presence Africaine, n.s.
XIII (Paris, 1957), 133-42.
The African woman and the literature produced by the Colonial Powers
(criticism of the writings of Sister Marie-Andre du Sacre-Coeur). The African
woman in traditional society: marriage, bride-wealth, polygyny; these concepts
are given their true value in terms of their social context. The African woman
and colonization: the disparity between the education of boys and of girls does
great harm.
*Aus dem Leben schwarzer Frauen [On the lives of negro women], Bethel,
Verlagshandlung der Anstalt Bethel, 1939, 15 pp.
B a eg e , B ., Die Frau im Leben der Naturvolker , Jena, Thiiringer Verlagsanstalt und
Druckerei G.m.b.H., 1931, 78 pp. ill.
The life, position and activities of women . . . among certain [primitive]
peoples. Refers to South Africa, Transvaal, West Africa.
B r if f a u l t , R., The Mothers. A Study o f the origins o f sentiments and institutions,
Allen & Unwin, 1927, 3 vols. bibl.
Various references to African women.
“La Femme dans PUnion Fran^aise”, Tropiques, No. 379 (Paris, 1955), 2-91,
ill.
A series of notes and articles on African women, their occupations, rites,
dances, etc. Numerous illustrations.

233
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
La Femme noire dans la socidte africaine. Lectures given at the Institut Catholique
de Paris, 1938-39, by Sister Marie-Andre du Sacre-Coeur, J. Wilbois, M. R.
Randau, the Rev. Father Maze, M. Danel. Paris, Union Missionare du
Clerge, 1940, 172 pp.
The lectures dealt with: family life of African women; economic and social
life of African women; African women and native custom; reforms to be
introduced, customary and legal reforms.
Femmes Africaines, [No place of publication], [1959], 190 pp. ill.
Testimony of women of the Cameroons . . . etc., met together at Lome under
the auspices of the Union mondiale des organisations femines catholiques.
Contributions by Sister Marie-Andre du Sacre-Coeur, several African priests,
African women . . .
“Fostermothers in Africa (Lactatio serotindf \ Africa, XI, 1 (1938), 108-9.
Notes on the fostermothers in Africa who take the place of mothers who
have died.
G a r n i e r , C., “Africaines 1955”, Tropiques, 53rd year, No. 379 (Paris, 1955),
9-19, ill.
A popularizing article describing negro women of French Africa, their
flirtatiousness, their character, the conditions of their married life, their
occupations throughout their entire life-cycle. The account is illustrated by
examples supplied by direct observation. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du
Congo Beige, 1955).
[ G o l l o c k , G. A., Sons o f Africa, Student Christian Movement, 1928, 247 pp.
— , Daughters of Africa, Longmans, Green & Co., 1932, 175 pp.]
G o u r d a u l t , J., La Femme dans tous les pays, Paris, Lib. Furne, Jouvet et Cie,
1882, 340 pp. ill.
Chapter IX, “A travers le continent mystSrieux”, deals with various African
peoples: Hottentots, Kaffirs, the warrior women of Dahomey, the negroes of
Senegambia, the Fulani, the Kanuri.
L a n d e s , R., “Negro slavery and female status”, African Affairs, L II , No. 206
(1953), 54-7.
The writer finds a continuity between the status and social position of
women in Africa and of negro slaves in both North and South America.
L e m a ire , C., Africaines. Contribution d Vhistoire de la femme en Afrique,
Brussels, C. Bulens, 1897, 256 pp. ill.
Description of African women and their way of life, first in French West
Africa and then in the Congo. Hair styles, ornaments.
J L e to u r n e a u , C., La Condition de la femme, Paris, V. Giard et E. Brifcre, 1903,
508 pp.
Chapters II and III deal with negro women: their position in the family;
their legal status in society, and their work. Chapter IV deals with negro women
from a more general point of view.
M e r c i e r , P., “La femme et les socidtds africaines”, Tropiques, 53rd year, No. 379
(Paris, 1955), 21-8, ill.
The economic functions and the status of African women vary according
to the society in which they live, but their importance and potential activities
have already been manifested in several areas.
P o iv r e , P a s t o r , Fils et filles d'Afrique, Paris, Missions Evangeliques, 1946,
208 pp. ill. map.
234
 Analytical Bibliography
Stories adapted from Sons o f Africa and Daughters o f Africa by G. A.
Gollock [q.v.].
R e i t z e n s t e i n , F. F. v o n , Das Weib bei den Naturvdlkern. Eine Kulturgeschichte
der primitiven Frau, new revised and enlarged ed., Berlin, Verlag Neufeld und
Henius (no date), 386 pp. 219 photo, fig.
Anthropology, sociology, domestic and cultural life of woman among
primitive peoples.
R e y n o ld s , R ., “Women in Africa: notes on religious and social trends”, Antioch
Review, XIV (Yellow Springs, Ohio, 1954), 312-22.
The writer compares the position of women and the changes brought about
by religious (Islam, Christianity), and social (division of labour) trends in
present and former British territories in East and South Africa.
S c h m id t, W-, “The position of women with regard to property in primitive
society”, American Anthropologist, XXXVII, 2 (Washington, New York,
1935), 244-56.
A communication made to the first Congress of Anthropological and
Ethnological Sciences, held in London, 1934. The property of women in
primitive societies of hunters, pastoralists and food-gatherers; the African
examples are mostly taken from South Africa (Pygmies) and East Africa
(Nilotics and Nilo-Hamitics).
V i a l l e , J., “Femmes africaines”, Civilisations, I, 4 (Brussels, 1951), 55-8.
The African woman is first and foremost a mother and a worker. Some
examples.
*“Wir verehren die Muttergottes durch unsern Einsatz, fur die Gleichstellung
der Frau in Afrika”, Christi-Reich, V (1957), 66-9.
Comments on the attitude of missionaries towards the position of women in
native society: woman the basis of the “Sippe”, bride-wealth, the role of
missions and of the State. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1957).

West Africa

A m o n d ’A b y , F.J., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations.

♦ A r r ie n s , C., “Die sozialle Stellung der Frau in West Afrika”, Der Erdball,
III, 10 (Berlin, 1929), 36-61, 4 ill.
B a k e r , T., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations.
B e ie r, H.U., “The position of Yoruba women”, Presence Africaine, n.s. I-II
(Paris, 1955), 39-46.
The life of Yoruba women in the town of Ede, where most of them follow
the pattern of the traditional way of life; their political, religious, economic
position; western influence.
B u r n e s s , H., “The position of women in Gwandu and Yauri”, Oversea Educa­
tion, XXVI, 4 (1955), 143-52.
The position of girls among the Hausa and Fulani and the attitude towards
their education.
— , “Women in Katsina province, Northern Nigeria”, Oversea Education, XXIX,
3 (1957), 116-22, ill.
Notes on the position of girls and married women in a highly Islamized
society (tendency towards the seclusion of wives whenever economically
possible); general attitude of mistrust towards the education of women and
girls.
235
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
*Comhaire-Sylvain, S., “The status of women in Lagos”, Pi Lamba Theta
Journal (Seattle, Wash., March 1949), 158-63.
D elafosse , M., “Coutumes observees par les femmes en temps de guerre chez
les Agni de la Cote d’Ivoire”, Revue d'Ethnologie et de Sociologie, IV (Paris,
1913), 266-8.
The dances of Baule women and their licentious songs insulting the leader of
the enemy and singing the praises of the village head and his warriors. Victory
goes to the side on which the women have done the most singing and dancing.
D o n n e r , E., “Das Leben der Frau in den Urwaldgebieten von Liberia”, M itteil -
ungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, LXVI (Vienna, 1936), pp.
[6]-[7].
Once she is married, a woman goes to live in her husband’s village, but is
regarded as a stranger there. She can, however, belong to women’s associations
and play her part in this polygynous society. The writer describes her daily
life and her work.
D u g a st , I., “Autobiographic d’une femme banen”, Bull, de la Societe d' Etudes
Camerounaises, VI (Douala, 1944), 83-96.
The writer, during four consecutive evenings, took down the life-history of
a Banen woman, called Kubong, of the Ndogbiakat tribe.
F o r tes , M., The dynamics o f clanship among the Tallensi, O.U.P., 1945, 270 pp.
rnap.
Chapter IX (pp. 147-53) deals with the role of women in clan organization
and with the concept of a “clanswoman”.
H a r r is , J. S., “The position of women in a Nigerian society”, Transactions o f the
New York Academy o f Sciences, II, 5 (New York, 1940), 141-8.
Ibo women have a definite influence on society, acquired through their role
in everyday life and also because of the courts of law which they hold among
themselves.
H a u f e r l in , C., “La vie d’une femme dans un village de Dahomey”, Le Courier
de lyUNESCO (Paris, March, 1957), 4-10, ill.; (May), 14-15 and 32-3.
The writer describes the traditional daily life of women at Mitro, a small
village in Dahomey.
H er sk o v its , M. J., “A note on ‘woman marriage’ in Dahomey”, Africa , X (1937),
335-41.
These marriages between women, which also exist in Nigeria (Ibo), in the
Sudan (Dinka, Nuer) and in the Transvaal (Bavenda), take a number of forms
in Dahomey which may be divided into two categories, the characteristics of
which are described by the writer.
* H im m elheber , U., Schwar2e Schwester, Bremen, Schiinemann, 1956.
The life-cycle of the Dan women of Liberia.
H in t z e , V., “Mutterrechtliche Ziige in der Sozialordnung der Akan”, Deutsche
Akademie der Wissenschaften, V (Berlin, Institut fur deutsche Volkskunde,
1952), 61-9.
Life is regulated by a material principle abusua and a spiritual principle
ntoro. Abusua can only be transmitted by women or by succession. The
ohemaa or queen-mother is the female chief of the country.
J o se ph , G., “Condition de la femme en Cote d’Ivoire”, Bulletins et Memoires de
la Societe d 9Anthropologie de Paris, XIV, 5 (Paris, 1913), 585-9.
Customs regulating marriage, bridewealth, polygyny, the home life of a mar­
236
 Analytical Bibliography
ried woman [Ivory Coast]; because of her work and the indispensable services
she renders, she has great influence. The chief wife has a privileged position.
L a b o u r et , H ., “Situation materielle, morale, et coutumtere d e la femme d a n s
l’Ouest Africain”, Africa, XIII (1940), 97-124.
Women’s work, woman’s position in the household; her legal status in
customary marriage; female solidarity; the effects of education.
*L e g e r , J., “La femme en pays dogon”, Vivante Afrique, CXCV, 22 (Namur,
1958), 10-12.
Privileged position of Dogon women, their occupations, rights and privileges.
(African Abstracts , X, 2 (1959), 62).
L e it h -R oss , S., African women, a study o f the Ibo o f Nigeria, Faber, 1939, 367 pp.
ill. maps.
Daily life of Ibo women in four villages, their occupations, rights, views . . .
Remarks concerning those who, in the main centres, are in close contact with
Government, with commercial activities and with European missionary
activities.
L e s t r a n g e , M. d e , “La journee de Madame Nemme, femme coniagui de la
Guinee frangaise”, Geographia, I (Paris, 1951), 43-7, ill.
Daily life and work of a Coniagui woman.
L it t l e , K. L ., “The changing position of women in the Sierra Leone Pro­
tectorate”, Africa, XVIII, 1 (1948), 1A l.
The life of a young Mende girl from her birth until her marriage and widow­
hood. European influence is giving birth to a new type of society.
— , The position of women, in The Mende o f Sierra Leone, (Routledge and
Kegan Paul, 1951), pp. 163-74.
Tension between the sexes; the difficulties encountered by educated women;
the position of unmarried women, without family attachments, in the towns.
M a r c h a l , R. P., La condition de la femme indigene. Etude sur le probleme de
revolution des coutumes familiales dans quelques tribus deVA.O.F. Observations
sur le me me sujet relatives a VAlgerie, Lyon, Chronique sociale de France,
1930, 24 pp.
Consists of two parts: the position of girls and women among certain tribes
of French Sudan and of the Upper Volta, as laid down by custom; the civilizing
role of the Government, which is, to give women a sense of their own import­
ance and of their responsibilities by means of administrative measures.
M a r ie - A n d r £ d u S a c r e - C c e u r , Sister, “La femme mossi, sa situation juridique”,
VEthnographie, n.s. XXXIII-XXXIV (Paris, 1937), 15-33, ill. map.
Mossi women have no legal rights in so far as the free disposal of their own
persons is concerned. In marriage, they are goods which are given, taken,
inherited. Respect for native custom has prevented reforms of any kind. The
writer is of the opinion that the time has come to assist progressive changes
in custom by means of reforms with legal backing.
— , “La condition de la femme au Mossi”, Grands Lacs, 54th year (Namur,
1937-38), 177-81.
Some notes on the position of women in Mossi society, before and after
m 2ivr\?LgQ.(Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1938).
— , La situation juridique de la femme indigene dans la boucle du Niger, Rapports
et Comptes rendus du Congres internationale de revolution culturelle des
peuples coloniaux (Paris, 1938), pp. 96-102.
237
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
A summary of her lecture: the legal position of women (particularly among
the Mossi) in marriage and at the death of their husband.
— , “La condition de la femme indigene en A.O.F.”, Afrique Frangaise, Ren-
seignements Coloniaux, 49th year (Paris, 1939), 121-6.
In French Sudan and the Ivory Coast women are not free, in particular, not
free to choose a husband. This is something several administrative decrees are
attempting to change.
— , La Femme noire en Afrique Occidental, Paris, Payot, 1939, 278 pp. 2 maps,
ill. bibl.
Woman in the family: ideas on marriage, prestige of motherhood. Woman in
society: legal status and economic life of women. Aesthetic appreciation.
Women and the native religion. Women and foreign influences: Islam,
Christianity, the European administration.
— , see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
M e rc ie r, P., “Le consentement au manage et son evolution chez les Betam-
madibe”, Africa, XX, 3 (1950), 219-27.
Before marriage, Somba women can lead a life of sexual freedom. They have
the right to choose their husband and their consent is required.
M i l l s S c a r b o r o u g h , E., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations,
1958.
N ic o d , A., La femme au Cameroun, Paris, Society des Missions fivangSliques,
1927, 82 pp.
Notes on the life of women in South-West Cameroon (Banem, Duala,
Bakaka). They are slaves to custom, and for the clan are merely something of
economic value, although quite a high one. There follows the description of
various measures taken since 1917.
P a i l l o u x , R., “La place de la femme chez les Babemba”, Grands Lacs, X (Namur,
1953), 9-16 and 37-40.
The first part deals with the important place of women in Babemba society;
the writer refutes the idea that the woman is her husband’s slave and that
native marriage is a form of purchase. The second part deals with the relations
between husband and wife, and mother and children, and with the Church’s
contribution towards education.
P a u lm e , D., Women in society, in Organisation sociale des Dogon (Paris, Ed.
Domat-Montchretien, 1940), pp. 259-70.
Dogon women enjoy great material and economic independence, but are
excluded from political and ritual affairs. Role of the maternal kin in the
social strucure.
— , “The social condition of women in two West African societies”, Man
XLVIII (1948), 44.
Review of a lecture given at the Royal Anthropological Institute on the
position of women among the Dogon and Kissi.
— , “Un mouvement f&ninin en pays kissi”, Notes Africaines, XLVI (IFAN,
Dakar, 1950), 43-4.
Account of an incident [among the Kissi] which demonstrates that the women
have their own activities from which men are entirely excluded.
P r £ v a u d e a u , M. M., Individual life, in Abomey la mystique (Paris, fid. Albert,
1936), pp. 87-98.
238
 Analytical Bibliography
This chapter is mainly concerned with the life of a Dahomey woman (con­
finement, marriage, work laid down by custom) and with the origin of the
Amazons.
P r o s t , R. P ., Marriage and the condition of women, in “Notes sur les Songhay”,
Bull. de VIFAN (Dakar, 1954), 193-213.
Privileged position of Songhay women. Notes on customs observed during
confinements, taboos imposed on married women, status of widows.
“Quelques coutumes particulifcres du manage au Cameroun”, Togo-Cameroun
(Paris, 1929), pp. 58-64, ill.
A series of short articles, on, among others: Woman in the light of Bulu
custom (economic value of women); life of native women among the Yaunde
(status, from the point of view of work, of the chief wife, Ekomba, of the
favourite wife, Mg bock, and of the other wives of a chief) widows in Duala
custom.
R a t t r a y , R . S., The family: the wife, in Ashanti law and constitution (Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1929), pp. 22-32.
Women are of great importance in this matrilineal society. They retain
membership of their clan and the clan name and transmit them to their
children. If they reside with their husband, they remain independent and retain
ownership of their belongings.
* R e in - W u h r m a n n , A., Lydia : ein Frauenleben aus dem Grasland von Kamerun,
Basel, Baseler Missionsbuchhandlung, n.d., 31 pp. [Tr. by M. Bryan, Two
women o f the Cameroons: Lydia and Margaret, (abridged) Sheldon Press, 1931,
32 pp.]
R o m e r o M o l i n e r , R ., “Notas sobre la situaci6n social de la mujer indigena en
Fernando P6o”, Cuadernos de Estudios Africanos, XVIII (Madrid, 1952), 21-38.
The legal status of the African woman: it is that of an object, not of a subject,
under the law. Women are sold, loaned or inherited. Colonial influence is
changing the biological structure of society.
* S c h m id t, A., “Aus dem Leben der Eingeborenen im Grasland von Kamerun”,
Die Frau und die Kolonien, VII, (1941), 49-51.
— , Uber die Wesensart der Frau in Nsei, Bezirk Bamenda, Kamerun, Vienna,
Institut fur Volkerkunde der Universitat, 1947,158 pp. (Doctoral dissertation).
— , “Feld-Forschungen uber das Leben der Frau im Grasland von Kamerun,
1938-1939”, Archiv fur Volkerkunde, IV (Vienna, 1949), 165-85.
The writer describes the daily life of women in Nsei, a village in the Bagenda
district (Cameroon). They live within the narrow framework of family life and
work all day in the flelds. From the age of ten, girls are under the strict control
of their parents, who prepare them for marriage. Women belonging to the
same family live in close contact with each other.
— , Die rote Lendenschnur. Als Frau im Grasland Kameruns, Berlin, D. Reimer,
1955, 197 pp. ill.
The writer gives a day-to-day account, with ethnological, sociological,
economic and religious information, of Nsei and its people, the men, the women,
the king. A particular feature is that men and women agree that women are
of greater value as workers in the fields than as mothers. The grandmother
looks after the children while the mother works in the fields. (Afrika und
Ubersee, XL (1956), 134).
S m ith , M. F., Baba of Karo: a woman o f the Muslim Hausa, Faber, 1954,299 pp.,
map.

239
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Autobiography of a Hausa woman recounting her childhood and various
marriages. It is of general interest. Describes the customs concerning women
of her time.
S m it h , M. G., “The Hausa system of social status”, Africa , XXIX, 3 (1959),
239-52.
Pp. 244-46: status of women. Marriage more important than descent. It
frequently occurs that a woman contracts three or four marriages. Views
regarding the karuwai (prostitutes).
“Status of women in West Africa”, African Women, I, 3 (1955), 63-6.
Their social position is high owing to their economic activities. The article
deals mainly with the Ibo of Nigeria.
T a l b o t , A. P., Woman’s mysteries o f a primitive people. The Ibibios o f Southern
Nigeria, Cassel, 1915, viii -f 252 pp. ill.
The life of women from birth to death; prenatal and natal customs; role
during war; magic and religion.
— , Woman, marriage, etc. in Life in Southern Nigeria, (Macmillan, 1923), pp.
203-14.
Legal status of married women.
T a r a o r e , D., “Yaro Ha ou mariages entre femmes chez les Bobo Nieniegue”,
Journal de la Societe des Africanistes, XI (Paris, 1941), 197-200.
Marriage between women practised by the Bobo Nieniege (Ivory Coast):
to avoid an unhappy old age, Nieniege women who have passed child-bearing
age without having had any children attempt to assure themselves by indirect
means of the services of a fictitious progeny to be attained by Yaro h& or
marriage between women.
T a r a o r e , M., “Pret des femmes en pays soussou (Gumee)”, Notes Africaines,
XXIX (IFAN, Dakar, 1946), 12-13.
Notes on the [Susu] marriage custom known as gine yefu , literally “woman
loaned”. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige , 1946).
T e m pl e , O., “Women in Northern Nigeria”, Blackwood Magazine, CXVII
(Edinburgh, 1914), 257-67.
Daily life of women, in particular Nupe women, their occupations, the
customs with which they must comply in marriage, marriage offers, mourning,
etc.; their high degree of freedom.
V ia r d , R., Position of Gere women, in Les Gueres, peuple de la foret , (Paris, £d.
Geographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales, 1934), pp. 128-39.
Status according to customary law of girls, married women, mothers,
widows; attitude of the administration towards custom.
W este r m a n n , D., Autobiographies d'Africains, Paris, Payot, 1943.
Pp. 236-45: life of Mme Marthe Afemele Kwami, of Togo, the daughter and
the wife of teachers.
W il b o is , J., Vaction sociale en pays de missions, Paris, Payot, 1939, 150 pp.
The greatest need is for legislation that will change the position of women
in French Africa.

Central Africa

O. P., “La femme congolaise”, Grands Lacs, 63rd year, No. 2 (Namur,
C a tt ee u ,
1947), 5-14.
The life of Mamvu women: birth, family life, widowhood; the feminine soul.
240
 Analytical Bibliography
C ollard, J., “La femme dans la sensibilite bantoue”, Syntheses, 11th year. No,
121 (Brussels, 1956), 288-91.
Some notes, in a discussion of a film on Bantu art, on relations between men
and women: as a wife, the woman is entirely dependent on the man; as a
mother, she is transformed.
*C o n st a n c e -M a r ie , Sister, “Het jonge meisje in Kongo” [The young girl in
the Congo], Nieuw Afrika , 69th year (Antwerp, 1953), 163-9.
Position of girls in native society, marriage, the role of the clan on this
occasion among the Bira of Ituri.
C o r n e t , R. P., La femme en regime matriarcal, Rapports et Comptes rendus de
la XXe Semaine de Missiologie de Louvain, 1950, Brussels, Ed. Universelle,
1951, pp. 192-209.
Among the Bashila, the clan is of prime importance and women are regarded
by the clan merely as an economic asset. Their dignity as individuals is not
respected.
C y fer -D id e r ic h , G., Le statut juridique de la femme indigene au Congo Beige ,
Brussels, Conseil National des Femmes beiges, 1950, 32 pp.
Position of native women from the point of view of custom: marriage,
separation, rights and duties of wives, system of ownership, the widow,
polygyny and its effects; the writer also discusses native women who have been
educated, emancipated, and culturally assimilated.
— , “La condition juridique de la femme au Congo Beige”, Civilisations, 1, 4
(Brussels, 1951), 59-67.
In the Belgian Congo the position of women is still conditioned by the old
rules of customary law which underlie the legal system. Restrictions have been
introduced by a series of decrees and legal enactments, particularly as regards
bridewealth, polygyny and education.
*D a r tev elle , A., “La femme: 6tude de sa condition et de sa situation sociale
chez les Ba-Vili (Congo frangais)”, Bull, de la Societe Royale Beige d'Anthro-
pologie et de Prehistoire, LIV (Brussels, 1939), 99-100.
A summary of the writer’s communication concerning native women among
the Ba-Vili of the French Lower Congo. Various aspects of their position in
society and in the family are examined. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du
Congo Beige, 1941).
* D e B o e c k , J., “Enige nota’s over het inlandsch huwelijk bij de Ekonda
(Leopoldmeer)”, Congo, 1, 4 (Brussels, 1933), 547-54.
Marriage and the position of women in the traditional setting of Konda
society.
D e c a pm a k er , “Sanctions coutumieres contre l’adultere chez les Bakongo de la
region de Kasi”, Congo (Brussels, 1939), 134-48.
After recalling the customs regulating marriage, the author discusses the
sanctions applied to women in cases of adultery both before the arrival of the
Whites (death, enslavement, or payment in kind), and after.
De M a n , M ., “Het social statuut van de vrouw in Belgisch-Kongo”, Zaire , IV,
8 (Brussels, 1950), 851-69.
The writer discusses first the position of women of other races, and then of
native women, in the Belgian Congo. ( Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1950).
* D o u c y , A., “Reflexions sur le role de la femme indigene au Congo Beige”, Bull.

241
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
de VUnion des Femmes Coloniales, 26th year, No. 4-5 (Brussels, 1955), 4-5, ill.
Problem of the education of native women: they remain under the pressure
of the influence of the clan even when transplanted to non-traditional
surroundings. {Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1955).
F r a n q o is e - M a r ie , Sister, La femme indigene dans la legislation coutumiere au
Nepoko, Rapports et Comptes rendus de la XXC Semaine de Missiologie de
Louvain, 1950, Brussels, Ed. Universelle, 1951, pp. 210-23.
Legal situation of unmarried and of married women, problem of bride­
wealth.
♦ G e r d a , Sister, “La femme ruandaise hier et aujourd’hui”, Trait d ’union,
7th year, XLIV (Antwerp, 1957), 11-14, ill.
Former condition of women among the Tutsi: daily routine; motherhood.
Women today: contribution of Christianity, future outlook. (Bibliographie
Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1957).
G i l l e s d e P e l i c h y , D o m , Condition de la femme d'apres le droit coutumier de
VOuest Africain, Rapports et Comptes rendus de la XXe Semaine de Missiol­
ogie de Louvain, 1950, Brussels, fid. Universelle, 1951, pp. 155-77.
Colonialist literature makes out women to be miserable creatures. A study
of traditional institutions (the writer has made a study of the Sudanese tribes
of the Gulf of Guinea) shows that African customary law pays great respect
to the dignity of women, especially of the mother.
J a u l i n , R., Questions concerning women, in “Elements et aspects divers de
l’organisation civile et penale des groupes du Moyen-Chari: groupe sara madjin-
gaye et groupe mbaye”, Bull de 1'IFAN, XX, B, 1-2 (Dakar, 1958), 170-84.
Legal and actual position of Sara women following upon their desire for
emancipation; bridewealth, sanctions, women’s work.
K a g a m e , A., “Les organisations socio-familiales de l’ancien Ruanda”, Memoires
de VAcademie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, Classe des sciences morales et
politiques, XXXVIII, 3, Brussels, 1954, 8vo, 355 pp.
Chapter II (pp. 71-94) is on the family and kinship. Women do not belong
permanently to their natal families; they share completely in the life of the
man they marry.
* K e l l e r s b e r g e r , J. S., Congo crosses. A study o f Congo womanhood, Boston,
Central Committee of United Studies and Foreign Missions, 1936, 222 pp.
map, fig. ill.
The writer, a Protestant missionary in the Belgian Congo, discusses in an
interesting manner the life of Congolese natives, particularly the life of women,
their role in society, their occupations, marriage, children’s education, and the
influence of missionary work on the native mind. Good illustrations. (Biblio­
graphie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1936).
M a c l a t c h y , A., Condition of women, in “L’organisation sociale de la region de
Mimongo (Gabon)”, Bull, de VInstitut d* Etudes Centrafricaines, /, 1
(Brazzaville, 1945), 68-9.
Before marriage, women enjoy complete sexual freedom. As married women,
they have great influence, as was shown by a strike of protest organized by all
the wives.
M a k o n g a , B., “La position sociale de la m6re”, Problemes Sociaux Congolais,
Bull, du CEPSI, XVII (Elisabethville, 1951), 243-59.
Among the Luba-Katanga, woman, especially in her role as mother, is the
basic element in society, and has ownership of personal property.
242
 Analytical Bibliography
* M a ria H e le n a , Sister, “De vrouw in Congo bij de Ngbandi” [Woman among
the Ngbandi of the Congo], Xaveriana, XLVIII, (1927), 32 pp.
Women’s role in the principal events of native life among the Ngbandi.
M u l e n z i , J., “La femme dans la societe ruandaise”, Echanges, XXVI (Paris,
1956), 30-4.
Ruanda women always play an important role. Their free consent is required
for marriage, they become the guardian of their children on becoming a widow
and inherit their husband’s property. The education of their children is entirely
in their hands up until the children are ten years old.
N a ig is ik i, S ., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
P a i l l o u x , R., “La place de la femme chez les Babemba”, Peres Blancs, XCVIII
(Paris, 1952), 10-15; XCIX, 9-14, ill.
African women have never been the slaves they have been made out to be,
any more than bridewealth was a form of sale, but rather a sign of respect
towards women and a protection for the wife’s position. Relations between
husbands and wives and parents and children, although they may follow a
different pattern from ours, are based on love and affection.
P e e r a e r , S., “Toespraken tot jonggehuwden bij de Baluba (Katanga)”, Kongo-
Overzee, V, 5 (Antwerp, 1939), 241-76.
Advice to young married couples, especially to the young wife, the future
mother, the young housekeeper. These counsels are still handed down today.
P l e s s e r s , R. P ., “Les Bakaji ba mpinga (femmes de remplacement) chez les
Baluba du Lubilash”, Bull, des Juridictions indigenes et du Droit coutumier
Congolais, 13th year, No. 5 (Elisabethville, 1945), 130-2.
Bride-price being high, the Baluba of Lubilash claim another woman to
replace a wife that has died. A cause of conflict. How to remedy this.
(Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1945).
* R ie h l, A., “A familia indigena no Congo”, Portugal em Africa, III, 14
(Lisbon, 1946), 88-98.
Notes on the indigenous family among the Mayombe: betrothal, marriage,
divorce, rights of women, prostitution.
S iq u e t, M., Legal and customary status of women, in La Promotion de la femme
au Congo et en Ruanda-Urundi, Congrds National Colonial, 12th session,
Brussels, 1956, pp. 197-251.
Report on four topics: Condition of women under Congolese customary
law before coming under European influence; condition of women under
present-day customary law; legal impediments to the advance of Congolese
women and proposals for removing them; status of Congolese women under
statutory law and proposals for possible modifications.
S o h ie r , A., Evolution de la condition juridique de la femme indigene au Congo
Beige, Contribution to the 24th session of l’lnstitut Colonial International,
Rome, 1939, Brussels, 1939, pp. 149-217.
Study of the legal status of native women, both as girls and as married
women, in customary law, and then in the legal system of the independent
Congo State.
*— , “L’6volution de la condition juridique de la femme indigene aux colonies”
Bull, de VUnion des Femmes Coloniales (Brussels, 1939), No. 105, pp. 156-8;
No. 106, pp. 178-80; No. 107, pp. 203-4; No. 108, pp. 230-31; No. 109, pp.
255-6; No. 110, pp. 282-3.
243
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Notes on the general situation of native women before the European
occupation. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1939).
S oy er -P o s k in , D., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
S t a p p e r s , L ., “Bandala-Mumba, vrouwen van gazagsdragers bij de Baamil-
embwe”, Kongo-Overzee, 16th year, V (Antwerp, 1950), 249-52.
Among the Bamilembwe the wives of certain officials can obtain a title
which distinguishes them from other women, a title much sought after and
which is only granted on payment of a large sum. ( Bibliographie du Congo
Beige, 1950).
V a n C a en e g h e m , R., “£tude sur les dispositions penales coutumidres contre
l’adultere chez les Baluba et les Bena Lulua du Kasai”, Bull, du CEPSI, VIII
(Elisabethville, 1949), 5-46.
Legal dispositions against adulterous women; conception of the word
disandi (adultery).

South Africa

A kel ey , M. L. J.,“The Swazi queen at home; intimate observations on love, life

and death in South Africa’s timeless Swaziland”, Natural History (New York,
June 1938), 21-32.
Notes accompanied by numerous illustrations concerning village life. The
education of girls among the Swazi of South Africa.
A p t h o r p e , R., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
*B r a d l e y , K., “My cow, my wife and my old clay pipe”, African Observer, VII,
3 (1937), 33-7.
Summary of the ways and customs of the Ba-Ila of Northern Rhodesia,
particularly the relations between men and women before marriage; brief
comments on marriage and adultery. ( Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1937).
*C a sq u eiro , M. v o n B osse , “A mulher indigena”, Boletim da sociedade de
estudos coloniais de Mozambique, XXI (Lourengo-Marques, 1951), 5-25.
C h il d , H. F., “Family and tribal structure: status of women”, Nada, XXXV
(Salisbury, 1958), 65-70.
Concerning the status of Matabele women. Formerly every woman, of
whatever tribe and whoever she might be, remained a minor all her life.
E a r t h y , E ., Valenge women, The social and economic life o f the Valenge women
o f Portuguese East Africa , O.U.P. for Int. Af. Inst., 1933, 251 pp. maps.
The author writes of the social and economic life of Valenge women, among
whom she lived as missionary for 30 years.
*E n n is , E . L., “Women’s names among the Ovimbundu of Angola”, African
Studies, IV, 1 (Johannesburg, 1945), 1-8.
Women’s names among the Ovimbundu reveal the customs, beliefs and
psychology of this people. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige,
1945).
*F r a z a o , F . S., “A mulher na familia gentilica”, Mensario administrativo,
No. 55-56 (Luanda, 1952), 9-22.
♦G u t m a n , B., “Die Frau unter den Bantunegern”, Evangelische Missions-
magazin, LXVIII (Basel, 1924), 331-5.

244
 Analytical Bibliography
H orrel, M., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
J u n o d , H., Life-cycle of a woman, from birth to death, in Mceurs et coutumes des
Bantous, (Paris, Payot, 1936), Vol. I, pp. 162-205.
The writer studies the condition and activities of women before marriage
(games, initiation), and after (conditions of married life, taboos, confinement,
widowhood . . .).
K u n e n e , D. P., “Notes on hlonepha among the southern Sotho”, African Studies,
XVII, 3 (Johannesburg, 1958), 159-82.
Hlonepha = to respect. Out of respect, a married woman must observe a
certain number of taboos, in particular, she must avoid saying certain words
and names in the presence of certain male relatives of her husband (her father-
in-law, her husband himself, etc.). Distribution of this custom, reasons for it.
* M axek e , C. M ., “Social conditions among Bantu women and girls”, Christian
studies and Modern South Africa (Fort Hare, 1930), 111-17.
* M ed g e r , R., “Die Stellung der Frau bei den Dschagga nach den Stammes-
lehren”, Afrika Rundschau, VIII (Berlin [?], 1942), 98-105.
*P osselt , F., “The story of the Princess Mepo”, Nada , VII (1929), 115-17.
S alem a , M. J., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
*S h r o p s h ir e , D. W. T., The Bantu woman under the Natal code o f native law ,
Lovedale, Lovedale Press, 1941, 47 pp.
The results of an enquiry conducted by the author on the question of
customs regulating the position of Bantu women in Natal (family, widowhood,
emancipation, bridewealth, care of children).
S im o n s , H. J., “African women and the law in South Africa”, The Listener, LV,
No. 1416 (1956), 626-7 and 644.
In South Africa, the native woman lives under three legal systems (customary
law, native law, European law) without any of them according her a position
equal to that which she in fact holds, in virtue of her influence, her economic
independence, and her social and political dynamism.
* S l o a n , A., “The black woman”, Nada , I (Salisbury, 1923), 60-9.
Life and occupations of Shona women.
W e it z e c k e r , G., “La donna fra i Basuto”, Archivio per la antropologia e la
etnologia, XXXI (Florence, 1901), 459-78.
Brief account of position and activities of women . . . in the family, in
society, and in relation to religion; refers to birth, namegiving, puberty and
initiation, clothing and ornament, marriage. (Bantu Studies (1934), 325, I.
Schapera).
*Wil l o u g h b y , W. C., Race problems in the New Africa, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 1923, Part II, pp. 46-138.
Contains notes on the position of women among the Tswana (Bechuana),
education and initiation.
*W il so n , B. M., “The position of women in South Africa”, The East and the
West, XIV (1916), 61-8.

East Africa

Brow n, E. F., “Hehe grandmothers”, Journ. o f the Roy . Anthr. Inst., LXV
(1935), 83-96.

245
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Importance of the grandmother in the social and family life of the Bantu
of Tanganyika: she looks after the education of her grandchildren and presides
at the excision ceremonies for girls. She knows a great deal about medicine.
♦ C h r a p k o w s k i, M. ,“Ostafrikanische Frauen”, Der Erdball, IV (Berlin, 1930),
341-4.
C o s t a n z o , G. A., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
C u l w i c k , A. T. and G. M., “Fostermothers in Ulanga”, Tanganyika Notes and
Records, I (Dar-es-Salam, March 1936) 19-24.
Notes on fostermothers among the Wabena of Ulanga, and on the system
under which they operate. (.Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1936).
D r i b e r g , J. H., “The status of women among the Nilotics and Nilo-Hamitics”,
Africa, V (1932), 404-21.
Division of labour between the sexes according to their physical capabilities;
the position of women is not an inferior one.
F a w z i , S a a d e d d i n , see International Institute of Differing Civilizations, 1958.
*Intm ann, B., “Die Wertschatzung der Frau unter den Ostafrikanem”, Der
Erdball, VIII (Berlin, Aug. 1931), 312-20.
M a c v i c a r , T., “The position of women among the Wanguru”, Primitive Man ,
VII, 2 (Washington, 1934), 17-22.
Domestic, economic, social, political and religious life of Wanguru women
(Tanganyika). Theoretically they are inferior to the men, but they often have
a great deal of influence which enables them to participate in the public life
of the tribe.
N y e n d w o h a , E. S., see International Institute of Differing Civilizations.

FAM ILY LIFE

Girls

B £ a rt, C., “Intimite: les lettres de la fiancee”, Presence Africaine, VIII-IX (Paris
1950), 271-88.
An attempt to analyse the private thoughts of educated girls in Dahomey
from study of the letters written by one to her fiance, (jBibliographic Ethno­
graphique du Congo Beige, 1950).
B r a u s c h , G. E. J. B ., “Les associations pr6nuptiales dans la Haute Lukenyi”,
Bull, des Juridictions Indigenes et du Droit coutumier congolais, 15th year, IV
(Elisabethville, 1947), 109-29, map.
These [prenuptial] associations, which have their socially sanctioned rites
and ceremonies, demonstrate the complete sexual freedom of girls among the
Ohindu and, to a lesser extent, among the Nkutshu. The writer studies the
sexual, social and economic functions of these associations as well as their
legal status.
C u l w i c k , A. M., “New ways for old in the treatment of adolescent African
girls”, Africa, XII, 4 (1939), 425-32.
Changes brought about by the Berlin mission (at Maneromanga, Tangan­
yika) in the practice of seclusion of girls (from the onset of menstruation until
marriage).
246
 Analytical Bibliography
D o o le y , C. T., “Child-training among the Wanguru”, Primitive Man, VIII, 1
(Washington, 1934), 27-30.
Makes a special study of girls’ games.
*E dm e, P., “Kunda Kalumbi, fille d’Afrique”, Jeune Afrique, 7th year, XIX
(1953), 41-6; XX (1953), 32-5.
The life of African girls. An example of colonialist literature.
“L’Enfant dans la famille gabonaise”, Bull, de la Sociite de Recherches Congo-
laises, 2nd year (Brazzaville, 1923), 15-22.
The life of children among the Mpongwe, Benga, Sekiani, Kele and Pahouin.
Rights and obligations of the mother, of the children. Girls before marriage
have almost complete sexual freedom; on marrying, they pass from being under
their father’s authority to that of their husband.
H a u s e r , J., “Notes sur quelques attitudes de la collegienne dakaroise”, Bull, de
riFAN, XVIIB, 1-2 (Dakar, 1955), 203-9.
The compositions written by pupils of the Delafosse School at Dakar during
several months of attendance there supply the writer with useful information
as to the attitudes of schoolgirls towards our civilization. Systematic analysis
of these compositions. (Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1955).
H u l s t a e r t , G., “La coutume nkundo (mongo) et le decret sur la fille indigene
non pubere”, Congo (Brussels, Oct. 1937), 269-76.
A study of the custom of marriage of girls before puberty as practised by
the Nkundo of Equatorial Africa; the manner in which it is carried out, its
legal and moral aspect as seen by the natives.
♦ M a k a n y a , V. S., “The problem of the Zulu girl”, Native Teachers' Journal, X
(Pietermaritsburg, Natal, 1931), 116-20.
M o h r , R., “Ricerche sull’etica sessuale di alcune popolazioni delP Africa
centrale e orientate”, Archivio per VAntropologia e la Etnologia9 LXIX, 3-4
(Florence, 1939), 157-315.
A systematic account of the documentation concerning premarital and
marital sexual ethics among the peoples of the Upper Nile and in the region
of Lake Victoria. Three points are discussed: prohibition of sexual relations
before marriage; sexual freedom before marriage; premarital pregnancy in
relation to the type of culture and of social organization.
O m in d e , S. H., The Luo girl from infancy to marriage, Macmillan, 1952,69 pp. ill.
Divides the physical and mental development of Luo girls (East Africa)
into five stages: infancy (until two years of age); childhood from two to six
years of age, after which the separation of the sexes occurs; school age, from
six to 11; adolescence; marriage and the life of a married woman.
P a u w e l s , H., “Fiancee et jeune marine au Ruanda”, Zaire, V, 2 (Brussels, 1951),
115-35.
The rites which Ruanda girls must undergo before betrothal and up until
marriage.
R a t t r a y , R . S., The education of girls, incision, etc., in The tribes o f the Ashanti
hinterland (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1932), Vol. I, pp. 163-70.
According to a Nankane informant, in his tribe (and in most of the tribes in
the northern areas of the Gold Coast), girls are brought up by their mothers,
who gradually train them for their future life as a wife. At puberty, they have
to undergo excision [clitoridectomy], an operation which gives them the
dignity of womanhood and exhibits their moral worth if it has been found
that their virginity is intact, virginity being an essential social value.
247
W TA 17
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
T w ala, R. B., “ Umhlanga (reed) ceremony of the Swazi maidens”, African
Studies, XI, 3 (Johannesburg, 1952), 93-103.
An organization among Swazi women for cutting the umhlanga (reeds) for
use in chiefs’ dwellings. This task is entirely undertaken by girls (see Initiation)
*V a n C a en e g h e m , R ., “Hoe een negermoeder haar dochter opvoedt bot het
hywelijk”, Band, 3rd year, X (Leopoldstad, 1944) 390-5.
How a Luba mother prepares her daughter for marriage.

Fertility

B eresfo r d S to o k e , G., “Ceremonies designed to influence the fertility of

women”, Man , XXVIII (1928), 177.
Various fertility ceremonies carried out by the Akamba (Kenya). They are
only held for menstruating women. The treatment is said to be infallible.
B r a sse u r , M., “La protection de la m6re et de l’enfant dans la formation
medicate de Kitangue”, Aide medicale aux Missions, 26th year, IV (1954),
140-7.
Deals with the Pende and Chokwe tribes of Chikaga territory. The Kampugu
are the women who come to consult the doctor about childlessness; the writer
investigates the causes for this, and makes proposals for remedying it
(gynaecological, prenatal consultations); the infant clinics show encouraging
results. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1954).
E k a l l e , S., “Croyances et pratiques obstetricales des Duala”, Bull, de la Societe
d'Etudes Camerounaises, XIX-XX (Duala, 1947), 61-92.
Magical protection, fertility rites and taboos.
J effreys , M. D. W., “A contraceptive girdle from Calabar Province, Nigeria”,
Man, XLIV (1944), 70.
Description of a contraceptive girdle worn by an Ibibio girl.
M asse , L., “Contribution a Fetude de la nuptialite et de la fertilite dans l’agglome-
ration de Kanise”, Etudes Senegalaises, V (Saint-Louis, Senegal, IFAN, 1954),
41-67.
A study of the correlation between celibacy, monogamy and polygyny, and
social and professional categories. The marriage rate is variable. Polygyny
appears to dimish the fertility of women. Numerous tables.
R om er o M o l in e r , R ., “Notas sobre la situacion social de la mujer indigena en
Fernando Poo“, Cuadernos de Estudios africanos, XVIII (Madrid, 1952), 21-39.
The fertility of Bubi women: their precocious sexual life brings about
barrenness caused by frequent gynaecological infections. Fertility is much
reduced after the age of 30.
S c h m id t , A., “The water of life (female fertility rite at Bamessing village, Bamenda
division, British Cameroons)”, African Studies, XIV, 1 (Johannesburg, 1955)
23-8.
Describes a female fertility rite among the Bamenda of the Cameroons. Its
aim is to wash away the sin which has made the woman barren in the waters
of the river which flows from the fertility altar Funbeko. (Bibliographie Ethno­
graphique du Congo Beige, 1955).
*Shaw, M., “Fertility dolls in Southern Africa”, Nada, XXV (Salisbury, 1948),
63-8, ill.
These are dolls which women and girls carry on their backs so that they
248
 Analytical Bibliography
shall not be barren. The dolls described here come from the Zulu, Swazi,
Matabele, Basoto, Bechuana, Balenge and Ovambo. ( Bibliographie Ethno­
graphique du Congo Beige , 1955).
T a l b o t , P. A., Some Nigerian fertility cults, O.U.P., 1927, xxii 4- 140 pp.
The writer deals with two tribes, the Ibo and the Ijo, and describes certain
sexual taboos which on some occasions may, or even must, be violated (a kind
of catharsis).
*T a n n e r , R. E. S., “Sukuma fertility: an analysis of 148 marriages in Mwanza
district, Tanganyika”, East African Medical Journal, XXXIII, 3 (Nairobi,
1956), 94-9.
The fertility of a Sukuma wife varies between polygynous and monogamous
unions and with the length of marriage. ( African Abstracts, 1957).
V er b eek , A., “Anticonceptionele middelen (Nkundo)”, Aequatoria, X IV , 1
(Coquilhatville, 1951), 26-8.
Deals with the Injolo, a group of the Nkundo. The contraceptive methods
of these people consists of douching in which preparations of herbs with
abortive properties are used.
W h it e , C. M. N., “Conservatism and modern adaptation in Luvale female puberty
ritual”, Africa, XXIII, 1 (1953), 15-24.
Formerly a woman’s most important attributes were fertility and the ability
to be a good housewife. The older generation still insists on the importance of
fertility magic, but to the young girls fertility is no longer either admirable or
desirable.
Z a a l , C., “Bij de Nzakara. Bendo, een fetisj voor de vrouwen” [Bendo a female
fetish], Kongo-Overzee, XXIV, 1-2 (Antwerp, 1958), 80-9.
A fertility fetish, the bendo is a shrub planted with its roots in the air behind
the hut. It becomes the object of a cult if a birth in fact takes place.

Birth: Mother and child

A b b a t u c c i, S., “La maternite en Afrique noire”, Outre-mer, IV (Paris, 1931),
420-35.
Very interesting documentation concerning the peoples of former French
African colonies, in particular the Bambara and Sara of French East Africa
[A.E.F.]. ( Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1931).
A c q u a y e E l m in a , J. R., “Fanti native customs about conception and birth”,
Anthropos, XXIII (Posieux (Freiburg), 1928), 1051-3.
Fanti customs about conception and birth (Gold Coast). Confinement,
death in childbirth of the woman.
A l b e r t , A ., “Coutumes des Bandjouns a la naissance, au mariage et a la mort”
Missions Catholiques, (Lyon, 1937), 117-21 and 138-43.
Various Banjun (Cameroon) customs concerning birth, particularly the birth
of twins.
Ba, A. H., “Le couteau de la maternite”, Notes Africaines, XVII (Dakar, 1943), 3-4.
A legend explaining why Fulani women and women of other Sudenese
tribes never leave a baby alone without placing a knife by its head as protection
against the spells of the anti-maternity demon.
B a r n e s , H. F., “The birth of a Ngoni child”, M an , XLIX (1949), 87-9.
The birth of a Ngoni child and the customs concerned. Description of the
birth.
249
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
B la n lu e t, J., “Enquete sur l’enfant noir en A.O.F.: l’Enfant Gourounsi”, Bull,
de VEnseignement de VA.O.F., XXI, 78 (Dakar, 1932), 8-19.
Notes on birth and relations between parents and children.
B o k e ts h u , B ., “La grossesse et l’enfantement chez les Nkundo”, La Voix du
Congolais, VI, 46 (Kalina, 1950), 26-8.
If a Nkundo woman wants to have a child she invokes the spirit elima and
eats a tree-frog; conception, some medicines for pregnant women.
B o l y a , P., “Etude ethnographique des Mongo”, Voix du Congolais (Kalina,
1957), CXXXVIII, 696-9; CXXXIX, 776-8; CXL, 862-5.
Brief general notes on various [Mongo] customs, particularly about birth;
the mother must spend a period in seclusion (Jule). Customs concerning birth
in urban centres.
C a r d i n a l l , A. W., Birth and marriage customs, in The Natives o f the Northern
territories of the Gold Coast (Routledge, n.d. [1920]), pp. 66-81, ill.
Customs for the birth of the first child, taboos during pregnancy; the mother
readmitted to society three days after the birth if it is a boy, four if it is a girl.
C y r i l l e , G., “Enquete sur l’enfant noir en A.O.F.: le petit Dahomeen”, Bull,
de VEnseignement de VA.O.F., XXI, 79 (Dakar, 1932), 79-90.
Birth [in Dahomey]; the mother’s influence on the child’s upbringing during
infancy.
E k a l l e , S., “Croyances et pratiques obstdtricales des Duala”, Bull, de la SocUte
d 9Etudes Camerounaises9 XIX-XX (Dula, 1947), 61-92.
Detailed notes on: magical protection, fertility rites, taboos, the methods of
the midwives in certain cases.
E l l i s o n , R. E ., “Marriage and child-birth among the Kanuri”, Africa, IX, 4
(1936), 524-35.
Notes on marriage and birth among the Kanuri of Northern Nigeria. The
writer shows how traditional Islamic practices (the Kanuri have been Moham­
medans for several centuries) are modified and complemented by local custom
and by superstition. (Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1936).
E v e n , A., “La grossesse, la naissance et la prime enfance chez les Bakota du
Haut-Ogoou6 et du nord de Mossendjo (Moyen Congo),” Bull, de la Societd
de Recherches Congolaises, XXVI (Brazzaville, 1938), 5-21.
Taboos about pregnant women [among the Bakota]. Simulated confinement
of the husband. Earliest stages of the baby’s upbringing.
G r o s p e r r i n , H., “Quelques coutumes ewe en mati&re d’accouchement”, Annales
de midecinc et de pharmacie coloniales, III (Paris, 1935), 822.
Notes on the persistence of native customs [concerning confinements among
the Ewe] in spite of the increase in European maternity hospitals and clinics.
H i l l s - Y o u n g , E ., “Charms and customs associated with child-birth”, Sudan
Notes and Records, XXIII, 2 (Khartoum, 1940), 331-5.
Customs and charms concerning birth and fertility.
H u b e r , H ., “Schwangerschaft, Geburt und friihe Kindheit im Brauchtum der
Bat-Ewe (Ghana)”, Annali Laterensi, XXI (Vatican, 1957), 230-44.
Ewe rites of magic protection, special rites for the birth of twins. The woman
is confined at her mother’s.
K a m m e r, M., “The customs observed as regards miscarriage among the Barotse”,
East African Medical Journal, XVIII, 2 (Nairobi, 1941), 56-9.
A period of mourning follows a miscarriage.
250
 Analytical Bibliography
K o h le r, M., Marriage customs in Southern Natal, Pretoria, Department of
Native Affairs (Ethnological Publications IV), 1933, 103 pp. ill.
Contains some notes on the birth of the first child.
— , “Menstruation, Schwangerschaft urid Geburt in Afrika”, Wissenschaftliche
Zeitschrift, Friedrich-Schiller Universitat, III, 1 (1953-54), 129-42.
Customs associated with the onset of menstruation among African women,
coitus, pregnancy, birth, the umbilical cord, the placenta, the couvade. Brief
survey of the relevant bibliography. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1954).
Labracque, E., “Accidents de la naissance chez les Babemba”, Antkropos, XXV
(Posieux (Freiburg), 1930), 730-1.
Customs concerning still-born and premature babies, and the death of
women in child-birth.
* L a i d le r , P. W., “Native (Bantu) beliefs concerning pregnancy and child-birth,
their effects on public health administration, and the effects of detribalisation
or urbanisation upon these ancient customs and upon infantile mortality
rates”, South African Journal o f Science, XXVIII (Johannesburg, 1931),
418-22.
Notes on sexual practices and on birth among the natives of East London.
L a i g r e t , J., “De quelques coutumes indigenes concemant les accouchements”,
Bull, de la SocUtd de Recherches Congolaisest VI (Brazzaville, 1925), 11-14.
In the Congo basin delivery sometimes takes place “through the rear
passage”, when there has been a large tear in the tissue connecting the vagina
and the rectum. The child is delivered with the help of experienced midwives.
L e b e u f, J. P., “Sur la naissance en general et sur celle des jumeaux en particulier
chez les Kotoko”, Bull, du Musde d'Ethnographie du Trocaddro, XI, 6 (Paris,
1939), 545-53.
Ethnographic information concerning birth rituals among the Kotoko
(Chad).
L e s tra n g e , M. d e , “M£res et enfants en Afrique noire”, Le Concours Medical
(Paris, 1954), 4367-70.
The article is about the Coniagui and Bassari of French Guinea: desire for
children: sexual freedom of girls; abortion; pregnancy; confinement. Infancy,
feeding and upbringing, the love of mothers for their sons.
L e y d e r , J., “La naissance chez les Bwaka (Ubangui)”, Bull, de la Societe Royale
de Geographie, L V II (Brussels, 1933), 109-27.
The writer examines the customs and practices associated with fertility,
their origins and social significance; the state of the pregnant woman, geophagy,
confinement and subsequent rites among the Bwaka of Ubangi.
M a l c o l m , W. G. B., “Notes on birth, marriage and death ceremonies of the
Eyap tribe, central Cameroon”, Journal o f the Roy. Anthr. Inst.t LIII (1923),
388-401.
The first part of this article is on natal and prenatal customs: the mother is
given infusions to drink at certain specified times during pregnancy.
M a r i e - A n d r £ d u S a c r £ - C c e u r , Sister, “La m£re et l’enfant en A.O.F.”,
L'Ethnographie, n.s. XXXVII (Paris, 1939), 71-82.
Customs concerning birth, name-giving, and children’s upbringing. Influence
of Christianity and decrease in mortality. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du
Congo Beige, 1939).
251
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
M a u ric e , P. M ., “La naissance au pays des Bapimbwe”, Bibliotheca Africana,
IV, 1 (Innsbruck, 1930-31), 79-86.
Before giving birth, a pregnant woman is surrounded with magic protections.
The midwives, who belong to a corporation called malombwe, deliver the child
and preside at all the ceremonies; there are special ceremonies for the death of
a pregnant woman, for the birth of the first child, differing according to its sex,
for the birth of twins, regarded as maleficent deities (to be exorcised by
adoration and insult). The care of the child until the age of two.
— , “La naissance chez les Bapimbwe”, La Geographie, LXIV (Paris, 1935),
309-16.
Notes on the bringing up of children and on birth among the Bapimbwe
of Northern Rhodesia.
M o l l e r , M. S. G., “Bahaya customs and beliefs in connection with pregnancy
and child-birth”, Tanganyika Notes and Records, L (Dar-es-Salam, June 1958),
112-17.
Taboos during pregnancy; after birth, the solemn burial of the placenta,
often regarded as the dead brother of the newborn child. The custom of bisisi,
the status of mother and newborn child.
N d o n g o Mba, M. A., “Costumbres y creencias pamues sobre el nacimiento”,
Africa, XIV, 192 (Madrid, 1957), 14-15.
The birth of a boy is celebrated by a great feast. Customs at the birth of
twins. Children belong to the man who has paid bridewealth. The mother must
paint herself red with camwood powder.
* N g o i, P., “La grossesse et l’enfantement chez les Nkundo”, Aequatoria, VII, 1-2
(Coquilhatville, 1944), 14-24 and 63-70.
N i a k a t e B., “Naissance et bapteme chez les Saracoles dc Bakhounou (cercle
de Nema, Soudan)”, Notes Africaines, XXIV (Dakar, Oct. 1944), 22.
Some customs at the birth of a Sarakole child, compared with those among
the Bambara.
O l i v i e r , G. and A u j o u l a t , L., “L’obstetrique en pays yaounde”, Bull, de la
Societe d' Etudes Camerounaises, XII (Duala, 1945), 7-71.
Notes on marriage, initiation of girls, pregnancy, taboos, confinement,
delivery, the newborn child. Notes on the fertility of women, obstetrical
physiology and pathology in maternity cases. {Bibliographic Ethnographique
du Congo Beige, 1945).
O r t o l i , H., “Les rites de la maternite chcz les Dogon de Bandiagara”, Bull, de
riFAN, III, 1-2 (Dakar, 1941), 53-63.
Notes on conception, pregnancy, abortion among the Dogon.
P a g e s , A ., “Rwanda beige. Ceremonies qui entourent la naissance d’un enfant et
la reclusion de la mdre”, Congo, II, 2 (Brussels, 1934), 205-26.
An important contribution to the study of the rites and ceremonies that
precede, accompany, and follow birth among the Banyaruanda. Seclusion of
the new mother, churching rites, name-giving ceremony, the situation of the
mother of a large family, associated religious beliefs. (Bibliographic Ethno­
graphique du Congo Beige, 1934).
P a u lm e , D., Birth, in Organisation sociale des Dogon (Paris, Domat-Mont-
chretien, 1940), pp. 421-57.
Notes on the beliefs, customs, rites, from conception until the giving of its
name to the newborn child. The birth of twins.
252
 Analytical Bibliography
Ruam, O. F., Chaga childhood. A description o f indigenous education in an East
African tribe, O.U.P., 1940, 422 pp.
Chapter II (pp. 67-102) deals in detail with prenatal preparations: education
of the parents; birth; moral test of the father and mother.
R w i t z a , K. J., “Natal customs in Bukoba”, Tanganyika Notes and Records, L
(Dar-es-Salam, June 1958), 104-5.
Some taboos and rules to be observed before and after birth. Name-giving
ceremonies, when the child cuts its first tooth.
S ie b e r, D. and J., “Das Leben des Kindes im Nsungli-Stamm”, Africa, XI, 2
(1938), 208-20.
Rites at birth and at weaning (about the age of two). The mother brings
up the children, until the age of six in the case of boys.
S t a p p e r s , L., “Het Intreden van het kind bi.i de Baamilembwe” [Entry of the
child among the Bamilembwe], Kongo-Overzee, XVIII, 1 (Antwerp, 1952), 1-5.
Description of various customs observed during pregnancy, confinement
customs, ceremonies following birth, for name-giving, the first time the child
leaves the house . . . followed by a prayer (pp. 6-7) said by the mother at the
time of birth.
* T e i c h l e r , “Wie die Hayafrauen Geburtschilfe treiben”, Das Hochland, VII
(Oldeani, 1937), 177-82.
T h o m a s, N. W., Birth, twins and circumcision, in Anthropological report on Sierra
Leone, Part I (Harrison, 1916), pp. 108-18, ill.
Birth customs are fairly simple, the most striking feature being the
departure of the woman from her husband’s house one month before the birth
takes place, to have her confinement at her father’s house.
— , “Birth customs of the Edo speaking peoples”, Journ. o f the Roy. Anthr. Inst.,
LII (1922), 250-8.
T r a v e l e , M., “Usages relatifs aux naissances survenues hors du village en pays
bambara”, Revue d'Ethnographie et des Traditions populaires, V (Paris, 1924),
373-4.
W h e re v e r a b ir th m a y h a v e ta k e n p la c e , n o c a re m a y b e ta k e n [o f m o th e r
a n d ch ild ] u n til th e y h a v e r e tu rn e d to th e village.
W ag n er, G., Birth, in The Bantu o f North Kavirondo (O.U.P. for Int. Af. Inst.,
1949), Vol. I, pp. 295-332.
Pregnancy, birth, name-giving ceremony.
W a l k , L., “Die ersten Lebensjahre des Kindes in Sudafrika”, Anthropos, XXIII
(Posieux (Freiburg), 1928), 38-109.
Pregnancy, confinement, birth of the first child, care [of mother and child],
ceremonies . . .
W ils o n , M., The ritual of birth and abnormal birth, in Rituals o f kinship among
the Nyakyusa (O.U.P. for Int. Af. Inst., 1957), pp. 130-71.
“The procreation of children is an ultimate value of Nyakusa society . . .
but. . . under certain conditions it is hedged about with taboos. ’’Among births
regarded as abnormal, that of twins takes first place.

Married women
M. S., “Problemas do ‘Bern Estar Rural’ mo^ambicano. A mulher
A lb e rto ,
indigena mogambicana perante a estructura familiar da tribo”, Boletim da
253
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Sociedad de Estudos Mozambique, XXIV, 83 (Lourengo- Marques, 1954),
93-104.
A lecture given by the writer on the position and social conditions of native
women within the tribal structure of the indigenous family of Mozambique.
Their position, in both patriarchal and matriarchal societies, is a subordinate
one. In polygynous households the chief wife has some privileges.
B ir a h im , B ., “Les Bobos, la famille, les coutumes”, Education africaine, n.s.
XXIII (Dakar, 1954), 61-75.
The author gives reasons why Bobo women enjoy a strong position.
* C u r r y e r , W. H. S., “Mothercraft in Southern Nigeria”, United Empire, XVIII,
n.s. 2 (Feb. 1927), 78-81.
* F r a z a o , F . S., “A mulher e o casamento”, Mensario Administrativo, LI-LII
(Luanda, 1951), 47-58, ill.
H a u m a n t , J. C., The condition of women, in Les Lobi et leur coutume (Paris,
P.U.F., 1929), pp. 104-15.
Adolescent girls are free to refuse the husband chosen for them by the
family and to choose one for themselves.
K a g a m e , A., Woman in the home, in “Les organisations socio-familiales de
l’ancien Ruanda”, Memoires de VAcaddmie Royale des Sciences Coloniales,
XXXVIII, 3 (Brussels, 1954, 8vo), 233-49.
The wife looks after the domestic economy. She is also her husband’s
counsellor. She carries out the less arduous tasks. When she is pregnant, the
husband is attentive.
K a n e , E., “La disposition des cases des femmes dans le carre du mari commun
(Senegal),” Notes Africaines, XXVI (Dakar, IFAN, 1945), 11-12.
The various arrangements [of wives* huts within the courtyard of their
common husband] always give pre-eminence to the chief wife, or the one who
is in charge.
♦ K o eu m e, E., The African housewife and her home, Nairobi, Eagle Press, 1952,
186 pp.
K u p e r , H., “The marriage of a Swazi princess”, Africa, XV, 3 (1945), 145-56.
Description of the wedding ceremonies at the marriage of Princess Bahashule
to a chief with the name of Nkonjane. Her position after marriage.
*Macpherson, K., Mothercraft in the tropics, Cassel, 1947, 205 pp.
* M a r e e , M. C., The Nyasa woman at home and in Southern Rhodesia, Proceedings
of the South Rhodesia Missionary Conference, Salisbury, 1928, pp. 46-7.
M a r ie - A n d r S d u S a c r e - C c e u r , Sister, “La condition de la femme indigene
dans la boucle du Niger”, Revue d'Histoire des Missions, 14th year (Paris, 1937),
471-7.
The writer discusses the condition of Mossi, Gurunsi, Dagari and Bobo
women; their place in the family, how they get married. (Bibliographie Ethno­
graphique du Congo Beige, 1937).
♦ N t h a l a , S. Y., Nchowa [a novel about an African woman], Longmans, 1949,
117 pp.
P a u w e l s , H., “Fiancee et jeune marine au Ruanda”, Zaire, V, 2 (Brussels, 1951),
115-35.
A newly married woman does not begin to work until 15 days after she is
married; her social life, after a period of seclusion lasting two months.
254
 Analytical Bibliography
* R e y h e r, R . H., Zulu woman, O.U.P., 1948, 282 pp.
Without being an enthnographic study, this book has a certain documentary
interest, since it gives the impressions of a woman, Christina Sibiya, the wife
of Solomon king of the Zulus, about her home surroundings and her position
as co-wife. (Man. LXII, 1948).
— , The Fon and his hundred wives, New York, Doubleday & Co., 1952, 318 pp.
40 ill. map; Gollancz, 1953, 302 pp.
The writer attempts to describe the thoughts and feelings of the wives of a
polygynous husband.
S h a p e r a , I., Married life in an African tribe, London, Faber; New York, Sheridan
House, 1940, 364 pp. ill. map.
Married life, relations between husband and wife, and parents and children;
legal status of married, divorced and widowed women.
* S o h ie r , A., “Le role de la femme dans la famille congolaise”, Etapes, 5th year,
XXI (Brussels, 1947), 93-7.
The family is not the same thing among black people as among white. With
the latter, it is a household, with the former, a part of kinship. The conception
of the role of the woman in the household explains many customs, especially
marriage customs. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1947).
V a n C a e n e g h e m , R., “La femme du Lupangu”, Zaire (Brussels, 1952), V ,
464-86; VI, 569-95.
Mukawo is the special relation which exists between the co-wives of one hus­
band. The wives exercise continuous pressure and control over their husband.
♦ W a r d , E. H., The Yoruba husband-wife code, Washington, Catholic Univ. of
America, 1937 (Anthropological Series, No. 4).
♦ W e r n e r , A. and H ic h e n s , W ., The advice o f Mwana Kupoua upon the wifely
duty, Medstead, The Azanian Press, 1934,95 pp. ill.
A poem composed by a woman in the nineteenth century, translated from the
Swahili. Advice to her daughter. (Africa, VIII, 236-7).

Widows—Mourning
♦C hapm an, J., “La femme pendant les funerailles”, Ebur, I (Abidan, 1954) 8-18.
C h a rd e y , F., “Deuil et veuvage au Togo Sud”, Anthropos, XLVI, 3-4 (Posieux
(Freiburg), 1951), 622.
Mourning is rigorously observed by both men and women and lasts from
eight to 16 days. Taboos concerning the widow: among the Fanti she is bound
hand and foot, beaten. The ceremonies terminate with visits of thanks to the
relatives.
E is e le n , W., “Die posisie van die weduwee bij die heidense en bij die kristelike
Batau”, Bantu Studies, IX (Johannesburg, 1935), 281-5.
Shows changes in the life of widows since the introduction of Christianity.
H o l a s , B., “Le Kouna (un cas de prophylaxie magique contre des dec&s consec-
utifs de femmes enceintes dans le pays guerz6)”, Notes Africaines, LII (Dakar,
1953), 16-18, ill.
Description of a magic ceremony among the Gerz6, carried out following
upon the successive deaths of several pregnant women.
— , “D6c£s d’une femme guerzd (cercle de Nzerekore, Guin6e frangaise)”, Africa,
XXIII, 2 (1953), 145-55.
255
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Detailed description of funeral rites among the Gerze on the occasion of
the death of a woman.
* J u n o d , H. A., “The fate of widows among the Ba-Ronga”, Report of the South
African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town, Johannesburg,
1909.
Detailed description of special rites of purification and of mourning; the
husband’s kin inherit the widow. (I. Schapera).
L e s t r a n g e , M. de, “L’enterrement de Tyira, femme bassari”, Marco Polo,
XVIII (Paris, 1956), 20-7, ill.
Funeral rites: burial, sacrifice to the soul of the deceased.
M a u r i c e , P. M ., “La maladie et la mort chez les Bapimbwe”, Bibliotheca
Africana, IV, 2 (Innsbruck, 1930-31), 22-32.
The duties of the surviving spouse; the widow forms part of the inheritance,
the man to inherit her being chosen by family council.
O r t o l i , H., “Le dec£s d’une femme enceinte chez les Dogon de Bandiagara”,
Bull de VIFANy III, B, 1-4 (Dakar, 1941), 64-73.
The death of a pregnant woman is exorcised by a series of rites in which
religion, magic and medicine are closely intertwined. (Bibliographie Ethno­
graphique du Congo Beige, 1941).
R a t t r a y , R . S., Widows and “in-laws” at funerals, in Religion and art in
Ashanti (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1927), pp. 171-4, ill.
Widows (kunafo) have to observe certain rites, mainly of protection, for a
year after the death of their husband. The levirate is practised.
— , Funeral customs: the funeral of an old woman, in The tribes o f the Ashanti
hinterland (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1932), Vol. I, pp. 186-9.
A narrator of the Nankane tribe describes the funeral rites of his tribe, a
special feature being that a married woman has two funerals: one in her
husband’s village, the other in her father’s.
* S e n d a n y o y e , G., “De la situation des veuves et de Ieur deplacement en dehors
de la residence maritale”, Bull. de Jurisprudence de Ruanda- Urundi, X (1952),
515-17.
The status of a widow varies according to whether she has any children or
not. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1952).
*— , “Jugement annote: veuvage. Droits de la veuve sur les biens de son mari.
Droit du tuteur sur les orphelins”, Bull, de Jurisprudence du Ruanda-Urundi, I
(1926), 36-7.
A court decision at Nyanza (Ruanda): if it is the case that a stepmother does
not have the orphaned children of her deceased husband under her care, she
has no right to farm all the lands or to make use of all the property of the
deceased. {Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1946).

INITIATION
* B a l, A., “La claustration des jeunes filles chez les Ngbandi et les Ngombe de
Lisala”, Trait d'Union, III, 4 (Antwerp, 1934), 3.
A contribution to the study of marriage customs of the Gombe and the
Ngandi in the Congo-Mongala-Ubangi region.
B a l a n d i e r , G., “Danses de sortie d’excision k Boffa, Guinee frangaise”, Notes
Africaines, XXXVIII (Dakar, 1948), 11-12.
256
 Analytical Bibliography
Description of a Susu initiation ceremony: the placing of the people taking
part and of the orchestra; tyamba or the bird-mask the central personage in the
dance. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1948).
B e tt e lh e im , B ., Girls’ rites, in Symbolic wounds. Puberty rites and the envious
male (Glencoe (111.), The Free Press, 1954), pp. 239-60.
Several examples taken from the Luvale, Cewa and Chaga to illustrate
general points.
B lo h m , W., “Die christlicheFamilien-Gemeinschaft inXosa Volkstum. Beobacht-
ungen in Ost-Siidafrika”, Africa, VI (1933), 431-55.
Traditions have survived, in particular the intonjane, “consecration” of
girls. After a 14 days period of seclusion, the girl is purified and returns to her
parents.
B o y le , C. V., “The marking of girls at Ga-Anda”, Journ. of the South African
Soc., XV (1916), 361-6, 4 pi.
These tattooings which cover almost the entire body have an important
social significance: they mark the stages of the social life of a girl from the time
when her marriage is arranged by her parents (often when she is only a few
days old) until the day when her marriage takes place.
* B r io d , R., “Rites d’initiation. La jeune fille zambezienne et sa preparation a
sa vie de femme”, Nouvelles de Zambeze (1931), 1-18.
B r o w n l e e , F., “The In-Tonjane ceremony”, Bantu Studies, III, 4 (Johannesburg,
1929), 401-3.
Puberty rites for girls in Fingoland (Union of South Africa): the period of
seclusion, very strict, lasts for from three to four months, and is obligatory
before marriage.
B r y k , F., Die Beschneidung bei Mann und Weib. Ihre Geschichte, Psychologie
und Ethnologie, Neubrandenburg, G. Feller, 1931, 319 pp. 7 pi. 55 ill.
Circumcision and excision rites and ceremonies among various peoples;
information about Equatorial Africa and also, mainly, about East Africa.
B u r t o n , W. F. P., “The secret societies of Lubaland (Congo Beige)”, Bantu
Studies, IV, 4 (1930), 217-50.
The first part deals, not with secret societies, but with initiation societies.
Girls are initiated in two stages: kwikana and butanda, the first being a pre­
paration for the second, which is the real initiation from which the girl emerges
purified and a woman.
C e s to n , J. M., “Le gree-gree bush (initiation de la jeunesse) chez les Ndgres
Golah, Liberia”, Anthropos, VI (Posieux (Freiburg), 1911), 729-54.
Among the Gola there are two gree-gree: that of the women is called sande.
It is an initiation into the life of the tribe, and an education. At the head of the
gree-gree is the “devil”, then her Assistants, the Assistants’ Assistants, and the
Girls, that is to say, the new initiates, whose age varies; they are usually not
married, although there is no strict rule. The duration of the ceremony varies.
There are coming-out ceremonies.
C h e r o n , G., “La circoncision et l’excision chez les Malinke”, Journal de la
Societe des Africanistes, III (Paris, 1933), 297-303.
Girls undergo clitoridectomy between the ages of 13 and 15. They are then
known as solimamusso. The aim of the operation is to give a woman beauty.
The oldest of the girls taking part is called Kuntigi (head).
C la y e s , P. F., “Gaza”, Congo, II (Brussels, 1934), No. 2, p p . 223-41; No. 3,
p p . 381-96; No. 4, p p . 506-33.

257
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Male and female (pp. 506-33) circumcision among the Bwaka of Ubangi.
The ceremonies for each sex are held separately. Descriptions of the prepara­
tions, the operations, the taboos to be observed.
C o s te r m a n s , B., “Sipema: Puberteits-ceremonie bij de Logo-Avokaya”, Zaire,
IV, 2 (Brussels, 1950), 167-79.
Among the peoples of the north-east of the Belgian Congo, boys and girls
have operations performed on their teeth. Among some tribes, these operations
are supposed to ensure a woman’s fertility. These customs are disappearing
rapidly.
D e t h i e r , F. M., “De quelques effets juridiques de la ‘gaza ya se’ ou excision”,
Bull, des Juridictions Indigenes, XV, 1 (Elisabethville, 1947), 6-8.
During the period of initiation, a certain number of taboos have to be
observed: sexual, concerning the family of the initiate and the guests at the
ceremony; alimentary, which concern the initiate only and last until the birth
of her first child. As well, legal ties link the buganza (the initiate’s sponsor)
with the parents by means of a system of mutual guarantees. Any infraction
brings judicial sanctions and court cases.
* D o s s o u -Y o y o , M. M., “Circoncision et excision chez les Bariba”, Notes
Africaines, XIX (Dakar, 1943), 10-11.
D r o u r e g a , M., “Initiation of a girl in the Acenga tribe, Katondwe Mission,
Luengwa District, Northern Rhodesia”, Anthropos, XXII (Posieux (Freiburg
1927), 620-1, 1 pi.
Interesting documentation on the initiation rites of a young girl among the
Acenga. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1925-30).
* E a r t h y , E . D., “Initiation of girls in the Masi Yeni district”, Annals of the
Transvaal Museum, XI (Pretoria, 1925), 103-17.
Detailed description of girls’ puberty rites among the Lenge and Chopi.
— , “Notes on some agricultural rites practised by the Valenge and Vachopi
(Portuguese East Africa)”, Bantu Studies, II (Johannesburg, 1925), 193-7.
The cycle of initiation rites for girls follows the cycle of the agricultural
year, the important ceremonies coinciding with growth of the crops and the
agricultural rites.
*E m a, A. J. U., “Fattening girls in Oron, Calabar Province”, Nigeria, XXI
(Lagos, 1940), 386-9.
E s t e r m a n n , C., “La fete de puberty dans quelques tribus de l’Angola meridional”,
Bull, de la Society Neuchdteloise de Gdographie, XLVIII (Neuchatel, 1941-42),
128-41.
Description of the rites marking the nubility of girls among the Ambo,
Hcrero, Nyaneka . . . These rites, which are still almost the same today, show
variations between one tribe and another, but all have the character of a rite of
passage with a period of seclusion and changes in hair style and dress. They
last for a varying amount of time, and marriage does not always follow
immediately.
♦ F r a n z , H. M., “Madchenbeschneidung in Nord-West Transvaal”, Die Briicke,
Wissenschaftliche Beilage, II (1929), 1-5.
Interesting notes on the schools of initiation for girls. (I. Schapera).
Froelich, J. P., “Les socidtes d’initiation chez les Moba et les Fourma du Nord-
Togo”, Journal de la Socidte des Africanistes, XIX, 2 (Paris, 1949), 99-141,
ill. map.
258
 Analytical Bibliography
Two kinds of initiation for girls: the first, kpcuikpankwondi (pp. 115-18)
occurs in cases where the girl refuses to marry the husband chosen for her;
this is an individual initiation with a four months’ period of seclusion. The
second, mark wondi, includes excision and a period of seclusion lasting 45 days.
This is a group initiation, for girls of varying ages.
G anay, S. de, “Symbolisme de quelques scarifications au Soudan frangais avec
l’excision”, Comptes rendus des Stances de VInstitut frangais d'Anthropologie
(Paris, 1947-49), 7-8.
Marka women receive scarifications at the times of the main events in their
life: initiation (excision), marriage, confinement. They are tests of endurance
and of adult womanhood.
G e ig y , R. and H o l t k e r , G ., “M&dchen-initiationen im Ulanga-Distrikt von
Tanganyika”, Acta Tropica, VIII (Basel, 1951), 289-344, ill.
This initiation, which does not include any operation, begins at the onset
of menstruation; it continues during a period of isolation which sometimes
lasts as long as three years, during which the girl learns from some of the
old women everything concerning married life in the form of maxims, songs,
ritual manipulations, etc. Certain fertility rites play an important role. The
last chapter gives some information about pregnancy and the first confinement.
G ro ss,B. A., “Pour la suppression d’une coutume barbare: l’excision”, Notes
Africaines, XLV (Dakar, Jan. 1950), 6-8.
Various examples taken from Africa (the Banda of Ubangi).
G u tm a n n ,B., “Bruchstiicke aus den Kerbstocklehren fur Madchen nach dem
Mreho lo Ljango”, Zeitschrift fur Eingeborenen Sprachen, XV (Berlin, 1925),
1-19.
Fragments of songs collected during the period of seclusion which forms part
of initiation, being followed by ceremonies in which the whole village takes part.
H a rle y , G. W., “Notes on the Poro in Liberia”, Papers o f the Peabody Museum
o f American Archaeology and Ethnology, XIX, 2, Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard
University, 1941, 40 pp. ill.
Corresponding to the Poro, the initiation society for boys among the Geh
and the Gio, is the Sande, the initiation society for girls, a special study of
which is found on pp. 27 ff.
H a r r i e s , L., “The initiation rites of the Makonde tribe”, Communications from
the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, No. 3, 41 pp. polyc.
The initiation of girls or Ciputu (pp. 24-41) is obligatory before puberty; it
is carried out in several stages and is accompanied by songs which the author
has notated.
* H i l l s , Y. E., “Female circumcision in the Sudan”, Anti-Slavery Reporter, V,
1 (1949), 13-15.
An operation performed upon little girls of four to ten years old, among the
peoples of north and central Sudan; the author describes a barbarous scene
at Omdurman. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1949).
A. W., “Certain rites of transition and the conception of !nau among
H o e rn le ,
the Hottentots”, Harvard African Studies II (Cambridge (Mass.), 1918), 65-82.
Puberty rites for women (pp. 70-82): at the onset of menstruation, girls must
spend a period of seclusion (in practice softened and abridged) as well as
performing rites of passage which liberate them from their state of tnau and
give them a status in a new social group.
259
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
H oernle, A. W., “An outline of the native conception of education in Africa”,
Africa , IV (1931), 145-63.
The education of young girls is under strict social control and is carried out
within the framework of the age-classes. Initiation at puberty takes various
forms, but always includes detailed instruction about adult life, particularly
sexual instruction, which takes place during a period of seclusion of varying
length. The writer describes two initiation ceremonies for girls, among the
Zulu and the Hottentots.
H o la s , B., “devolution du schema initiatique chez les femmes oubi (region de
Tai, Cote d’lvoire)”, Africa , XXVII (1957), 241-50.
With the introduction of modem ways of life, customs lose their rigidity.
Thus the date fixed for initiation ceremonies [among the Ubi] is made to fit in
with the official calendar of events and with the requirements of the coffee
plantations. The length of time spent in continuous seclusion is reduced.
H u b e r , H ., “Ceremonie pour les filles pub&res d’origine adangme a Anecho
(Togo)”, Bull, de VIFAN, XX, B (Dakar, 1958), 417-31, 5 phot.
A rare Adangme custom still practised at Anecho.
— , “Initiation to womanhood among the Se (Ghana)”, The Nigerian Field.
XXIII, 3 (1958), 99-119, ill.
Initiation ceremonies, although they have been reduced to a period of seven
weeks, and the age of initiates has been raised, still occupy an important place,
J effreys , M. D. W., “The Nyama society of the lbibio women”, African Studies,
XV, 1 (Johannesburg, 1956), 15-29.
The Nyama is an lbibio women’s society; it has the duty of performing
clitoridectomy on girls, having some connection with fertility; the operation is
performed shortly before marriage.
J o n e s , N., “Initiation rites among the Matabele”, Man , XXI (1921), 147-50.
Rites that are on the way to becoming extinct or modified. As far as girls
are concerned, the ceremony is individual and lasts for four days.
K ir k - G r ee n e , A. H. M., “A Lala initiation ceremony”, Man , LVII (1957), 5-11.
Ceremonies for girls who have reached puberty. They receive certain scari­
fications, three in number. These puberty rites, which do not include excision,
are obligatory before marriage.
* K o h l e r , M., Marriage customs in Southern Natal , Pretoria, Dept, of Native
Affairs (Ethnological publications, IV), 1933, 103 pp. ill.
These notes concern the Ama-Khuze and the Ama-Baca among the Kaffirs
and Zulus of Natal. The first part deals with puberty rites for boys and for
girls and with relations between the sexes before marriage.
K r u g e r , F., “Tlokwa traditions”, Bantu Studies, XI (Johannesburg, 1937),
85-115.
The Byali (pp. 102-2), when girls assemble for initiation, lasts several
months. The girls live together in seclusion. There is no operation, but scari­
fications on the thighs.
L a m b in , R., “Notes sur les ceremonies et les epreuves d’emancipation et d’initia-
tion chez les Kissiens”, Bull, de VIFAN, VIII, 1-4 (Dakar, 1946), 64-70.
Excision takes place at an age which varies as between north and south. The
toma boudod “consecrates” the girl. It is also his initiation.
L ea k e y , L . S. B., “The Kikuyu problem of the initiation of girls”, Journ. o f the
Roy. Anthr. Inst., LXI (1931), 277-85.

260
 Analytical Bibliography
Great changes have taken place in the attitude towards the initiation of girls,
due to the influence of European moral ideas. To suppress it altogether would
be an error, as was proved by the hostile demonstrations of 1930. The writer
suggests preserving the educational side of initiation while suppressing the
undesirable elements (clitoridectomy, sexual practices).
L e s t r a n g e , M. d e , “Societes secretes, circoncision et excision en Afrique Noire”,
Le Concours Mddical (Paris, Nov. 1953), 3815-18.
These sexual mutilations are rites which give access to adult society. Coniagui
girls undergo clitoridectomy about the age of 17 during the course of an
important ceremony. Only then may they have children, and later get married.
M a h l o b o , G. W. K. and Krige, E. J., “Transition from childhood to adulthood
among the Zulus”, Bantu Studies, VIII (Johannesburg, 1934), 157-91.
The first part (pp. 157-66) describes the ear-piercing ceremony (Qumbhuza)
in which boys and girls of the same intanga (age-class) take part.
M a i r , L., “A Yao girl’s initiation”, Mart, LI (1951), 60-3.
Description of a ceremony at which the writer was present, at the initiation
of girls among the Yao of Tanganyika Territory. (Bibliographic Ethnographique
du Congo Beige, 1951).
M a l c o l m , L. W. G., “Note on the seclusion of girls among the Efik of old
Calabar”, Man, XXV (1925), 113-14, phot.
Before marriage, every girl must spend some time in the “fattening hut”,
the length of time varying according to the social position of the parents.
M a y e r , P., “Gusii initiation ceremonies. Initiation of girls”, Journ. of the Roy.
Anthr. Inst., LXXXIII (1953), 26-36.
Description of the initiation of Gusii girls (Kenya), including clitoridectomy
and a period of seclusion in the mother’s hut, during which they learn songs
and are initiated into the mysteries. Apparently these rites survive for the girls
more than for the boys.
— , “Ekeigoroigoro: a Gusli rite of passage”, Man, LIII (1953), 3-6, ill.
This “revelation of images” is independent of the initiation ceremonies,
which it precedes; in principle it should precede marriage for both boys and
girls. The images are made by a group of five girls (the leader’s function being
hereditary) who are initiated but unmarried, and who perform the revelation
to the novices.
M e n g r e l i s , T., “Fete de la sortie de l’excision au pays mano, Guinee fran^aise”,
Notes Africaines, XLIX (Dakar, 1951), 11-13.
Description of the initiation of girls among the Mano of French Guinea.
The rites and ceremonies which accompany the return to the village of the
girls who have undergone the ceremony.
— , “La sortie des jeunes filles excisSes en pays mano(n)”, Etudes Guinienes,
VIII (Conakry, 1952), 55-8.
The coming-out rites take place after the swearing-in feast according to a
fixed order of ceremonies, the first of the initiates heading the procession. But
it is not until the following day that the initiates return to society.
— , “La sortie des inities en pays guerze”, Notes Africaines, L (Dakar, 1951),
44-6, ill.
The dances at the coming-out of the initiates [among the Gerze].
* N d a u , “The Mula custom”, Nada, IV (Salisbury, 1926), 69.
Notes on initiation rites for girls in Northern Rhodesia.
261
 M. Perlman and M. P . Moal
N zekw u, O., “Iria Ceremony”, Nigeria, LXIII (Lagos, 1959), 341-52, ill.
The only traditional ceremony still in existence among the Okrika, it has
probably survived owing to its social function (it marks the entry of girls into
womanhood) and its moral function (to protect the virginity of girls). Descrip­
tion of the ceremony. Numerous photographs show the costumes worn by
the young initiates when they emerge from their seclusion.
P a u lm e , D., “L’initiation des jeunes lilies en pays kissi (Haute-Guin6e)”,
Conferencia Internacional das Africanistas (Lisbon, 1947), V, Part II (Lisbon,
1952), 303-31.
Initiation of girls at Nongoa in 1946. The bundo ritual. Description of all
the stages of initiation and of the rites among the Kissi. {Bibliographie Ethno­
graphique du Congo Beige, 1952).
P e p e r t y , R., “La circoncision et l’excision chez les Tankambas de la sub­
division de Tanguieta (Dahomey)”, Conference des Africanistes de VOuest,
1945 (Paris, 1951), fasc. 2, pp. 274-80.
The circumstances in which the ceremony takes place, the age of the patients,
their costume, those who perform the operation, chronology of the ceremony.
{Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1951).
P i r e s , A. E., “Ofundula. Festa cuanhama da puberdade feminina”, Mensario
Adm inistrate, XX-XXI (Luanda, 1949), 45-52, ill.
Description of the rites and ceremonies in which Kwnayama women of An­
gola take part at puberty. {Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1949).
R a m s e y e r , P., “La circoncision chez les Bassouto”, Revue d'Ethnographie et des
Traditions Populaires, IX (Paris, 1928), 40-70.
The female circumcision ceremony lebollo; origin of the term, rites and
ceremonies.
R a u m , O. F., “Female initiation among the Chaga”, American Anthropologist,
n.s. XLI (New York, 1939), 554-65.
Notes on the initiation of girls before marriage, among the Chaga in the
region of Kilimanjaro. {Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1939).
R i c h a r d s , A. I., Chisungu: a girl's initiation ceremony among the Bemba o f
Northern Rhodesia, Faber, 1956, 224 pp. ill. map, bibl.
The writer describes in detail the chisungu, the girls’ initiation ceremony
among the Bemba, at which she was present in 1931. Interpretation of the
symbols used in the rites, and of the various stages of the chisungu.
S c h n e l l , R., “La fete rituelle des jeunes excises en pays baga (Basse-Guinee)”,
Notes Africaines, XLIII (Dakar, 1949), 84-6.
Description of the ceremonies which celebrate the recovery of the girls who
have been excised among the Baga of French Guinea.
S c h u l i e n , P. M., “Die Initiationszeremonien der Madchen bei den Atxuabo
von Portugiesisch-Ostafrika”, Anthropos, XVIII-XIX (Posieux (Freiburg),
1923-24), 69-102.
After the ritual dances performed by former initiates, the future initiates
are secluded in an initiation hut, where they undergo clitoridectomy, which is
regarded as a test and not as an end in itself. After a night spent in drinking
the nipipa (a drink made from rice, honey and water), they return to their own
huts.
S e g y , L., “Initiation ceremony and African sculpture”, The American Imago,
X, 1 (New York, 1953), 57-82.
Initiation signifies entry into society. It is often confused with entry into
262
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a secret society, fulfils an educative role (concerning the history and institutions
of the tribe), and provides for women a training in adjustment to men.
S ic a r d , H . v o n , “Die Initiation im Monomutapa-Reich”, Ethnos I-II (Stock­
holm, 1941), 42-7.
According to the information provided by the literature on the subject,
initiation, from the 15th until the 17th c., existed for girls as much as for boys,
which does not seem to be the case any longer in the areas concerned, parti­
cularly since the introduction of Christianity. (Bibliographie Ethnographique
du Congo Beige, 1941).
S o u r in , R. P., “L’initiation des jeunes filles chez les Kabres (Nord Togo)”,
Notes Africaines, XXXVI (Dakar, 1947), 18-21.
Account of the initiation rites for Kabre girls; they represent the transition
from childhood to adulthood.
S p a g n o l o , L. M., “Some notes on the initiation of young men and girls in the
Bari tribe”, Africa , V (1932), 393-403.
The Bero na kd disi, a rite of passage for girls, consists of several stages: at
15, 17, 18, 19, 20 years of age. Karin ti ber na k d ’disi, the names of the age-
classes in several Bari tribes.
T h il e n iu s , G., “Die Madchenbeschneidung der Basotho”, Archiv fur Anthro -
pologie , XIII (Braunschweig, 1915), 72-5, ill.
The initiation takes place between May and September as soon as there
are thought to be enough girls of between ten and 15. It includes all sorts of very
painful physical tests of endurance, of which clitoridectomy is one. During the
operation the girl must not show that she is suffering, under penalty of punish­
ments which may even go so far as being put to death.
T w a l a , R. G., “Umhlanga (reed) ceremony of the Swazi maiden”, African
Studies , XI, 3 (Johannesburg, 1952), 93-104.
The task of gathering reeds for the royal and chiefly dwellings is kept for
girls, and it is accompanied by carefully organized ceremonies of a religious
nature which form an initiation, particularly a sexual initiation.
V a n B u g g e n h o u t , H., “Coutumes d’initiation”, Bull, des Juridictions indigenes
et du Droit coutumier congolais, 1 ,1 (Elisabethville, 1933), 8.
Notes on girl’s initiation rites and ceremonies held within the family frame­
work, such as are found among the Balunda, Chokwe, Dembo, Aluenan ad
Kawonde of the High Kasai, in the Belgian Congo and in Angola.
V a ssa l , J., “Une mutilation des organes g6nitaux des femmes noires banda: le
ganza”, La Presse midicale , LXXVI (Paris, 23 Sept. 1925), 1275-8.
Description of a [Banda] ceremony during which the women undergo the
ganza ( = excision), followed by dances. This operation is performed on a fixed
date, but the age of the patients varies between 15 and 25. The men are present
at the ceremony.
Vil l e n e u v e , A., d e , “£tude sur une coutume somalie: les femmes cousues”,
Journal de la Societd des Africanistes, VII (Paris, 1937), 15-32.
Excision and infibulation are practised [in Somaliland] on girls before
puberty by their mother or by the gedda (grandmother). The husband makes
an opening at the time of marriage, and a second is necessitated at confine­
ment, after which the tom tissues heal again immediately.
W a l k , L., “Initiationszeremonien und Pubert&tsriten der stidafrikanischen
Stamme”, Anthropos, XXIII (Posieux (Freiburg), 1928), 861-966, bibl.
263
WTA 10
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Description of initiation rites in various South African tribes: they include
a period of seclusion (except among the Matabele) which—among the
Bechuana for example—may last as long as three months. Entry into adult
life is marked by mutilations, tattooings, excision, a change in clothing and
ornaments.
W e n s , A. F., “Coutumes d’initiation”, Bull, des Juridictions indigenes ef du
Droit coutumier congolais, I, 1 (Elisabethville, 1933), 9.
Among the Balumba, only the girls go through the ceremony of kisungu.
W h it e , C. M. N., “Conservatism and modern adaption in Luvale female puberty
ritual”, Africa, XXIII, 1 (1953), 15-24.
Changes are at present taking place in puberty rites. Their importance lies
in their being one of the integrative factors in social life. They include sexual
instruction and instruction in the use of contraceptives.
W h i te , C . M . N ., C h i n j a v a t a , J. and M u k w a t o , L., “Comparative aspects of
Luvale puberty ritual”, African Studies, XVII, 4 (Johannesburg, 1958), 204-20,
bibl.
Luvale and Bemba puberty rites are compared, and then the parallel female
and male Luvale rites in their order: entry, seclusion, coming-out rites.
W i l l o u g h b y , W. C., “Notes on the initiation ceremonies of the Bechwana”,
Journ. of the Roy. Anthr. Inst., XXXIX (1909), 228-45.
Mostly on ceremonies for boys but with reference to parallel ceremonies
for girls.
W ils o n , M., The ritual of puberty and marriage, in Rituals of kinship among the
Nyakusa (O.U.P. for Int. Af. Inst., 1957), pp. 86-129.
“The puberty ritual for girls . . . is fused with the marriage ritual.” They
undergo a period of seclusion, and at the onset of menstruation are given a
treatment to fortify them, instruction in the duties of a wife, and an examina­
tion for virginity. Feasts are held in a girl’s own and in her husband’s family
to celebrate her maturity and virginity.
Z a b o r o w s k i , M., “De la circoncision des gargons et de l’excision des filles comme
pratiques d’initiation”, Bull, de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris, V, 4th
series (Paris, 1894), 81-104.
On the aims and functions of circumcision and excision. Many examples
from Africa.

WOM EN’S ASSOCIATIONS—AGE GRADES

B a ld e , S., “Les associations d’age chez les Foulbe du Fouta-Djallon”, Bull, de

I*I FAN, I, 1 (Dakar, 1939), 89-109.
Deals with the associations formed by Fulbe [Fulani] children from the age
of four, girls as well as boys. Later these associations become the gire (yirde
for girls) which have their own organization and strict discipline. Membership
ceases about the age of 30 or 40.
B l a c k i n g , J., “Fictitious kinship among girls of the Venda of the Northern
Transvaal”, Man, LIX (1959), 155-7.
This is a traditional institution which operates during initiation and which
now extends to primary and secondary schools: every girl is initiated in three
stages (the author gives details) by her “mother”, a former initiate, whose
264
 Analytical Bibliography
“daughter” she becomes. In the schools, there is the same relationship, but here
the mother is a “play mother”. This relationship seems to continue at least
until marriage. In the course of this article the author also mentions: the social
stratification (nobles/commoners) which is emphasized at initiation by having
separate schools whenever possible; the position of women among the
patrilinear Venda—they appear to be servile but in fact have considerable
personal influence; moreover it would appear that the more women are able
to preserve their traditional institutions and club together, the better they will
be able to retain their influence.
B u r t o n , W. F. P., “The secret societies of Lubaland (Congo Beige)”, Bantu
Studies, IV, 4 (Johannesburg, 1930), 217-50.
The secret society Bunbudye has both men and women as members; the
latter can be at the head of communities. Organization, activities, initiation of
new members, hierarchy. Women play a less important part in the two other
societies studied, the Bakasanji and the Tupoyo.
C o m h a ir e , J., “La vie religieuse h Lagos”, Zaire, III, 5 (Brussels, 1949), 549-56.
Yoruba market-women form an important class at the head of which is the
lyalode (Mistress of the markets). This class calls itself the Women’s Party and
the Muslim influence is considerable. For women Islam means progress.
D o n n e r , E ., “Togba, a women’s society in Liberia”, Africa, XI (1938), 109-11.
Notes on a women’s society to protect the village against leopards and
“human leopards”, which exist among the Dan and the Mano of Liberia.
(Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1938).
E v e n , A., “Les confreries secretes chez les Babamba et les Mindassa d’Okondja”,
Bull, de la Societe de Recherches congolaises, XXIII-XXIV (Brazzaville, 1937),
31-112.
(See following reference).
— , “Les proprietes malefiques et bdnefiques du sexe de la femme selon les
croyances des Babamba et des Mindassa (Moyen Congo, A.E.F.)”, Bull, et
Mem. de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris, X, 8th series, 1-3 (Paris, 1939),
51-72.
The Babamba and Mindassa of Ogoue believe that woman’s sexual nature
contains beneficent and maleficent powers which a woman may unleash either
consciously (the evil spell of okaghi) or unconsciously (during menstruation
and confinement). From this arises a woman’s way of behaving due to her
strong feeling of sexual shame and also to her desire to neutralize these powers,
and the Lissimbu or Yandza is a women’s association formed in order to
mobilize the protective aspect of these powers by means of ceremonies which
are in the nature of a cult of deceased initiates, a form of totemism, and the
worship of the protective powers. The main feature of the cult consists of
ceremonies of initiation to the society, during which the initiates learn about
the taboos they must observe in order to control the powers within them.
Numerous mimed dances are performed in the course of these ceremonies.
F o r d e , D., “Ward organization among the Yako”, Africa, XX (1950), 267-89.
The Ekuruso is an association for women of matrilineal descent, with ward
organization. It includes a man who is known as “the companion of the
women”. Another association, the Oyonko, is a kind of dance club. The
women’s associations maintain a system of social control independent of that
of the men.
G r e e n , M., Ibo village affairs. Sidgwick & Jackson, 1948, 362 pp. map.

265
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
The result of fieldwork in the villages in the bush. The writer wanted to find
out if there were any women’s secret societies. She came to a negative
conclusion.
H a r l e y , G. W., “Notes on the Poro in Liberia”, Papers o f the Peabody Museum
o f American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge
(Mass.), XIX, 2 (1941), 40 pp. ill. map.
Corresponding to the Poro, the boy’s initiation society among the Mano,
the Geh and the Gio of Liberia, is the Sande society for girls.
H o l d i n g , E. M., “Some preliminary notes on Meru age-grades”, Man, XLII
(1942), 58-65.
Men’s and women’s age-grades in all the Meru clans. Their importance.
— , “Women’s institutions and the African church”, International Review o f
Missions, XXXI, 123 (Edinburgh, 1942), 290-300.
Concerning the Meru of Kenya: importance of their women’s institutions,
need to know about them and study them so as to make them useful allies in
solving certain social problems. The writer makes a special study of girls’
initiation and of the Council of women. (Bibliographic Ethnographique du
Congo Beige, 1943).
J e f f r e y s , M. D. W., “The Nyama society of Ibibio women”, African Studies, XV,
1 (Johannesburg, 1956), 15-28, ill.
Nyama is the name of a women’s society in Nigeria which has the duty of
looking after the initiation of girls before marriage. Women of all ages can
be members. This custom is tending to disappear under the influence of
Christianity.
“Lagos women’s play”, Nigeria, LVIII (Lagos, 1958), 225-37, ill.
The Lagos Child Welfare Mother’s Union makes use of the theatre as a
means of propaganda against the lax morals of town life. The plays, written
by women for women, take up popular themes all to the glory of feminine
qualities.
L a m b e r t, H. E., Kikuyu social and political institutions, O.U.P. for Int. Af. Inst.,
1956, 149 pp.
Chapters IV, VI, VII and IX are about age-classes, their ritual, organization,
social and political functions.
L i t t l e , K. L., “The changing position of women in the Sierra Leone
Protectorate”, Africa, XVIII (1948), 1-17.
Notes on the functions of women in secret societies such as the Sande and
the Poro. They hold hereditary offices and positions of leadership. In some
cases, women are appointed as paramount chiefs.
— , “The Poro society as an arbiter of culture (Sierra Leone)”, African Studies,
VII, 1 (Johannesburg, 1948), 1-15.
Women may become members of the society under certain conditions. There
is only one woman member in each society.
M a c l a t c h y , A., The women’s society, in “L’organisation sociale de la region de
Mimongo (Gabon)”, Bull, de VInstitut d'Etudes Centrafricaines, I, 1 (Brazza­
ville, 1945), 81-2.
The women’s society is called Niembe in distinction to the men’s society
Mwiri. It is a kind of defensive syndicate against the male element. Initiation is
preceded by a severe novitiate.
M a h l o b o , G. W. K. and Krige, E. J., “Transition from childhood to adulthood
among the Zulus”, Bantu Studies, VIII (Johannesburg, 1934), 157-91.
266
 Analytical Bibliography
Age associations (pp. 158-9) exist for both boys and girls. The members of
an association or intanga call each other ntanga, “my equal”.
M a u n y , R., “Masques mende de la societe bundu (Sierra Leone)”, Notes
Africaines, LXXXI (Dakar, 1959), 8-13, ill.
The bundu society is a women’s society, parallel to the Poro for the men.
By means of this society, women exert considerable political influence.
O ’K e l l y , E., “Corn mill societies in Southern Cameroons”, African Women,
I, 1 (1955), 33-5.
Women’s societies originally formed to play the role of co-operatives and to
buy machines. Extension of their activities.
P e d r a l s , D. P. de, “Une curieuse fondation, le Yehoue”, Encyclopedic mensuelle
d'outre-mer, 5th year, IV, 43 (Paris, 1954), 107-8, ill.
The Yehue is a kind of secret sect, an association of a magical-cum-social
nature, composed of women, and with its own rites. Its unavowed aim seems
to be to offer concerted resistance to an oppressive patriarchate. (Bibliographie
Ethnographique du Congo Belge9 1954).
R o u c h , J. and B e r n u s , E., “Notes sur les prostituees toutou de Treichville et
d’Adjame”, Etudes tburniennes,, VI (IFAN, 1957), 231-42, tables.
The tutus or “English prostitutes” come exclusively from British territories
(Nigeria, Ghana) and belong to three ethnic groups: Fanti, Krobo, Ibo. They
are strictly organized into chiefdoms, and have a president at their head. The
article studies the history of their installation, their social organization, the
economic aspect, their relations with the autochthonous peoples and the ties
they maintain with their native countries.
T a s te v i n , C., Sociiti secrete feminine chez les Bakoko du Cameroun9 XVIe
Congrks international d’anthropologie et d’arch6ologie prehistorique, VIe
assemble generale de l’Institut international d’anthropologie, Brussels, 1936,
pp. 901-6.
The fetish of the secret society kof if it is to be efficacious, must have along
with it some pieces of human remains taken from corpses. A woman must be
a responsible person if she is to become a koko. (Bibliographie Ethnographique
du Congo Beige, 1936).
T u r n b u l l , C. M., “Initiation among the BaMbuti Pygmies of the Central
Ituri”, Journ. of the Roy. Anthr. Inst., LXXXVII, 2 (1957), 191-216.
The women’s society Alima is essentially religious; at puberty girls enter it
after an initiation period of one month.
Z u g n o n i, J., “ Yilede, a secret society among the Gbaya (Kreish), Aja, Banda
tribes of the Western district of Equatoria”, Sudan Notes and Records, XXVI, 1
(Khartoum, 1945), 105-11.
A secret society of Banda origin, the members of which are mainly women.
Its aims are independence in relation to one’s husband and with regard to
motherhood, mutual aid, satisfaction of personal revenge. It has initiation
rites for both men and women. Its effects on the birth-rate. (Bibliographie
Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1945).

W ORK
A m es,D., “The economic base of Wolof polygyny”, South Western Journal of
Anthropology, XI, 4 (Albuquerque, 1955), 391-403*
267
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
Polygyny remains resistant to outside influence, husbands and wives both
finding it advantageous. A study of the daily tasks of a woman and of the
activities of co-wives over a period of ten days.
A p p ia - D a b it, B., “Quelques artisans noirs”, Bull, de VIFAN, III, 3-4 ( D a k a r,
1941), 1-44, ill.
Magic prayers, techniques employed by women dyers in French Guinea,
women potters of French Guinea and Senegal.
B a l a n d i e r , G., “Note sur Fexploitation du sel par les vieilles femmes du Bargny”,
Notes Africaines, XXXII (Dakar, 1946), 22.
How old Senegalese women extract salt by evaporation, along the sea-shore,
lagoons connected by marshes. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige,
1950).
B a u m a n n , H., “The division of work according to sex in African hoe culture”,
Africa, I, 2 (1928), 289-319, 2 maps, bibl.
This article deals with the role of women in the development of hoe culture.
B e l c h e r , A., “The future of pottery for African women”, African Women, II,
2 (1957), 28-9.
In 1955 women-potters at Karura and Kangemi formed co-operatives and
gave instruction in making kilns. Local production may increase owing to the
facility of procuring raw materials.
B e u r n i e r , R., “Artisans et artisanes de Saint-Louis-de-Senegal”, Outre-mer
(Algiers, Dec. 1937), 279-300.
Dyeing in particular is a trade carried on solely by women.
B in e t, J., “Condition des femmes dans la region cacaoy&e du Cameroun”,
Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, XX (Paris, 1956), 109-23.
New activities open to women: trade, crafts, plantation work . . .
* C a p e lle , G., “Emploi du personnel feminin dans les entreprises du Congo
Beige” , Bull, de I Institut interafricain du travail, (Brazzaville, March 1959).
C o m h a ir e - S y lv a in , S ., “ Le travail des femmes a Lagos”, Zaire, V (Brussels,
1951), No. 2, pp. 169-87; No. 5, pp. 475-502.
Enquiry into girls’ schools in Lagos (Yoruba). Women who do not work are
rare and come mostly from monogamous families not of Yoruba origin. In
trade, the commonest occupations are shopkeepers, export merchants,
brokers, pawnbrokers, market saleswomen and shop assistants. Women are
also found in industry, teaching, and in the professions.
D u v i e u s a r t , E., Congolese women in trade, in “Note sur le commerce indigene
dans les grands centres extra-coutumiers du Congo Beige”, Problemes Sociaux
Congolais, XLV (Elisabethville, 1959), 80-1.
About 50 per cent of traders are women. Some of them are hawkers, but
most of them trade in the markets. Their trading is not organized, except for
the Lokele women of Stanleyville, whose monopoly and influence are associated
with superstitions.
E l k a n , W., “The employment of women in Uganda”, Bull, de VInstitut Inter­
africain du travail, IV, 4 (Brazzaville, 1957), 8-23.
“In Uganda and East Africa generally, women form an insignificant
proportion of the total labour force and are virtually excluded from manu­
facturing industry.” Outside agriculture, women are employed as teachers,
nurses and prostitutes. The employment of a larger number of women would
be a means of diminishing the instability of the labour force, but the prospects
268
 Analytical Bibliography
of doing so are hedged in by severe limitations both in demand and supply.
Employment of women, see Inter-African Labour Conference.
* F o s b r o o k e , J., “Masai women and their work”, Crown Colonist, XIV (1944),
313-14.
G u e l f i , L., “La femme noire et les formes modernes du travail”, Conseil National
des Femmes fran raises, (Paris, Oct. 1957), 7-14.
Having noted the importance and the economic freedom of women in
traditional societies (referring chiefly to the Dogon and the Malinke), the
writer studies the new forms of economic activitity which African women are
embarking upon, with varying degrees of preparation, in: European and
African plantations of an industrial kind, hospital work, research, office work,
trade, dressmaking, domestic work, industry. The writer also studies legal
protection of working women.
H a r r i s , J. S., “Papers on the economic aspect of life among the Ozuiten Ibo”,
Africa, XIV, 1 (1943), 12-23.
Economic activities of boys and girls of various age-classes. Division of
labour between the sexes.
H a u f e r l i n , C., “La femme africaine: une mSconnue”, Marco Polo, XXVIII
(Paris, 1957), 59-68, ill.
Daily life of a Dahomeyan “business woman” at Miro, a village in South
Dahomey.
H e l l m a n n , E., Rooiyard, Economic life: Revenue contributed by women, in
“Rooiyard: a sociological survey of an African slum yard”, The Rhodes-
Livingstone Papers, Rhodes Livingstone Institute, No. 3 (1948), 37-53.
“Under tribal conditions the Bantu woman was an economic asset; on her
work in the fields the family was dependent for its subsistence. In an urban
area . . . [as here, in Johannesburg] she is of no less economic importance but
the nature of her work has changed.” Most women earn a living by brewing
and selling beer illicitly, although some are employed by Europeans. Owing to
this economic activity, they have become independent and influential members
of the family. This fieldwork was done in 1933-34, but the findings are still
valid for many districts of Johannesburg and other urban centres.
K a b e r r y , P. M., Women o f the Grassfields. A study of the economic position o f
women in Bamenda, British Cameroon, H.M.S.O., 1952, xxi -f 220 pp., 21 pi.
maps (Colonial Research Publications No. 14).
Land tenure, agriculture, division of labour, standards of living.
K o u a o v i, B. M., “Les Tagalakoy ou porteuses d’eau du Niger”, Encyclopedic
mensuelle d'outre-mer, V, 53 (Paris, 1955), 46-7, ill.
The tagalakoy are the women who sell water at Niamey, and who not only
are “characters” but have artistic leanings as well. (Bibliographie Ethnographique
du Congo Beige, 1955).
L e b e u f, J. P., “Foyers kotoko”, Journal de la Society des Africanistes (Paris
1942), pp. 260-3.
These fixed fireplaces are modelled by women.
“Legislation sur le travail des femmes en Afrique au sud du Sahara”, Bull, de
VInstitut interafricaine du travail, II, 2 (Brazzaville, 1955), 29-50.
A study of legislation concerning the employment of women, based on the
archives of the [Inter-African Labour] Institute up to 30 September 1954.
*L o n g m o r e , L ., “Infant mortality in the urban Africa. The African attitude

269
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
towards it in the Witwatersrand”, South African Medical Journal, XXVIII, 14
(Cape Town, 1954), 295-8.
Contains references to the employment of women.
* M a q u e t, E .and W il d e , R . d e , “Les taches quotidiennes de la paysanne
rouandaise”, La Femme et le Congo, 27th year, No. 158 (Brussels, 1957), 6-9,
ill.
Illustrations showing the daily occupation of Ruanda women with comments
by E. Maquet. (Bibliographie Ethnographiques du Congo Beige, 1957).
“Aujourd’hui ou demain, la femme congolaise au travail”,
* M u k e le b w e E b w e ,
La Voix du Congolais, 9th year, No. 88 (Kalina, 1953), 474-6.
The writer puts forward several arguments in favour of the moral education
of native women. {Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1953).
M u rray ,K. C., “Women’s weaving among the Yoruba at Omu-aran in Ilorin
Province”, The Nigerian Field, V, 4 (1936), 182-91, ill.
They do not weave as a regular activity, but only as the need arises.
Description of the work and of the techniques employed.
N em o , J., The economic role of women, in Contributions & Vdtude demographique
et sociologique d 9une ville du Togo: Palimi (Paris, Minist&re de la France
d’Outre-Mer, 1958), pp. 67-74 {Documents et statistiques, N o . 22).
The writer discusses the social significance of the economic activities of
women. Three traditional occupations are still found: agriculture, dressmaking,
petty trade; the last is the most important of these occupations and forms a
new economic sector occupied entirely by women, that of the middleman.
This accentuates the economic independence of women. Recently an upper
social stratum has come into being, recruited from the Westernized well-to-do,
and forming a new bourgeoisie.
N sim bi, M. B., “Village life and customs in Buganda”, Uganda Journal, XX, 1
(Kampala, 1956), 27-36.
Division of labour between the sexes.
O t t e n b e r g , P. V., The changing economic position of women among the
Afikpo Ibo, in Bascom, W. and Herskovits, M.J., Continuity and change in
African cultures (University of Chicago Press, 1959), pp. 205-23.
Pottery, trade, agriculture, are the traditional economic activities of women
at Afikpo, a rural community in Nigeria. The introduction of cassava, a crop
cultivated solely by women, has enabled them to become economically
independent and to extend their activities.
P a u lm e , D., “La femme africaine au travail”, Presence Africaine, XIII (Paris,
1952), 116-23.
Sexual division of labour; economic independence of women owing to
aptitude for trade which enables them to accumulate possessions quite separate
from those of their husband.
— , “Peintures murales et pierres kissi”, Marco Polo, XX (Paris, 1956), 43-54, ill.
Decoration, done by women, of replastered hut-walls, mostly representing
scenes of agricultural or domestic work.
P a u w e l s , M., “Les couleurs et les dessins du Ruanda”, Anthropos, XLVII, 3-4
(Posieux (Freiburg), 1952), 474-82, ill.
It is only Tutsi women who use the colour red. It is also the women who
maintain the traditional knowledge of the meaning of the designs they use in
basketwork.
270
 Analytical Bibliography
‘Tottery in Ghana”, African Women, II, 4 (1958), 84-5.
Pottery is women’s work.
S t r a n g w a y , A. K., “The advance of African women in Angola”, African Women,
I, 4 (1956), 79-84.
A new division of labour between the sexes and new responsibilities for
women among the Ovimbundu.
“Travail coutumier et la situation sociale en Afrique noire frangaise”, Bull, de
Vlnstitut interafricain du travail (Brazzaville, Dec. 1953), 528-43.
Repercussions of the new economic and social structure on the African
family and on women’s work.
“Women of Ghana make successful traders”, Ghana to-day, III, No. 19 (1959).
A very brief article showing the aptitude of women for trade. They are
beginning to organize themselves.

ORNAM ENTS
A le x a n d e r, D., “Notes on ornaments of the Wondeo pagans who are a section
of the Marghi pagans (females only)”, Man, XI (1911), 1,4 photos.
Some notes on feminine ornaments from childhood to marriage.
A p p ia - D a b it, B., “Notes sur quelques bijoux senegalais”, Bull de VIFAN, Series
B, V, 1-2 (Dakar, 1943 [1948]), 27-33.
Tukulor and Wolof jewellery in filagree gold, alloyed with copper.
A r n o t , A. S., “Reproductions of five Aro Ibo designs used by women for skin
decorations”, Nigeria, XIV (Lagos, 1938), 113.
Five reproductions without text.
“Bijoux en paille et poupees de cire sonrai k Tombouctou”, Notes Africaines,
LI (Dakar, 1951), 84-8, ill.
Jewellery in plaited and coloured straw worn and made by women.
B l a n c h a r d - Z a b o r o w s k a , R. and J o y e u x , C., “Sur quelques coiffures indigenes
en Afrique Occidentale Frangaise”, Revue anthropologique, LVI (Paris, 1920),
124-8, ill.
Hair styles for children, young women, and the mother of a circumcised boy,
in the Upper Volta.
B o h a n n a n , P., “Beauty and scarification among the Tiv”, Man, LVI (1956),
117-21, ill.
Women have scarifications on the face and on the body, usually the back
and the legs.
B o y le , V. C., “The marking of girls at Ga-Anda”, Journal o f the African Society,
XV (1915-16), 361-6, 4 pi.
The first tattooings at f}ve years old, then at seven and at nine. Then a
woman’s whole body is tattoed all over. The Twa markings are slightly different.
C r a s t e , L., “Variations sur la coiffure feminine en A.O.F.”, Monde Colonial
Illustrl, 26th year, No. 225 (Paris, 1948), 99-101.
A series of sketches of [French] West African women, showing the great
variety of hair styles.
D e c x jrse , J., “Le tatouage, les mutilations ethniques et la parure chez les popula­
tions du Soudan”, VAnthropologie, XVI (Paris, 1905), 129-47.
Mutilations of women’s ears, nose and lips for aesthetic purposes.
271
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
D e lo n c le , P., La parure fiminine aux colonies, Paris, Agence des Colonies, 1945,
32 pp. ill.
All varieties of femine ornament: hair styles, jewellery, clothing. Africa is
particularly noted for hair styles.
D u p u is - Y a k o u b a , A., Jewellery, hair styles, in “Notes sur Tombouctou”, Revue
d'Ethnographie et de Sociologie, V (Paris, 1914), 254-9, ill.
Account, with drawings, of the various types of jewellery in use at Timbuktu;
hair styles according to age, class (free women, slaves).
G e o F o u r r i e r , G ., The “Femmes k plateaux” [Disc-women], La Nature, No.
2928 (Paris, 1934), 400-3.
The writer rejects the theory that Sara women wear discs as a protection
against being carried off in raids, or that the wearing of discs is out of respect
for the totem of the tribe. He thinks it is to be explained by the exaggerated
liking for adornment found in African women.
* G o e m a e re , G., “Le pagne”, Jeune Afrique, 7th year, No. 21 (1954), 28-30.
On the multi-coloured cotton gowns worn by Congolese women today, and
on the charm of this “national costume”. (Bibl. Ethn. du Con. Bel. 1954).
H e r z o g , R., “Der rahat, eine fast verschwundene Madchentracht im Ostsudan”,
Baessler-Archive n.f. IV, 1 (Basel, 1956), 1-12, ill, bibl.
Introduced from Arabia, the rahat was worn by girls, and destroyed by the
husband on the day of their marriage. It was a fringed leather sash decorated
with glass beads, cowries, etc. according to the region. It has practically
disappeared.
H o l a s , B., “Notes sur le vetement et la parure baoule”, Bull, de VIFAN, Series B,
XI, 3-4 (Dakar, 1949), 438-57.
Historical development of Baule costume; clothing, ornaments, hair styles,
amulets, facial scarifications.
H u n t i n g f o r d , G. W. B., “Notes on the charms worn by Nandi women”, Man,
XXVII (1927), 209-10.
Nandi women wear charms round their neck designed to protect them
against various misfortunes.
L a f o n , S., “ L a parure chez les femmes peul du Bas-Senegal”, Notes Africaines,
XLVI (Dakar, 1950), 37-41.
Description of hair styles, jewellery, ornaments and bracelets of Fulani
women. It is the hair style that distinguishes Wolof Fulani women; their hair
is less fuzzy, longer, and is braided and coiled. (Bibliographic Ethnographique
du Congo Beige, 1950).
L e b e u f, J. P., “Les bijoux parlants des femmes kanouri”, La Terre et La Vie, IX,
4 (Paris, 1939), 124-5.
Description and meaning of the little cylinders of brightly painted millet
stalks worn by Kanuri women (North Cameroon) in their ears.
— , Vitements et parures du Cameroun frangais, Paris, Arc-en-Ciel, 1946, 47 pp.
50 pi. in colour.
Album of coloured illustrations.
L e G a l , J. R., “La parure de la femme en Afrique fiquatoriale”, Sciences et
Voyages, XXIX (Paris, Sept. 1947), 283-4, ill.
Metal necklaces and bracelets are favoured, as well as mutilations and
scarifications (lips, ears). But it is above all the hair style to which women give
most attention.
272
 Analytical Bibliography
L e m b e z a t,B., Eve noire, Neuchatel, Paris, fid. Ides et Caiendes, 1952, 64 pp.
Album of photographs of African women, mostly from the Middle Congo
and French Cameroon, commented by B. Lembezat.
L e q u e s, R., “ L a mode actuelle chez les Dakaroises (etude de psychologie
sociale)”, Bull, de VIFAN, Series B, XIX, 3-4 (Dakar, 1957), 431-45, ill.
Results of an enquiry in which 4,000 women were questioned, mainly about
colours.
L e v a r e , A., “En Guinee pittoresque: coiffure et toilette feminine chez les Foul-
bes”, Bull, de la Societe de Geographie, CIII (Algiers, 1925), 329.
Costume of a Fulani woman: it consists of two gowns, one worn on top of
the other, and a bubu or tigare in muslin covering the whole body. The hair
style is very complicated.
L h o te , H., “Bijous en paille de Tombouctou”, Notes Africaines, XXXII (Dakar,
1946), 4-8, ill.
Description of the straw jewellery (chains, rings, earrings) worn by women
of modest means in Timbuktu.
M a rie -A n d rS du S a c r e - C c e u r , S iste r, “ P ro p o s s u r le v e te m e n t e n A friq u e ”
Rhythmes du Monde, IV (L y o n , 1946), 61-70, ill.
Account of traditional clothing in Africa: notes concerning the wearing of
ritual clothing and colours.
M u r a z , G., “Les cache-sexe du centre africain”, Journal de la Socidte des
Africanistes9 II, 1 (Paris, 1932), 103-11, 32 photo.
Among the Sara of Chad.
M u r a z , G . and G e t z o w a , S., “Les tevres des femmes “Djinges” dites femmes k
plateaux”, UAnthropologies XXXIII (Paris, 1923), 103-25.
The discs which Sara-Jinge women wear in their lips are a part of betrothal
rites and a sign of coquetry rather than a form of passive defence against
slavery.
P a t e n o s t r e , D r , “La coiffure chez les Peuls du Fouta-Djallon”, Outre-Mer, III,
4 (Algiers, 1931), 406-19, ill.
Description of hair styles ancient and modem of the Fulani women of
Fouta Djallon and of some hair ornaments.
P a u lm e , D . and B r o s s e , J., Parures africaines, Paris, Hachette, 1956,94 pp. phot,
map.
The origin, meaning, social role and rules concerning ornaments, tattooing
and masks in Africa.
P a u w e l s , M., “La mode au Ruanda”, Kongo-0verzee, XIX, 2-3 (Antwerp, 1953),
234-58, iU.
Ornaments and clothing of girls and women. Hair styles.
“Penteados e adomos femininos das indigenas de Angola”, Boletim General das
Colonias, XXVI, No. 310 (Lisbon), 137-41, 3 phot.
Concerning an exhibition of jewellery and feminine onaments of Angola
held in Lisbon; imaginative ingenuity displayed by the women, particularly
with regard to hair styles.
P r o s t , A., “Les ornaments de nez en Afrique”, Notes Africaines, LXXII (Dakar,
1956), 110-12.
The wearing by women of a metal ring in the right nostril, recorded from
Timbuktu to Ab6ch6, is also found among the Zande.
S c h u l i e n , M. P., “Kleidung und Schmuck bei den Atchwabo in Portugiesisch
Ostafrika”, Anthropos, XXI (Posieux (Freiburg), 1926), 870-920, ill, bibl.
273
 M . Perlman and M. P. Moal
The writer deals with the importance of clothing among the Atchwabo, the
rites and customs in which it plays an important role, jewellery regarded as
ornament or as charms, tattooing of children decided upon by the mother.
T h ia m , B., “La coiffure ‘gossi’ et les bijoux qui lui sont assortis”, Notes
Africaines, XLV (Dakar, 1950), 9-11, ill.
Description of hairdressing done with sisal, worn by Wolof, Diula,
Tukulor, Serere and Bambara women, and the jewellery worn with it.
* V a n d e n B r o u c k e , A., “Haartooi bij de Basuto vrouwen”, Dietschland Zuid-
Afrika, 1st year, 2 (Steenbrugge (Transvaal), 1937), 38-40.
Some notes, with drawings, on how Basuto women arrange their hair.
CBibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1937).
Vassal, G., “Parmi les femmes kouyou sur le Congo”, Monde Colonial Illustre,
VIII (Paris, 1924), 186, ill.
Some notes on tattooings and hair styles along the Kuyu near Mossaka.
“Le Vetement dans l’Union frangaise”, Tropiques, No. 357 (Paris, 1953), special
number.
Articles by Messrs. Labouret, Lhote (on the Saharan frescoes), Muraz
(Sara, Bassari), Le Rumeur (Sahara), Lem (African drapery), Aerts (concerning
African “haute couture”), accompanied by numerous photographs.

POLITICAL ACTIVITIES
A lport, C. J. M., “Kenya’s answer to the Mau-Mau challenge”, African Affairs,
LIII (1954), 241-7.
This is followed by a note (p. 247) on the role of women in the Mau-Mau
movement: they were food-carriers for the troops and played an important
role because of their desire to acquire more land.
♦ B a z e le y , W. S., “Manyika headwomen”, Nada, XVII (Salisbury, 1940), 3-5.
On the Manyika institution of headwomen: their influence is great, and
probably goes back to matriarchal times. A list of the most important head­
women with a biographical sketch of each one. (Bibliographie Ethnographique
du Congo Beige, 1950).
B ie b u y c k , D ., “De mumbo-instelling bij de Banyanga” [The Banyanga institu­
tion of the mumboJ, Kongo-Overzee, XXI, 5 (Antwerp, 1955), 441-8; summary
in African Abstracts, VII (1956), 120-1.
The mumbo, principal wife of the political chief, becomes the real or the
fictitious mother of the heir to the chiefdom.
“The Chieftainship in Basutoland”, African Studies, IV, 4 (Johannesburg, 1945),
157-79.
Judgment of a case in favour of the wife of a chief who had assumed the
regency, which was a recognition of the de facto individual and political rights
of women according to customary Law among the Sotho.
D e H e u s c h , L., Essai sur le symbolisme de Vinceste royal en Afrique, Brussels
Institut de Sociologie Solvey, 1958, 274 pp.
See in particular Chapter III, on “the royal triad”: the king’s mother and
sister share his throne.
D e s c a m p e , E., “Note sur les Bayanzi”, Congo, I, 5 (Brussels, 1935), 685-8.
Documentation on the woman known as mfumu nkento, or wife of the chief’s
clan, her social position.
274
 Analytical Bibliography
H in tz e , V., “Mutterrechtliche Ztige in der Sozialordnung der Akan”, Deutsche
Akademie der Wissenschaften, V (Berlin, Ver8ffentlichung Institut fur deutsche
Volkskunde, 1952), 61-9.
The ohemaa or queen-mother is a woman-chief among the Akan-speaking
peoples (Ghana).
J o s e p h , H., “Women and passes”, Africa South, II, 2 (Cape Town, 1958), 26-31.
The fact that women in the Union of South Africa are obliged to carry
identity papers has aroused in them a resistance which is sometimes passive
and sometimes active and expressed in public demonstrations.
Krige, E. J. and J. D., The realm o f a rain-queen, O.U.P., 1943, 336 pp. 4
maps, ill.
In particular, Chapter X (“Cogs in the political machinery”), which dis­
cusses the political system, with its institutions centred on the queen; and
Chapter XI (“The genius of juridical adjustments”) which studies the juridical
system.
“Lady Paramount Chief: Mme Ella Koblo Gulama, from the Mende of Sierra
Leone”, West Africa, No. 2141 (1958), 391.
Mme Gulama, a district head, is also the first woman deputy. A biographical
notice of her.
M a c k l i n , R. W., “Queens and kings of Niumi”, Man, XXXV (1935), 67-8.
Originally, Niumi was reigned over by queens. Then the men revolted. List
of the queens of Niumi.
Marie-Andre d u SacrS-Cceur, Sister, “L’activite politique de la femme en
Afrique Noire”, Revue juridique et politique de VUnion Frangaise, 8th year
(Paris, Oct.-Dec. 1954), 476-97.
Importance of the women’s political movement.
M u n o n g o , A., “Mort de la mugoli (reine) Mahanga, ancienne femme du Mwami
Msiri et m£re du chef Mafinge Mulongo”, Bull, du CEPSI, XVII (Elisabeth-
ville, 1951), 260-3.
Biographical sketch of the widow of Msiri, who died 25 Feb. 1951, her
character, her social role and her influence.
P e d r a l s , D. P . de, “Une curieuse fondation, le Y6houe”, Encyclopedic mensuelle
d'outre-mer, 5th year, IV, 43 (Paris, 1954), 107-8, ill.
A secret society of a magical-cum-social nature, exclusively composed of
women, the Yehue exerts considerable influence. The writer regards it as a
movement of concerted resistance against an oppressive patriarchate.
* S a a k s e , J., “The visit to Mujaji, the rain-queen”, Nada, XXIX (Salisbury, 1952),
83-6.
The rain-queen of the Lovedu must make way for her successor by com­
mitting suicide; the present queen has put an end to this custom. This article is
an account of the new practice. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1951).
* S e a b u r y , R. I., Daughter o f Africa, Boston, Pilgrim Press, 1945, 144 pp.
Biography of Mina Soga, an African woman who is a Christian leader.
S to r m e , M., “Ngankabe, la pr&endue reine des Baboma”, Mimoires de
VAcadimie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, classe des Sciences morales et
politique, Histoire, n.s. VII, 2 (Brussels, 1956, 8vo), 79 pp. maps.
Biography of Ngankabe: she was not, strictly speaking, queen, but her
energy enabled her to exploit fully the powers which she derived from her
social rank of nkum’okare, princess.
275
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
T ew , D., “A form of polyandry among the Lele of the Kasai”, Africa, XXI, 1
(1951), 1-12.
Description of the institution known as hohombe (wife of the village) among
the Lele of the Kasai; her connection with the political organization of the
village. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1951).
V a n s in a , J., “La&m, gezongen kwaadsprekerij bij de Bushong”, Aequatoria,
XXVIII, 4 (Coquilhatville, 1955), 125-30.
Taunts made by women in public which have moral and social repercussions
and act as a form of sanction.
Y o u l o u - K o u y a , H., “Une adoratrice du Nkouembali”, Liaison (Brazzaville,
1957): No. 57, pp. 27-8; No. 58, pp. 54-6, ill.
A few words concerning the circumstances attending the death of Queen
Ngalifourou (20 April 1956). Her political influence and religious role.

RITUAL FUNCTIONS
B a la n d ie r, G., “Femmes ‘possedees’ et leurs chants”, Presence Africaine, V
(Paris, 1948), 749-55.
About the Lebu of Senegal. The crisis of possession regarded as highly
important: consecration of the possessed person (lefohan). It is followed by
dances and the sacrifice of an animal which is eaten.
C o m h a ir e , J., “La vie religieuse a Lagos”, Zaire, III, 5 (Brussels, 1949), 549-56.
An increasing number of women [in Lagos] are becoming Mohammedans.
Islam represents progress to them, and they have so much influence that it is
possible that, owing to them, Mohammedanism will spread to the detriment
of the Christian religions.
E a r t h y , E . D., “The customs of Gazaland women in relation to the African
church”, International Review o f Missions, XV (Edinburgh, 1926), 662-74.
Description of ritual practices associated with the life of women: discusses
how they might be adapted to Christian principles.
E v e n , A., “Les proprietes mal6fiques et benefiques du sexe de la femme selon
les croyances des Babamba et Mindassa (Moyen Congo, A.E.F.)”, Bull, et
Mdm. de la Soctete d JAnthropologie de Paris, X, 8th series, 1-3 (Paris, 1939),
51-72.
The beneficent and protective powers attributed by the Babamba and
Mindassa to a woman’s sex are called into operation by the women’s associa­
tion known as Lissinbu or Yandza, by means of ceremonies of a ritual nature,
including dances and songs with exorcising powers. The writer concludes that
for these tribes, men and women, in a mystic far more than in a physical sense,
are two kinds of being very different from each other.
F a l k n e r , D., “Witch or what?” Nigeria, XXIII (Lagos, 1946), 105-11.
History of a young girl from the surroundings of Lagos, regarded by her
family as a witch. How she became one and how she was cured.
G lu c k m a n , M., “Zulu women in hoe cultural ritual”, Bantu Studies, IX
(Johannesburg, 1935), 255-71.
Sexual division of labour; the hoe culture is done by women. But women
play a very small part in the ritual ceremonies associated with it, except in the
rites addressed to Nomkubulwana, a sky goddess and the only goddess among
276
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the Bantu of the South-East. The men are strictly excluded from these rites.
H u n t i n g f o r d , G. W. B., “Notes on the charms worn by Nandi women”, Man,
XXVII (1927), 209-10, ill.
Charms made of vegetable matter against illness and the evil eye.
K a b o r e , D. Y., “Les mangeuses d’ames chez les Mossi”, Notes Africaines, XXIV
(Dakar, 1944), 17-18.
The Mossi believe that there are women who “eat” the souls of new-born
children and of adults. How they are discovered and combated.
K o u r o u m a , K ., “Sur une formule de purification des femmes en pays somba”,
Notes Africaines, LXIII (Dakar, 1954), 82-3.
A purification formula [Somba] pronounced by future brides after the
Diokointidi ceremony, the aim of which is to initiate women into adult life and
give recognition to their social status.
K r i g e , E. J. and J. D., The realm o f a rain-queen, O.U.P., 1943, 336 pp. 4 maps,
ill.
See Chapters I, VIII, XIII and XV, on the cults of the drum and of the rain,
ancestral cults, and fertility rites.
M a n d r i n , J., “Les sorcieres mangeuses d’ames”, Grands Lacs, 54th year, No.
4-5-6 (Namur, 1937-38), 189-90.
Notes on some Mossi beliefs and superstitions [concerning the “eaters of
souls”].
M o o r e , G., “The Ila Oso festival at Ozuakoli”, Nigeria, LII (Lagos, 1956],
61-9, 12 phot.
An Ibo ceremony which takes place twice annually: it marks the end of the
agricultural cycle and is placed under the female sign.
R e h se , H., “Die Priestersprache und die Frauensprache der Basinza”, Zeit-
schtift fur Kolonialsprachen, VI (Berlin, 1915-16), 244-50.
[Article on the language spoken by priests and the language spoken by
women among the Basinza.] A rather simple form of esoteric language which
women use among themselves. A glossary accompanies the article.
R u f f i n - P i e r r e , M. P ., “Femmes ‘zebola* ou femmes hant6es par un esprit”, Voix
du Congolais, XIV (Kalina, 1947), 613-14.
Operations carried out by means of sorcery which have to be undergone by
Mongo women who are supposed to be haunted by a spirit.
Z e n k o v s k y , S., “Zar and tambura as practised by the women of Ondurman”,
Sudan Notes and Records, XXXI, 1 (Khartoum, 1950), 65-81.
Zar and tambura are the names of ceremonies held in order to calm the
spirits. The dance of possession is performed by women. The ceremony lasts
for one or for two days. On the second day an animal is sacrificed.

EDUCATION—EM ANCIPATION
African Women, a review published by the Department of Education in Tropical
Areas of the University of London. It is particularly concerned with
education and with the teaching of African girls and women. It contains
information about the new professions open to women and nominations of
native women to official posts.
277
 M . Perlman and M. P. Moal
S., “L’education de la fille dans l’ancienne famille foulah”, Outre-Mer>
B a ld e ,
9th year, IV (Algiers, 1937), 322-30.
Some notes on the education of girls, the position of married women, and
the effects of colonization on Fulani women.
— , “La femme foulah et 1’evolution”, V Education africaine, XCVIII (Goree,
1937), 214-19.
The first part deals with the traditional education of [Fulani] girls. The
second, with the effects of colonialization on the way of life of Fulani women:
a women’s emancipation movement indicates the women’s desire to liberate
themselves from the masculine yoke.
Y., “A training centre for home and family life”, Interna tional Review
B e rg e re t,
o f Missions, XLI, 164 (Edinburgh, 1952), 496-502.
Some notes on the life of Bangante (Bamileke) women. Need for the educa­
tion of girls. Programmes and methods of the Centre for Evangelical Missions
of the Cameroons.
Binet, J., “Condition des femmes dans la region cacaoyfcre du Cameroun”,
Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, XVI (Paris, 1956), 109-223.
Women of today [in the cocoa-growing areas of French Cameroon] are
becoming emancipated, particularly from the point of view of the work they
do; there are among them a large number of retailers of foodstuffs which they
buy in the rural districts. This branching-out in their activities is being done
in close association with their husbands and their husbands’ families.
A. R., Les problimes de Involution de la femme noire, Elisabethville,
B o la m b a ,
L’Essor du Congo, 1949, 167 pp.
Contains statements of sound principles, with a high aim, put into everyday
language, and accompanied by practical examples taken from everyday life.
Why African women must be educated and given a new moral outlook. The
role of women in the home, the family, the education of children. (Bibliographie
Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1949).
B ra n d e l,M., “The African career woman in South Africa”, African Women.
II, 2 (1957), 36-8.
New, westernized way of life of professional women. The principal pro­
fessions open are: nurse, teacher and social worker.
— , “Urban Lobolo attitudes: a preliminary report”, African Studies, XVII, 1
(Johannesburg, 1958), 34-50.
The institution of the lobolo or matrimonial compensation is being adapted
to modem conditions. The writer analyses the attitudes of a group of
African professional women. Her conclusion is that the change in the status
of women is the main factor in the changes in lobolo in the towns. It still
corresponds to the price of a child, and remains a means for uniting two
families. (A review of this article by Professor Vilakazi and Mrs. Brandel’s
reply can be found in African Studies, XVIII, 2 (1959), 80-4).
B u rn e ss, H. N., “The position of women in Gwandu and Yauri”, Oversea
Education, XXVI, 4 (1955), 143-52.
These are two districts of Northern Nigeria inhabited mainly by Hausa and
Fulani: position of girls before marriage, the importance of marriage, general
attitude towards education of women. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1955).
B u r n e t , A. M., “Women at Makerere”, African Women, II, 4 (1958), 78-81.

278
 Analytical Bibliography
The main careers open to women are still those of nurse and teacher, but
new possibilities are opening up.
‘Calabar”, Nigeria , LII (Lagos, 1956), 70-88, ill.
Pp. 83-8, the liberation of Efik women from customs.
♦“Career women of West Africa”, West African Review , XXVI, No. 331,
(Liverpool, 1955), 290-6.
“The Chieftainship in Basutoland”, African Studies, IV, 4 (Johannesburg, 1945),
157-9.
Judgment in a case brought against the chief wife of a deceased chief, upon
her having assumed the regency; the fact that the judgment was in favour of
the woman is proof of the changes taking place among the Sotho in their ideas
about the rights of women.
C h il d , H. F., “Family and tribal structure: status of women”, Nada, XXXV
(Salisbury, 1958), 65-70.
The status of Matabele women. “The emancipation of African women is an
evolutionary process which law cannot control and today growing numbers
are found at work away from their homes.”
C la y , G., “The demonstrations in South Africa. What makes the women
march?”, New York Herald Tribune, New York, 10 Sept. 1959.
A report of the demonstrations of September 1959 in South Africa, led by
women. An account of their living conditions.
C o u l ib a l y , O ., “Sur 1’education des femmes indigenes”, V Education Africaine,
No. 99-100 (Goree, 1938), 33-6.
The African attitude towards the disequilibrium and the faults arising from
the present education of girls.
* D a r d e n n e , E., The role of women in African social and economic development,
in New Education Fellowship, 6th World Conference, Nice, London, 1932.
D a r l o w , M., “The African townswoman in Northern Rhodesia”, African
Women, I, 3 (1955), 57-9.
Women form a third of the urban population; their ages vary from 20 to 40
years. Mention of the educational social centres open to women, particularly
the experiment at Fort Jameson.
♦ D avies , H. O., “Emancipation of women in West Africa”, West African Review
(Liverpool, Feb. 1938), 13-15.
D a v is , J. M., Importance of women’s education (Bantu), in Modern Industry
and the African (1933), pp. 326-9.
The first part deals with the traditional education of children, upon which
women, as guardians of tradition, have great influence. The second part deals
with the influence of Christianity. The education of boys and girls should be
more even, so as to avoid the present lack of balance.
D eb r a , A., “La femme noire dans les centres extra-coutumi&res et les camps de
travailleurs congolais”, Bull, du CEPSI, IX (Elisabethville, 1949), 131-41.
Lack of morals of African women, once they are outside the framework of
ancestral customs. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1949).
D e C a r v a l h o , A., “Instru$ao e educa^o da mulher africana”, Portugal em
Africa, XIII, 74 (Lisbon, 1956), 65-75, table.
The progress of education and the teaching of women in the diocese of
Louren^o Marques. A table gives statistics from 1885 to 1954.
D en o e l , L., A summary of the replies obtained in answer to a questionnaire sent

279

WT a 10
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
out in the Belgian Congo, in La Promotion de la femme au Congo et au Ruanda-
Urundi, Congres National Colonial, 12th session, 1956, pp. 325-42.
Position of women and girls in traditional and non-traditional surroundings.
Their attitudes, desire for emancipation. Obstacles to emancipation, means for
promoting it.
D e v a u x , V., “La femme congolaise et la civilisation europeenne”, Grands Lacs,
65th year, VII (Namur, 1949-50), 5, ill.
Women in the Congo have been later in coming into contact with European
civilization than the men, fewer of them have done so, and under less favourable
conditions. How to deal with the question of their education. (.Bibliographie
Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1950).
* D o b s o n , B., “Woman’s place in East Africa”, Corona, VI, 12 (1954), 454-7.
Notes on the position of native women in East Africa, traditional forms of
education; how best to promote their emancipation, especially by means ol
schools. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1954).
D o u g l a s , R. L., “Education for African girls”, West African Review, XXVI, No.
335 (Liverpool, 1955), 743-8, ill.
The problem of women’s education in Africa; how it presents itself in the
various British African territories. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1955).
D r i c o t , F., “Jeunesse feminine dans un camp de travailleurs au Katanga”,
Cahiers des Auxiliaires laiques des Missions, 10th year, 3 (Brussels, 1951),
25-35.
Problems posed by the persistence of customary ideas in bringing up girls
(initiation, the prohibition against girls who have reached puberty living with
their parents) in non-traditional surroundings [a workers’ camp].
D u r t a l , J., “Ou en est la femme noire?”, Hommes et Mondes, XXVIII, 111
(Paris, 1955), 366-76.
Position and outlook of the emancipated young [African] woman; obstacles
to women’s emancipation (mainly bridewealth and customary marriage).
D u t i l l e u x , G., “La femme detribalisee du centre extra-coutumier”, Bull, du
CEPSI, VI, 14 (ElisabethviUe, 1950), 100-14.
The writer studies the problems posed [by detribalized women in non-
traditional surroundings] and how they appear to women interviewed in
ElisabethviUe; in particular, prostitution arising from the shortage of women;
the instability of marriage, and conflicting ideas of men and women on
marriage; women seek for some kind of security by joining women’s associa­
tions.
— , “L’opinion des femmes du centre extra-coutumier d’Elisabethville sur le
mariage, la famille, l’education des enfants”, Bull, du CEPSI, XVII (Elisabeth­
viUe, 1951), 219-23.
Takes up problems raised in the foregoing article.
“L’Education de la population africaine feminine dans un milieu industriel du
Haut-Katanga”, Problemes Sociaux Congolais, Bull, du CEPSI, XLIV,
ElisabethviUe, 1959.
This booklet contains a series of articles concerned with problems of the
education of women (schools, adult education) and of children in industrial
surroundings; social work and medicine in the Belgian Congo.
* E v a n s, J. D., “Education of the Sudanese girl”, Oversea Education, II (1930),
25-32.
280
 Analytical Bibliography
“L’Evolution de la femme africaine”, VAfrique en marche, XII-XIII (Paris,
1958), 38-40, ill. table.
Historical outline of votes for women, their political role, percentage of
women’s votes.
L’Evolution de la femme et de la famille en Afrique [changes in the position of
women and in the family in Africa], in Problimes sociaux africains, Comptes
rendus des entretiens internationaux sur l’Afrique, CHEAM, Paris, 23-28 Oct.
1950, pp. 22-30.
Contributions by Miss Gwilliam, S. A. Ogilvie and Sister Marie-Andre du
Sacre-Coeur on the position and role of women in the new African society, the
position of women wage-eamers or wives of wage-eamers; importance of the
education of women for the development of family life.
F o r t e s , M., Social and psychological aspects o f education in Taleland, O.U.P.,
1938, 64 pp. pi. (Memorandum 17, Supplement to Africa, XI, 4).
This study contains a survey of the social environment of the children,
attitude of parents and children; games; a synoptic chart of the education of
children of both sexes aged from three to 15 years.
G i l l a r d , M. L., “La c o n d itio n d e la fe m m e n o ir e ” , Centre d' Etudes et de
documentation sociales de la province de Liege, VIII, 10 (Lfege, 1954), 549-59.
General comments on what Belgium has done for the Congo, especially for
Congolese women.
* G w illia m , F. H. and R e a d , M., Report on the education o f women and girls
in Northern Rhodesia, 1947, Lusaka, Government Printer, 1948, 8 pp.
Need for varied careers for Africans; increased roll at secondary schools.
CD. Forde, ed., Annoted Bibliography o f Tropical Africa, New York, The
Twentieth Century Fund, 1956).
— , Report on the education o f women and girls in Nyasaland, Aug.-Sept. 1947,
Zomba, Government Printer, 1948, 8 pp.
Education in hands of missions; demand for government action; women
should be trained in home economics, literacy and as matrons. (D. Forde, ed.,
Annotated Bibliography o f Tropical Africa).
H e l l m a n , E ., “Rooiyard: a sociological survey of an African slum yard”, The
Rhodes-Livingstone Papers, No. 3, 1948, 125 pp.
In particular the chapter: “Economic life: revenue contributed by women”
(pp. 37-53); the revenue is to a large extent acquired by the brewing and
(illicit) sale of beer. This trade is changing the status of women, for they are
acquiring independence and control of their own lives (widows and women
who have been abandoned prefer to make their own living by this trade rather
than return to their own families). The trade has given rise to an association
of the nature of a mutual aid society or a savings bank. These data collected
in Johannesburg in 1933-34 are still valid, and for other urban centres as well.
H o l a s , B., “L’evolution du schema initiatique chez les femmes oubi”, Africa,
XXVII, 3 (1957), 241-50.
Initiation customs among Ubi women (Ivory Coast) are in the process of
changing owing to new social conditions.
H o l l e m a n , J. F., “The African woman in town and tribe”, The Listener, No.
1,436 (4 Oct. 1956), 496-7 and 509.
In a rural environment a woman is dependent on her family. In an urban
environment kinship relations weaken and new relations of equality arise
between husband and wife.
281
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
H u ls ta e rt, G., “L’instruction des filles”, Aequatoria, 14th year, IV (Coquilhat-
ville, 1951), 128-9.
The real causes of backwardness of African women of the Congo.
H u n t e r , M., “The effects of contact with Europeans on Pondo women”, Africa,
VI (1933), 259-76.
Revolutionary changes in economic life and the breakdown of the former
system of social organization (ukulobola) have created a new conception of the
social position of women. Women are becoming emancipated from every
point of view.
Iyeki, J. F., “Un pas de plus vers la promotion de la femme noire”, Voix du
Congolais, 12th year, No. 129 (Kalina, 1956), 859-63.
[“One step further in the advance of women”]. The writer had had a con­
versation with Mme Nkumu, the first Congolese woman to have a seat on the
City Council of Leopoldville. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige,
1956).
J a h o d a , G., “Boys’ images of marriage partners and girls’ self-images in Ghana”,
Sociologus, n.s. VIII, 2 (Berlin, 1958), 155-69, table.
As a form of test, the writer showed pictures of girls in African dress and
girls in European dress to 60 Accra schoolboys and 60 schoolgirls aged from
six to 18 years, and asked for their opinions. He thus showed the attitude of
educated boys towards marriage and the girls* views on their future.
K a g a m e , A., Girls’ education, in “Les organisations socio-familiales dans
l’ancien Ruanda”, Memoires de VAcadimie royale des Sciences coloniales,
Classe des Sciences morales et politiques, XXXVIII, 3 (Brussels, 1954, 8vo),
250-5.
The traditional education of Ruanda girls, given by their mothers, is a whole­
time preparation for married life.
L e a k e y , L . S. B., “The Kikuyu problem of the initiation of girls”, Journ. o f the
Roy. Anthr. Inst,. XLI (1931). 277-85.
The writer discusses the reasons for Kikuyu opposition to changes in their
custom of girls’ initiation and makes his own suggestions about the matter.
(See Initiation).
L e B e r . A., D e m b a E. and Ki, J., “Education de la femme”, Servir Outre-mer,
IX (Paris, Secretariat social d’Outre-mer, 1952), 27-54.
Three essays on the education of African women: what has been done, what
still requires to be done.
L e b l a n c , M., “Probl&mes de l’education de la femme africaine”, La Revue
Nouvelle, 13th year, XXV, 3 (Brussels, 1957), 257-75.
“The mother . . . is the repository of the traditional values of Bantu cos­
mology . . . If we knew more about the cosmology by which their behaviour
is inspired, we might find the real motivations of the Bantu soul which could
become the driving-force for new forms of education.” The problem in fact is
that of “changing the attitudes of both men and women in the Congo”. [Trans,
of excerpts from original text].
*Le G o f f , G ., “L’enseignement des filles en A.O.F.”, L' Education Africaine,
26th year, XCVII (Dakar, 1937), 189-99.
Girls are educated by their mothers; it is a practical education, carried out
by performing the daily tasks. Three stages for girls* education, programmes.
*— , “L’education des filles en A.O.F.: l’education d’une fillette indigene par sa
famille”, Oversea Education, XVIII, 4 (1947), 547-63, ill.
282
 Analytical Bibliography
Description of the education of a girl in French West Africa: village life
described, and how the mother educates her child. The difficulties met with
when children are sent to school. (Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo Beige.
1947-48).
L e ith - R o s s ; S., “The rise of a new elite among the women of Nigeria”, Inter­
national Social Science Bulletin, VIII, 3 (Paris, UNESCO, 1956), 481-8.
Extension of education, consequences. The position of a feminine elite seems
more secure since the women have not moved so far away from the masses.
Liaison, Brazzaville, 1957: No. 57, pp. 5-7; No. 58, pp. 30-4.
Two articles: the first by an African woman (“Homme africain, qu’as-tu
dans la tete?” [African man, what is in your mind?]), accusing men of
negligence and laziness; the second by an African man (“La corruption des
mceurs des femmes dites evoluSes” [The corruption of morals of women who
are supposed to be emancipated]) who replies that the fiightiness of African
women is undeniable and often comes from their parents.
L i t t l e , K. L., “The changing position of women in the Sierra Leone Protect­
orate”, Africa, XVIII, 1 (1948), 1-17.
After describing the life of a Mende woman from birth on in the old society,
the writer then discusses the position of women in the new society in formation,
where money and economic activity are the criteria of social status. The status
of women is not very high, as their economic activities are on quite a small
scale.
— , “Two West African elites”, International Social Science Bulletin, VIII, 3
(Paris, UNESCO, 1956), 495-8.
At Keta, Nigeria, associations have been formed, some of which are exclusiv­
ely for women, such as the Keta Women’s Institute, which serves both to
channel women’s opinions and as a pressure group.
L o m b a r d , J., “Cotonou, ville africaine. Tendances evolutives et reaction des
coutumes traditionelles”, Bull de VIFAN, XVI, 3-4 (Dakar, 1954), 341-77.
Chapters V and VI deal with changes in the family [in the town of Cotonou]
and more particularly in the behaviour of women, who, because of being away
from the family head and from the village, feel freer to act as they choose.
They often refuse to countenance polygyny and the men are thus led to
contract unions with unattached women. The break with the family environ­
ment gives rise to an increase in prostitution. A reaction is forming to this
development, one feature of which is that girls are being sent back to the
village, from the age of ten until marriage, in order to be given the traditional
upbringing.
* L o n g m o r e , L ., The dispossessed: a study o f sex-life o f Bantu women in urban
areas in and around Johannesburg, Cape, 1959, 334 pp.
♦ M a c m a th , A. M ., “Developments in female education in Sierra Leone”,
Oversea Education (Oct. 1939), 30-4; (Apr. 1943), 108-12.
M a c n a m a r a , C. T., “Women are going to school in Africa”, World Mission, X,
1 (New York, 1959), 18-28.
With the disappearance of former laws many of the obstacles to women’s
education have gone. Mostly about Kenya.
M a g d a l e n , S i s t e r , “Education of girls in Southern Nigeria”, International
Review o f Missions, XVII, 67 (Edinburgh, 1928), 505-14.
Some principles to follow in order to give girls a sound Christian education
without making too abrupt a break with native customs.
283
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
“Vers revolution de la femme indigene
M a rie -A n d re d u S a c re -C c e u r, S is te r,
en A.O.F.”, Le Monde Colonial Illustre, 16th year, No. 178 (Paris, 1938), 68-9.
The second part of this article [on the advance of native women in French
West Africa] studies the changes in customs that have actually taken place,
which must be followed by legal reforms which will give women their liberty.
— , Education and the African woman, in Rapports et Comptes rendus de la 24e
Semaine de Missiologie de Louvain, 1954, (Brussels, Desclee de Brouwer),
pp. 44-62.
The situation as regards the education of girls and women in French Africa,
the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi, and Uganda.
— , Civilisations en marche, Paris, Grasset, 1956, 252 pp. ill. maps.
The writer raises the problems of family life in Uganda, in the Belgian Congo
and Ruanda Urundi, and shows how important it is for the social and cultural
development of Africa as to whether women are to form a feminine 61ite or
simply be housewives. The importance of the work of the Christian missions
is underlined, and also the obstacles still in the way of women’s emancipation.
— , “Evolution dela femme africaine”, Grands Lacs. No. 188 (Namur, 1956-57), 16.
In workers* camps, Congolese women have a lot of time on their hands
which they should be taught to employ usefully. As well as being educated to
become wives and mothers in monogamous families, they should be given
some preparation for playing their part in public affairs.
J., “L’ceuvre missionaire pour la population feminine au Congo”,
M a rth e y ,
Revue de VHistoire des Colonies, XLIV, 154 (Paris, 1957), 79-101.
The author studies the educational, family-welfare and social work of the
Missions among the Bateke.
R., “La femme noire en Afrique frangaise”, Le Monde Colonial
M a u n ie r,
Illustre (Paris, 1939), pp. 143-4.
In particular, the position of women [in French Africa] and the changes
brought about by legislation.
*M axeke, C. M ., The progress of native womanhood in South Africa, in J. D.
Taylor (ed.), Christianity and the natives of South Africa, a yearbook of South
Africa Missions, Lovedale, Institution Press, 1928, 503 pp.
“Some attempts at feminine education in the Cameroons”,
M i k o la s e k , M .,
International Review of Missions, XLI (Edinburgh, 1952), 493-5.
Attempts to educate Bamileke women and girls by combining Western and
native principles.
* M issia, “L’education de la femme en pays kivu”, Afrique Ardente, 19th year,
LXXXII (Brussels, 1954), 14-18.
Some notes on social relations in the region of Kivu: kinship rights, inherit­
ance. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige, 1954).
M o b e , A. M ., “Encore un mot au sujet de la prostitution”, Voix du Congolais,
10th year, XCV (Kalina), 82-7.
Some aspects of prostitution in the Belgian Congo: its principal causes
(extremely high bride price, polygyny, exodus of young men to the industrial
centres . . .), ways of combating it.
H., “The contribution of educated African women to the Uganda of
* N e a tb y ,
today”, East and West Review, XX, 3 (1954), 67-72.
About half the African women who have received a good education are
284
 Analytical Bibliography
capable of taking their place in society as equals with men and are capable
of leading a feminine movement.
* N g o n y a m a , S., “The education of the African girl”, Nada, XXXI (Salisbury,
1954), 57-8.
Family resistances which still have to be overcome by every girl who wants
to go to school in Southern Rhodesia. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1954).
♦ N i c o l l e t . A., “La femme, la famille et les changements economiques en Afrique
Noire”, Cahiers de Sociologie economique, I (Le Havre, June 1959).
O t t e n b e r g , P . V., The changing economic position of women among the Afikpo
Ibo, in W. Bascom, and M. J. Herskovits, Continuity and change in African
cultures (University of Chicago Press, 1959), pp. 205-23.
In a rural environment such as Afikpo, the introduction of cassava has led
to an increase in women’s personal resources. They no longer depend on their
husbands for subsistence and make a larger contribution to the family budget.
They assume more authority, and the most interesting thing is, how they spend
their increased income: instead of buying traditional titles to prestige as the
men continue to do, they prefer to spend it on material improvements and on
sending their children to school. Some notes comparing the activities of women
in semi-urban with those in urban surroundings.
P e t i t , M., “Les filles noires devant l’Scole familiale”, La Nouvelle revue pddago-
gique, XII, 1 (Toumai, 1957), 35-8.
Education must be organized in a way that takes account of the fact that
African girls pass from childhood to adult life without any transition period;
hence it is necessary to create a “timespace”, that is to say a period of adoles­
cence during which girls can be given an education both mental and practical.
P e t r e , M. M., “Promotion feminine dans un centre extra-coutumier d’Afrique
centrale”, Perspectives de catholicite, 16th year, IV (Brussels, 1957), 43-52.
Aspects of the advance of women due to Christian missions and their work,
at Kindu, Belgian Congo.
P o w d e r m a k e r , H., “Social change through imagery and values of teen-age
Africans in Northern Rhodesia”, American Anthropologist, LVIII (Washington,
New York, 1956), 783-813.
The attitudes of Bemba adolescents towards traditional or European ways of
life differ as between girls and boys. Generally speaking, the girls are more
sensitive to manifestations of racial prejudice and more hostile to the Whites
than the boys; the latter, because of their closer contact with Europeans, have
become more open to influence. The position of women in traditional society
provides a natural explanation for the girls’ attitude. Both girls and boys want
to be educated and want to live in the towns and escape from the toils of
heavy labour.
R e a d , M., Migrant labour in Africa and its effects on tribal life, Montreal, Inter­
national Labour Office, 1943, 27 pp.
The writer studies the migration of men in Nyasaland and southwards, and
raises the problem this involves of the position of women left alone in the
villages, upon whom necessity imposes an ever increasing economic
independence.
R e ti f , A., “Vers la liberation de la femme camerounaise”, Etudes, 88th year,
CCLXXXIV, 1 (Paris, 1955), 80-8.
In traditional society, a woman is dependent on her family, then on her
285
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
husband, this dependence being aggravated by the degradation of the payment
of bridewealth. Education ought to be at once practical and moral, designed
to teach women their proper value.
♦ R e y h e r , R . H., Zulu woman, O.U.P., 1948, 282 pp.
Without being an ethnographic study, this book has a certain documentary
interest, since it gives the impressions of a woman, Christina Sibiya, the wife
of Solomon king of the Zulus, about her home surroundings and her position
as co-wife, and shows how this woman, who was an educated Christian,
adapted to a traditional environment. (Man (1948), No. 162).
S c h a p e r a , I., “Premarital pregnancy and native opinion. A note on social
change”, Africa, VI (1933), 59-89.
Changes in traditional attitudes towards premarital sexual relations and
pregnancy under European, and particularly Christian, influence. Customary
sanctions have almost disappeared, and religious sanctions only touch a very
small proportion of the population. A certain amount of licence ensues.
Detailed study of these changes among the Kxatla.
S e n g h o r , L. S.. “Involution de la situation de la femme en A.O.F.”. Marches
Coloniaux, 6th year, CCXXVI (Paris, 1950), 541-2.
In the old form of society, a woman was not regarded as “inferior”: she
was a person, in the same way as a man was. Nowadays, all the girls on leaving
school (to become teachers, midwives, nurses, stenographers, and soon
lecturers, doctors, lawyers) earn their own living and are less and less willing
to accept inequality.
S h a n n o n , M. I., “Women’s place in Kikuyu society. Impact of modem ideas on
tribal life. A long-term plan for female education”, African World, (Sept. 1954),
7-10.
There have not yet been many changes in the position of Kikuyu women.
The chief reforms needed concern bridewealth, and education, which at
present does not last long enough and offers too narrow a choice of careers.
S im o n s, H. J., “African women and the law in South Africa”, The Listener, LV,
1416 (1956), 626-7 and 644.
Native women in South Africa are in the process of disengaging themselves
from the tutelage imposed on them by the three legal systems in force. They
are becoming increasingly important as a social factor, particularly, they
constitute a dynamic force in the face of masculine conservatism.
* S i r e t, M., “La situation des femmes abandonees et des femmes seules dans
les centres extra-coutumiers d’Usumbura”, Bull, du CEPS1, XXXII (Elisabeth-
ville, 1956), 250-68.
In an introductory note the demographic situation in Usumbura is discussed,
the reasons why women are abandoned by their husbands, their position, the
position of widows, possible solutions. (Bibliographic Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1956).
S o h ie r , A., “Evolution de la condition juridique de la femme indigene au Congo
Beige”, Comptes rendus de la 24e session de VInstitut Colonial International,
Rome, 1939, (Brussels, 1939), pp. 149-217.
A study of the legal status of unmarried and married native women, first in
customary law, and then in the legal system of the Independent Congo State.
— , “La reforme de la dot et la liberty de la femme indigene”, Bull, des Juri-
dictions indigenes et du Droit coutumier congolais, 18th year (Elisabethville,
1950): No. 7, pp. 217-21; No. 9, p. 286.
286
 Analytical Bibliography
Concerning legislative measures limiting the amounts paid in bridewealth
and declaring null any marriage concluded without the consent of the woman.
S o h i e r - B r u n a r d , Mme., The lack of preparation of the native women of the
Congo for the tasks imposed on them by contact with our way of life, in
“L’Enseignement k dispenser aux indigenes dans les territoires non auto-
nomes”, Cahiers de VInstitut Solvay, I (Brussels, Lib. Encyclopedique, 1951),
74-87.
Boarding schools and mixed schools are needed and women must gain
economic independence; the article also studies the work done by the Social
Centre and the consequences of the suppression of polygyny brought into force
in 1950.
♦“South African Institute of Race Relations. The employment of native girls
trained in domestic service at native training institutions”. South African
Outlook, LXII (1932), 6-9.
“Status of women in Togoland and the Cameroons”. African Women, 1,4 (1956),
95-8.
New activities, political and, especially, professional, for women. Girls’
education, obstacles encountered.
S t r a n g w a y , A. K., “The advance of African women in Angola”. African
Women>I, 4 (1956) 79-84.
New division of labour between the sexes among the Ovimbundu. New
responsibilities assumed by women.
T a r d i t s , C., Woman against the lineage, in Porto-Novo. Les nouvelles generations
entre leurs traditions et Voccident (Paris, The Hague, Mouton, 1958), pp. 59-76.
(ficole Pratique des Hautes-fitudes, Le Monde passS et present, l re ser.,
fetudes, No. 7).
The writer describes the results of an enquiry into the attitude of educated
women on various problems: bridewealth, marriage, the question of who
children should belong to, inheritance of property. With regard to the last
three points, women are ready to welcome innovations, but they want to
preserve the system of bridewealth. There is “an aspiration among women to
see changes in the role of the patrilineage as a regulating factor . . ., an
endeavour. . . towards easing and consolidating conjugal relations by weaken­
ing the ties binding a man to his kin”. [Trans, of excerpt from text].
T h u r n w a l d , H., Die schwarze Frau im Gestaltwandel Africas. Fine sociologische
Studie unter ostafrikanischen Stdmmen, Stuttgart, Kolhammer, 1935, 167 pp.
eight ill.
[The negro woman in changing Africa; a sociological study among East
African tribes]. Two approaches: the life of women in a changing world,
biological factors, social and family status; analysis of the changes, economic,
religious and cultural influences.
— , “Zur Frage der Erziehung ostafrikanischer Frauen und Madchen”, Koloniale
Rundschau, 33rd year, 3-4 (Berlin, 1942), 130-58.
Contribution [on the question of the education of East African women and
girls] to the general problem of African education. Chiefly concerned with the
former German East Africa. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige,
1942).
T h u r n w a l d R., Black and White in East Africa. The fabric o f a new civilization,
a study in social contact and adaptation o f life in East Africa (With a chapter on
women by H. Thurnwald), Routledge, 1935,419 pp.
Changes in family life and in the status of women.
287
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
T u lla r , L. E. and A k in se m o y in , K., “Woman’s Part in the new West Africa”,
West African Review, XXI, 269 (Liverpool, 1950), 136-8.
Views of an American missionary and an African student on the part to be
played by women in the new West Africa.
*W a t e r s , M. M., “The need to-day of native women and girls”, South African
Outlook, LIX (1929), 97-9, 113-15.
*Welsh, J., “The goal of women’s education in Africa”, Oversea Education, IX,
2 (1940), 65-72.
Women qualified for scientific careers.
*“What is being done in the East African territories: opportunities of advances
ment for African women”, East Africa and Rhodesia, XXVII, n.s. No. 1384
(1951), 893-906.
*Wrong, M., Education of African women in a changing world, in Yearbook
of Education, (Evans, 1940), pp. 497-520.
Y a c in e , D., “A travers la famille en Guinee frangaise”, V Education Africaine,
CII-CIII (Goree, 1939), 42-52.
Mention of intellectual education for Muslim and Christian girls, and moral
education given by their mothers.

SCHOOLS

Journal to consult: Oversea Education. A Journal of Educational Experiment and

Research in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Areas. Quarterly, published by the
Colonial Office.
“African schoolgirls in Tanganyika”, African Women, II, 2 (1957), 31-4.
Discusses general matters: their place of origin, standard of living, mental
capacities.
“Apergu sur l’6ducation en Afrique tropicale britannique”, Notes et Etudes
documentaires, No. 2124, Paris, Presidence du Conseil, 10 Jan. 1956, 15 pp.
A general review of education in West and East Africa, Zanzibar, and
British Somaliland. There is a general lack of advance in the education of girls,
which presents problems of organization, of material, of personnel as well as
social problems. The solutions adopted for the education both of girls and of
adults vary from one area to another.
*“The Arab girls’ school of Zanzibar”, Oversea Education, I, 4 (1930), 125-30.
* B e ll, J., “Early days of girls* education in Somaliland”, Oversea Education,
V, 3 (1953), 110-17.
B e r g e r e t , Y., Bangante (un internat de jeunes filles au Cameroun), Paris, Soc. des
Missions fivangeliques, [1954?], 40 pp. ill. maps.
Description of the life of native girls at the boarding school at Bangante,
Cameroon. Training in domestic science, education; difficulties encountered.
B o n g o n g o , L., “De l’education de nos filles”, La Voix du Congolais, 5th year,
XLV (Kalina, 1949), 465-71.
The new conditions of family life demand that girls’ education should no
longer be limited to primary education in the vernacular.
^ B r o o m fie ld , G. W., “Education of African women and girls in Tanganyika”,
Bull, of Educational Matters, III, 2 (1929), 2-8.
288
 Analytical Bibliography
C om h a ir e , J., “Enseignement feminin et mariage a Lagos, Nigeria”, Zaire , IX, 3
(Brussels, 1955), 261-77.
List of educational facilities for girls in Lagos. Educational standards.
Preparing girls for a future as wife and mother is clearly insufficient.
C o n g l e t o n , F. I., “Some problems of girls’ education in Northern Nigeria”.
Oversea Education, XXX, 2 (1958), 73-9.
The writer replies to questions concerning changing attitudes towards
women’s education, women’s educational needs, the organization of education
in Northern Nigeria (primary and secondary), and suggests a method of
teaching by educative games.
*C o o pe , K. B., “The training of women teachers”, Oversea Education, IX (1938),
21- 2.
* C u r r y f jr , W. H. S., “Mothercraft in Southern Nigeria”, United Empire, XVIII,
2 (1927), 78-81.
Description of the Mary Slessor Institute for girls at Aro Chuku; its influence
on the Aro.
D a r k e , M. E., “The education of girls and women in British Somaliland”,
Oversea Education, XXX, 4 (Jan. 1959), 160-3.
Progress in female education is extremely slow owing to the opposition of
the people (Islamized). The success of the government school opened in 1953
at Burao opens up new possibilities for the education of girls as well as of
women.
*Development o f African teacher training, secondary schools and the education o f
girls, Entebbe (Uganda) Government Printer, 1954, 50 pp.
“L’ficole d’apprentissage pedagogique en milieu rural”, Revue pddagogique
congolaise, III (Elisabethville, March. 1956), pp. IX-XVI.
Need to create monitors, especially for the first class.
“L’Enseignement feminin du second degre et les professions feminines en
A.O.F.”, VEducation Africaine, XXIII (Goree, 1954), 5-11.
List of technical and professional openings for girls in secondary schools.
“Girls’ education in Nyasaland”, African Women, I, 3 (1955), 61-3.
Although always lower than that of the boys, the number of girls attending
school has greatly increased. Some statistics on school attendance.
“Growing up in Nigeria”, African Woment II. 4 (1958), 73-8.
A Nigerian woman teacher recounts her memories of her education accord­
ing to traditional methods, then at primary and secondary schools. She
discusses her criticisms and the obstacles standing in the way of girls’ education.
G ueye , F. P., “L’enseignement des filles au Senegal et dans la circonscription de
Dakar”, VEducation Africaine (Goree, 1934), 191-3.
Article on general matters in which the author discusses the obstacles in the
way of girls’ education and the new direction it should take.
J a n is c h , M., “Reinforcements for African girls’ education in Kenya”, Oversea
Education, XXVI, 4 (1955), 152-5, ill.
Progress made by missions and government in education; scholastic educa­
tion; measures taken for raising the standards of this at the capital.
J ea n n e d e l a C rodc, Sister, “L’enseignement menager et familial au Congo” ,
Rapports et comptes rendus de la 24* Semaine de Missiologie de Louvain, 1954,
(Bruges and Paris, Desclee de Brouwer, 1954), pp. 121-31.
Organization of schools of domestic science, general problems, situation of
pupils on leaving school.
289
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
King, E. R. G., “On educating African girls in Northern Rhodesia”, The Rhodes-
Livingstone Journal, Human Problems in British Central Africa X (Livingstone,
1950), 65-74.
Education of girls is still behind that of boys. It is mainly held back by public
opinion, and by the early age at which girls marry. The lack of women teachers
necessitates mixed schools, the disadvantages of which are greater then the
advantages. Girls who have been to school are faced with an acute problem
presented by the very limited professional openings (teaching and nursing
careers) and by the difficulties of their situation, particularly as regards
lodgings, as girls working in urban surroundings away from their families.
L a d u r a n t i e , G., “Quelques aspects actuels de l’enseignement des filles au
Cameroun”, Encyclopedic mensuelle d'Outre-mer, XXXIX (Paris, 1953),
310-12.
The results of an enquiry conducted by the Union feminine civique et sociale
show that education has consequences diametrically opposed to those aimed at.
The education of girls should be seen as resting on a moral and practical basis
suitable for African life.
Le Goff, G., “L’Enseignement des filles en A.O.F.”. V Education Africaine
XCVII fGorSe, 1937), 48-58.
Three points: education of the native girl in family life; what French schools
have done and must still do; a new three-stage organization of education.
P r i o r , K. H., “Rural training at Asaba”, Nigeria, XLVII (Lagos. 1955),
184-212, ill.
Education of girls in various domestic tasks.
“Le Probl&me de l’Enseignement dans le Ruanda-Urundi”, CEPSI, Mimoires,
I, 1958.
Women’s education is treated in a special chapter, pp. 87-111.
R o b e r t s o n , M. K., “A Girls’ school in British Somaliland”, Oversea Education,
XXX, 4 (1959), 164-9.
Description and programme of the first government school for girls, opened
at Burao in 1953.
*Ross, M c G r e g o r , M r s ., Some aspects of girls’ education in Africa, in Education
in a changing Commonwealth, New Education Fellowship (ed.), 1931.
Much still valid: co-education; use of local culture. (D. Forde, ed., Annotated
Bibliography o f Tropical Africa).
“La Scolarisation en Afrique Noire”, Tam-Tam, 4th year, Nos. 6-7-8 (Paris,
1955), 98 pp. maps, tables.
The situation in female education (pp. 26-9) on 1 Jan. 1954. The proportion
of girls undergoing secondary education in relation to the total number
attending school barely reaches 1 per cent. On the other hand, a large number of
those undergoing technical training are girls, which shows that they take a
practical view of education.
* S h a r i f f , E., “Girls’ education in Zanzibar”, Makerere, I, 3 (1947), 112-16.
Among the various schools in the protectorate of Zanzibar, the Arab school
is the one with the greatest number of pupils. (African Abstracts, 1952, p. 186).
Shaw, M., Les enfants du chef; une experience d"education en Rhoddsie du Nord,
Paris, Missions evang£liques, 1947, 209 pp.
An account of daily life in a school for girls run by the Protestant mission at
Mbereshi (Lake Moero). How the writer, a Protestant missionary, teaches
his pupils.
290
 Analytical Bibliography
D., Means of education: schools, in La promotion de la femme
* S o y e r ,P o s k in ,
au Congo et au Ruanda-Vrundi, Congres Colonial National, Brussels, 12th
session, 1956, pp. 360-430.
After discussing the general situation of girls in traditional and non-
traditional surroundings and the attitude of “advanced” men towards the
emancipation of women, the writer studies the present structure of girls*
education, gives some statistics for 1954, and formulates further aims.
“Status of women in West Africa”, African Women, I, 3 (1955), 63-6.
The social position of women has always been strong owing to their economic
position. The present rate of advance is rapid (especially among the Ibo,
Nigeria) owing to the opening of a number of schools and colleges and the
entry of girl students to the Universities. Some statistics and the choice of
careers open.
V a n R o y e , Rev. Mother. “L’fiducation de la jeune fille Svoluee au Congo”,
Bull, du CEPSI, XVI (Elisabethville, 1951), 150-61.
The educational aims of missions as shown by the example of the boarding
school at Mbansa Mboma.

ADULT EDUCATION
♦ A rn o t, A . S., M c K e n n e l and B a r b o u r , “Literacy among Calabar women”,
Books for Africa, VIII, 4 (1948), 49-52.
Discussion on external education programmes for Ibo and Efik women.
The women’s views on education and the language problem.
B o y e , Dr, “Les essais de protection de l’enfance et de la maternite en A.E.F.”,
A.E.F., XXXVI (Brazzaville, 1934). 3-8.
A communication made in May 1931 on the efforts made to teach mothers
the rudiments of hygiene in the care of their children, in the [maternity and
child-welfare] centres at Bambari and Libreville.
B r a u s c h , G.E.J.B., “L’action en Afrique beige de l’lnstitut de Sociologie
Solvay”, Probldmes d9Afrique Centrale, 12th year, XLI (Brussels, 1958), 160-4.
Current information on the social and educational centres set up in both
urban and rural districts.
* B u r m a n , G a r b e r , N., “An experiment in adult education (Solusi Women’s
School, Zambesi Union Mission, Southern Rhodesia)”, Oversea Education,
XVII, 2 (1946), 257-9.
Colin, P. M., “Trois femmes congolaises”, Voix du Congolais, 12th year, CXIX
(Kalina, 1956), 125-32, ill.
Some examples of the education at present being given to Congolese women.
(Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo Beige%1956).
— , “Quatre heureuses initiatives pour la formation des femmes congolaises”,
Voix du Congolais, CXXXVI (Kalina, 1957) 522-30, ill.
[These four new enterprises in women’s education] are: the government school
for women’s crafts at Leopoldville; evening classes for Congolese women in
the non-traditional industrial centre of N ’Djili; French course for Congolese
mothers; courses in stenography. (Bibliographie Ethnographique du Congo
Beige, 1957).
D a r l o w , M., Education of women and children in external classes, in “L’enseigne-

291
 M. Perlman and M. P. Moal
ment a dispenser aux indigenes dans les territoires non autonomes”, Cahiers
de rinstitut Solvay, I (Brussels. Lib. Encyclopedique, 1951), 17-23.
A survey of the British experiment mainly in Kenya and Uganda.
* D u p e r o u x , A., “Quelques propos sur l’education de la femme noire”, Bull de
VUnion des femmes coloniales, 22nd year, CXXXVI (Brussels, 1951), 6-8, ill.
Efforts made by the Union Mintere of Upper Katanga to improve the lot
of the wives of the workers and elevate them morally and spiritually.
*“L’£ducation menag£re de la femme camerounaise”, Bull, d'information et de
documentation, CXV (Yaounde, 15 Oct. 1955), 18-21.
* F r a s e r , M r s ., Teaching o f healthcraft to African women, Longmans, 1932,134
pp. ill.
From her own teaching experience, the writer shows how and to what
extent results may be expected; they have so far been encouraging if slow.
CAfrica, 1933, p. 349).
*Ha r r i s , B., “Women’s training centre, Kwadaso”, Community Development
Bull., IV (1953), 35-6.
A Methodist women’s training centre [in Ghana] offers courses for illiterate
women and courses in domestic science. Women who have attended later
become militant Methodists. (African Abstracts 1954, p. 69).
* H a s tie , P., “Women’s club in Uganda”, Mass Education Bull., II, 1 (1950),
26-30.
Principal activities of these clubs: dressmaking, knitting, child welfare,
cooking; there is also some general education given by African girls who have
had some teacher’s training.
*Hay, H., “An African women’s institute, Mindolo, Copperbelt”, Oversea
Education, XV, 3 (1944), 104-7.
♦ H o ld i n g , M., “Report on adult literacy among Meru women”, Books for
Africa, V, 2 (1945), 17-22.
* J e l li c o e , M. R., “Women’s groups in Sierra Leone”, African Women, I, 2
(1955), 35-43.
Influence of the Social Welfare Department of Mende women’s groups on
the social life of women in Sierra Leone.
J o n e s , N ., “Training native women in community service in Southern Rhodesia”,
International Review of Missions, XXI (Edinburgh, 1932), 566-74.
The first Jeanes School for women only, the school at Hope Fountain,
opened in 1928, accepts girls who have left school and married women with
their children, in order to teach them hygiene and domestic science.
K a b e r r y , P., “Raising the status of women”, Times Survey o f the British
Colonies (Dec. 1950), 11-12, ill.
Development of educational centres for women (child welfare, agricultural
mechanics . . .).
M a n n , M ., “Women’s homecraft classes in Northern Rhodesia”, Oversea
Education, XXX, 1 (Apr. 1959), 12-16.
The system used here is modelled on the “badges” of the Guides. Centres (of
which there are at present 61) have been opened in the towns and villages and
give women a practical training in domestic science (attended by 2,000 women).
A test has to be passed at each stage.
R h o d iu s , G., Social work as a means of educating native women in Belgian
African territories, in La promotion de la femme au Congo et en Ruanda-Urundi
292
 Analytical Bibliography
Congr£s National Colonial, Brussels, 12th session, 1956, pp. 252-9, map.
Account of social work done for Congolese women in the industrial centres
and in the villages, and of youth work.
R i c h a r d s , G. E., “Adult education amongst country women: an experiment at
Umm Ger”, Sudan Notes and Records, XXIX, 2 (Khartoum, 1948), 225-7.
The writer surveys the method employed, the subjects taught (mainly
domestic science and hygiene) and the results achieved over a period of
18 months.
* R iv e rs -S m ith , S ., “Education of the African women”, Bull, of Educational
Matters, II, 3 (1928), 13-23.
♦S m it h , M. M., “An embryo Women’s rural institute, Nyasaland experiment”,
Oversea Education, XIV, 2 (1943), 67-71.
S p e lm a n , N. G., “Women’s work in the Gezira, Sudan”, Oversea Education,
XXVI, 2 (1954), 66-9, ill.
Teaching women child-welfare. Development of a sense of individualism
and responsibility by means of discussion groups. These experiments have
been carried out in the Sudan since 1949; 600 to 700 women annually take the
courses.
♦ W a i n w r i g h t , R ; E., “Women’s clubs in the central Nyanza district of Kenya”,
Community Development Bull., IV, 4 (1953), 77-80, ill.
Training in domestic science for women in these clubs pays special attention
to dressmaking.

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