General Maths & Ability

CSS & One Test Papers

Sir Sabir Hussain

(General Ability Expert Since 2013)
All Competitive Exams
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Contact: 0303-5725295
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 Introduction of General Ability
• Quantitative (Basic Arithmetics)
This section assesses the basic quantitative
skills of the candidate. The section is
developed in the light of the basic quantitative
concepts.

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 CONTENTS
Quantitative Basic Maths

• Range .................................................................................................................................................................. (5)

• Arithmetic Mean… ........................................................................................................................................... (5)
• Median ............................................................................................................................................................... (5)
• Mode ...................................................................................................................................................................(5)
• Average ............................................................................................................................................................... (7)
• Percentage .......................................................................................................................................................... (8)
• Profit/Loss/Discount/Gain Percentage ............................................................................................................ (9)
• Ratio Problems ................................................................................................................................................. (9)
• Proportion Problems ....................................................................................................................................... (10)
• Age Problems ................................................................................................................................................... (11)
• Time / Distance/Direction Problems .............................................................................................................. (11)
• Mental Abilities Series Problems/ Coding Decoding ................................................................................... (12)
• General Math’s Definitions............................................................................................................................. (13)

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 3 Days General Maths
& Ability Revision
Classes for CSS
Aspirants

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 Range Mean Median Mode
Range
It is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value.
Range= Maximum Value – Minimum Value
For Example: In 4, 6, 9, 3, 7 the highest value is 9 and the lowest value is 3 so the Range
will be 9-3=6
1. Find the range of the following data. 5, 3, 12, 14, 20, 19, 23?
A. 3 B. 23 C.15 D.20 E.21
2. Find the range of the following. -3,-1,0,-2,+2,+3?
A. 0 B. +6 C.-3 D.+3 E.-21

Arithmetic Mean
The Mean (Average) of a data set is found by adding all numbers in the data set and then
dividing by the number of values in the set.
Mean= Sum of Values/ Number of Values
1. Find the arithmetic mean of the following data. 2, 5, 4, 10, 14, 9, 12?
A. 5 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8 E. 9
2. Maryam’s test scores are 81, 93, 74 and 95. What score must she get on the fifth test in
order to get a mean of 85 on all five tests?
A. 82 B. 84 C. 65 D. 92 E. 90
3. The mean of a set of 7 numbers is 13. What is the sum of the numbers?
A. 118 B. 20 C. 6 D. 91 E. 99
4. The mean of a set of data is 279 and the sum of the data is 1395. How many total
numbers are there in the data?
A. 5 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8 E. 9
5. If the arithmetic mean of 2, 7 and x is 12, what is the value of X..?
A. 9 B.12 C.21 D.27 E.36

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 Median
Median is the middle value when a data set is ordered from least to greatest.
1. Find out the median of the following data. 5, 8, 16, 12,22,10,9,18,17?
A. 22 B. 12 C. 16 D. 8 E. 17
2. Find out the median of the following data. 5, 8, 16, 12, 22,10,9,18,17,20?
A. 22 B. 14 C. 16 D. 16.5 E. 17.5

Mode
Mode is the number that occurs the most often in a data set.
1. Find out the mode of the following data. 15,12,10,11,13,19,22,13,16,21,20?
A. 10 B. 11 C. 12 D.13 E.16
2. Find the mode of the following integers. -18, -13, 0, +16, +3, -15, 0, +11, -14, 0, +12?
A. 0 B. -13 C. -15 D.+3 E.+12
3. If the value of Median is 20 and Mean is 22.5 then find the value of Mode?
A. 10 B. 12 C. 15 D. 16 E. 20
12. There are Nine Students in a Group having ages 15, 15, 16,16,16,17,17,18,19. Calculate
Mean, Median, Mode and Range of their ages? (CSS Ability 2016)
13. There are seven students in a group having ages 17,17,18,18,18,19,19. Calculate mean,
median, mode and range of their ages. (CSS Ability 2020)

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 Average
An Average is a single number taken as representative of a list of numbers. Different
concepts of average are used in different context. Often Average refers to the Arithmetic
Mean, the sum of the numbers divided by how many numbers are being averaged.

1. Find the average of the following values. 9, 12,13,6,10,4?

A. 10 B. 9 C. 11 D. 8 E.7
2. Average of four numbers is 24. What is the sum of four numbers?
A. 6 B. 48 C. 96 D. 240
3. The average of five numbers is 54. If three of the numbers are 26, 28, and 30, what is
the average of the other two?
A. 91 B. 93 C. 54 D. 186 E. 245
4. The product of four numbers 3, 4, 5 and x is 480. What is the average of 3, 4, 5 and x?
A. 12 B. 16 C. 8 D. 5 E. 4
5. The average age of a group of 12 students is 20 years. If 4 more students join the group,
the average age increases by 1 year. The average age of the new students is?
A. 24 B. 26 C. 23 D. 22 E.32
6. Average age of 15 students of a class is 11 years. If the teacher is also included the
average age becomes 13 years. How old is teacher?
A. 39 years B. 43 years C. 46 years D. 49 years
7. 1/4 is the average (arithmetic mean) of 1/5 and what number..?
A. 1/20 B. 3/10 C. 1/3 D. 9/20 E. 9/40
8. The average temperature of a week is 33c°.Average of first three days is 30c° while of
the last three is 35c° .What is the temperature of the fourth day?
A. 38°C B. 36°C C. 40°C D. None of the above
9. The average of 11 numbers is 63, that of the first 6 numbers are 60 and that of the last 6
number are 65. Find the 6th number. (CSS Ability 2021)
A. 58 B. 38 C. 57 D.37

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 Percentage
In Mathematics, a percentage is a number expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often
denoted using the percent sign.

1. What percent of 24 is 18?

A. 25% B.50% C.75% D.150% E.133%
2. 25 is what percentage of 75?
A.33% B. 33.33% C. 66% D. 66.66%
3. Which fraction is equal to 0.20%?
A. 1/20 B. 1/40 C. 1/50 D. 1/400 E. 1/500
4. In a class of 65 Students 20% failed in English. How many Students failed in English?
A. 13 B. 15 C. 20 D. 26 E. 30
5. After a decrease of 70%, the value 550 will be?
A. 450 B. 400 C. 385 D. 195 E. 165
6. 30% of a number is 8 more than 40% of 1000. Find the number?
A. 1000 B. 1360 C. 1500 D. 2300 E. 3080
7. During the budget, price of fuel per liter increased by 10%, if its price before budget
was 55 per liter .What is its price per liter after the budget?
A. 57.5 B. 60.5 C. 62 D. 62.5
8. No of road accidents per year decreased by 5% this year. If no of accidents last year
was 2200. What is no of accidents this year?
A. 2000 B. 2040 C. 2090 D.21000
9. Saleem has rupees 50,000, find the amount of Zakat at the rate of 2.5%?
A. 1250 B. 1200 C. 200 D. 2500 E.3000
12. What is the amount of Zakat a person has to pay if he has Rs. 300,000 at a rate of
2.5%..?
A. Rs.75000 B. Rs.7500 C.Rs.750 D. Rs.700 E. Rs.75
15. A number is increased by 20 % and then decreased by 20 %. The final value of the
number?
A. Does not change B. Decreases by 2% C. Increases by 4% D. Decreases by 4%
16. A man buys 5 kg of meat at Rs.500 per kg. In addition, for every kilogram of meat
purchased, he has to pay a consumption tax of 6% on the selling price. Calculate the
total amount of money that he has to pay? (CSS Ability 2017)
17. Mr. Faheem has dinner with his family at a restaurant which offers a 10% discount
on food. The marked price of the food that they order was Rs. 15000/- Given that
there was a service charges of 10% and GST is 17%, calculate the total amount of
money he has to pay. (CSS Ability 2021)
18. The income of a company decreased by 10% and 15% in two successive years , what
is the percent of decrease in income after two years? (CSS 2022)
19. During the sale a clerk was putting new price tags on each product. On one sweater
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 he accidently raised the price by 20% instead of lowering the price by 20%. As a
result, the price on the tag was Rs.80 too high. What was the original price of the
sweater? (CSS 2022)

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 Profit Percent/Loss Percent/Discount/Gain Percent
1. If the value of a Share of XYZ Company drops from Rs.25 to Rs.21, by what
percent is the value of Share decreases?
A. 4% B. 16% C. 25% D. 46% E. 400%
2. The price of a newspaper rises from 5 cents to 15 cents. What is the percent increase
in price?
A. 50% B. 75% C. 100% D. 200%
3. What was the original price of a radio that sold for $70 during a 20% off sale?
A. $84 B. $56 C. $87.50 D. $92
4. What will be the selling price of an article that was bought of Rs. 1150 and sold at a
profit of 6%?
A. Rs.1199 B.Rs. 1209 C.Rs. 1219 D.Rs. 1229
5. A shopkeeper bought an article for Rs. 120 and sold at profit of 10%.What is the
selling price of article?
A.130 B.132 C. 140 D None of these
6. It takes 3 liters of paint to cover an area of 24 Square meters. What percentage
increase in the quantity of paint would be required to cover an area of 50.4 Square
meters? (CSS Ability 2018)
7. Ali buys an oven for Rs. 36800 and sells it at a gain of 8.5%. for how much did he sell?
(CSS Ability 2023)

Ratio Problems
1. If a: b = 3:5 and a: c = 5:7, what is the value of b: c..?
A. 3:7 B.21:35 C.21:25 D.25:21 E. 35:21
2. If A: B = 3:4 and B: C = 5:6, then A: C equals?
A. 5:9 B.2:3 C.5:8 D.7:12
3. If a: b = 2:3 and b:c = 3:4 and c:d =4:5 what is the value of a:b:c:d..?
A. 3:4:5:6 B.2:3:5:6 C.2:3:4:5 D.3:4:5:6 E. 4:5:6:3
4. Rs.2424 is divided among A, B, C in a ratio of 3:4:5 respectively, A share is..?
A. Rs. 800 B.Rs. 110 C.Rs. 88 D.Rs. 66 E.Rs. 606
5. A sum of money is to be distributed among A,B,C and D in the proportion of
5:2:4:3. If C gets Rs. 1000 more than D, what is the share of B? (W.T.I Mock 2021)
A. 4000 B. 6000 C. 8000 D. 2000
6. A:B is 2:3, if the value of A is 8. What is the value of B?
A. 10 B. 12 C. 20 D. 24
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7. If two numbers are in the ratio 2:3 and if 9 is added to each, the new ratio become
3:4. What are the numbers?
A. 15 & 20 B. 18 &27 C. 18& 25 D. 15 & 25

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8. It two number are in the ratio of 5:7 and if 5 is added to each of them then their
ratio becomes 3:4. What are the numbers
A. 20&30 B. 20&40 C. 25&35 D. 20&45
9. Tahir started a business with a capital of Rs.15, 000. After 5 months Umer also
joined him with an investment of Rs.30, 000. At the start of 9th month, Usman
joined them by investing Rs. 45,000. At the end of the year they earned a profit of
Rs. 406,000. Find the share of each one? (CSS Ability 2018)

10. Divide Rs.500 between Arham, Maryam and Sarim so that Arham gets 2/3 of what
Maryam gets and Maryam gets 1/4 of what Sarim gets. Find the share of each? (CSS
Ability 2017)
11. A man left his property of Rs. 640, 000. A debt of Rs.40, 000 was due to him and Rs.6000
was spent on his burial. Distribute the amount between his widow, one daughter and
two sons according to the Islamic Law? (CSS Ability 2018)
12. Moiz and Mair share a lottery win of Rs.2000 in the ratio of 1:4. Moiz then share
his part between himself, his wife and their son in the ratio of 4:5:1. How much more
does his wife get over their son? (CSS Ability 2019)
13. Zahid left a property worth Rs. 1, 750, 000. His family had to pay off a debt of Rs.
150,000. The rest of the money was distributed between a son and a daughter. How
much did each child receive if the share of a son was double than that of a daughter?
(CSS Ability 2020)

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 Proportion
1. If 16 workers can finish a job in 3 hours, how long should it take 5 workers to finish
the same job?
A. 3.5 hours B. 4 hours C. 5 hours D. 7.06 hours E. 9.6 hours
2. 30 men consume a food in 45 days. How long will the same food last if there are 25
men?
A. 48 days B. 51 days C. 16 days D. 54 days E. 57 days
3. 5 workers can construct a wall of 60 meters in 2/3 of a day. If 3 more workers start
working, how much time in hours they will take to construct a wall of 50 meters?
A. 13.3 hrs B. 34 hrs. C. 19.2 hrs. D. 8.3 hrs. E. 15 hrs
4. If 30 men can eat 200 kg of wheat in 10 days, then 45 men can eat 400 kg of wheat in
how many days?
A. 13 days B. 13.33 days C. 15 days D. 18 days E. 20 days
5. A garrison has provision for 12 days for 1000 men. At the end of 2 days 200 more
men were admitted. How long will the food now last?
A. 8 days B. 8.33 days C.9 days D.9.33 days
6. A project of construction of a building can be completed by 150 workers in 40 days,
but the project manager brought 30 more workers after 16 days. In how many days
will the remaining work be finished?
A. 10 days B. 12 days C.20 days D.24 days
7. A school has enough provision of food for 52 days, after 20 days a group of 400
students arrives and the food would have last for 24 days only. Now how many
students are there in the school actually? (CSS Ability 2017)
8. A group of 50 men can construct a 20 kilometer road in 40 days. How long will 70
men take to complete the same length of road? (CSS Ability 2020)

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 Age Problems
1. A father is three times as old as his son. After fifteen years the father will be twice as
old as his son's age at that time. Hence the father's present age is
A. 42 B. 45 C. 48 D. 36 E. None
2. Aslam is now 3 times as old as Javed, but 5 years ago; he was 5 times as Javed was.
How old is Aslam now?
A. 9 B. 30 C. 24 D. 10 E. 36
3. Tanveer is 10 years older than Masood. However 5 years ago Tanveer was twice as
old as Masood, how old is Masood?
4. The sum of the ages of a Father and a Son is 82 years. After 4 years the age of father
will be two times that of the son. The age of the father is?
A. 42 B. 56 C. 54 D. 55 E. 75
5. Mr. Sohail is 4 times as old as his son. Four years from now, the sum of their ages
will be 43 years. The present age of the son is..?
A. 5 years B. 7 years C. 8 years D. 10 years E.12years
6. A told B that C is his father's nephew, Dis A's cousin but not the brother of C. What
relationship is there between D and C? (CSS Ability 2017)
7. A man is now 3 times as old as his son. In ten (10) years' time, the sum of their ages will be
76. How old was the man when his son was born? (CSS Ability 2021)
8. Sara mother is six times older than Sara whereas her brother Ali is twice as old as Sarah.
In three years, time, the sum of their ages will be 72. How old are Sara, Ali, and their
mother? (CSS Ability 2022)

Time / Distance/Trains Problems/ Direction Problems

1. A and B are two trains starting at the same time from two stations 200 kilometers
apart. They move toward each other and meet a point 120 kilometers from the station
where A started. What was the ratio of distance covered of A to B?
A. 80 : 120 B. 120:200 C. 80:200 D. 1:1 E. 3:2
2. A car takes 6 hrs to go from city A to city B. if city A is 330 km away from city B,
what is the speed of traveling of the car?
A. 50 km/h B. 55 km/h C. 60 km/h D. 65 km/h E. 70 km/h
3. A train is traveling at a speed of 25m/s. In what time will it pass a man sitting on a
platform if length of the train is 225 meters?
A. 8 sec B. 9 sec C. 10 sec D. 11 sec E. 15 sec
4. If an object is moving at a speed of 36 km per hour, what is the speed in m/s?
A. 10 B. 36 C. 100 D. 360 E. 1000
5. A railway train 150m long is running at the speed of 36km/h. In what time will it pass
bridge 80m long?
A. 0sec B. 21sec C. 22 sec D.23sec

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6. A train of length 150 meters is running at the speed of 20m/s. In what time will it cross
a 130 meters long bridge?
A. 3sec B. 14 sec C. 15sec D. 16sec
Direction Problems
7. A man walks 3km towards East then turned to North and walked 4km.how far is he
from the starting point?
A. 4km B. 5km C. 6km D. 7km
8. A man walks 2 km towards North, then he turns to East and walks 10 km. after this
he turns to North and walks 3 km. again he turns towards East and walks 2km. how
far is he from the starting point? (CSS Ability 2017)
9. A child went 90m towards East, and then he turned Right and went 20m.
Subsequently he turned Right and after going 30m he reached his uncle’s house.
From there he went 100m to his North. Determine how far he is from his starting
point. (CSS Ability 2021)
10. Mr. Khawaja walked for 45 minutes at the rate of 3km/h and then ran for half an
hour at a certain speed. At the end of that time he was 6km away from the starting
point. How fast did he run?(CSS Ability 2021)
11. For his morning walk Aslam went 110 meters towards east from his house and
then turned right to keep walking for 40 meters before turning right again. After
continuing to walk for 50 more meters, he turned right again and kept walking
for another 120 meters before he sat down on a bench at the park. How far was the
bench located from his house? (CSS Ability 2022)

Probability
1. Classification of blood groups is based on the presence or absence of inherited or
antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells. In a survey of British
population the blood group distribution among 1000 people was as follows. 300 had
blood group A, 325 had blood group B, 250 had O and 125 AB. Out of these thousand
people a person was selected at random, calculate his probability of having blood
group AB? (CSS Ability 2016)
2. Blood groups of inhabitants of a village were checked. It was found that 600
people possessed blood group A, 650 possessed blood group B, 550 had blood group
AB and 200 have blood group 0. Calculate the probability of having blood
group B and Calculate the probability of having blood group O?(CSS Ability 2020)
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3. A card is drawn at random from a box containing 12 cards numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... ,
Find the probability of drawing (i) '8', (ii) an even number, (iii) a perfect square, (iv) a
negative number and (v) a number less than 13. (CSS Ability 2023)

Mental Abilities
Series Problems/ Sum of Number/ Coding Decoding
1. What is the sum of the digits from 1 to 100 in a continuous series….?
A. 5050 B.850 C.1225 D.625 E.99
2. What is the sum of Even numbers from 1 to 100 in a continuous series….?
B. 2050 B.2500 C.1225 D.2550 E.5000
3. What is the sum of the digits from 201 to 300 in a continuous series….?
A. 5050 B.8050 C.25050 D.625 E.99
4. What is the next number in the following series: 4 8 24 96 ?
A. 408 B. 556 C. 804 D. 664 E. 480
5. Complete the number series: 15, 31, 63, 127, 255, ?
A. 513 B. 511 C. 523 D.517
6. What comes next in the following series: 64, 48, 40, 36, 34, ?
A. 30 B.31 C.32 D. 33
7. Complete the following series: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, ?
A. 20 B.21 C.22 D. 24

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8. What comes next for: 10, 21, 32, 43, 54, 65, ?
A. 73 B.76 C. 83 D. 86
9. What is the next in the series: 2, 3, 6, 18, 108?
A. 208 B. 1944 C. 2008 D.1054
10. Look at this series: F2, JD8, C16, B32, What number should fill the blank
in the following? (CSS Ability 2018)
11. In a certain Code Language COMPUTER is written as RFUVQNPC. How
will MEDICINE be written in that Code Language? (CSS Ability 2017 & 2019)
12. In a certain Code Language LANDMINE is written as PYRBQGRC How will
HOMEMADE be written in that Code Language? (CSS Ability 2018)
13. If BROTHER is written as QDGSNQA then the word SISTER will be written as?
(CSS 2022)

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 Geometry
Geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and
dimensions of things
1. If perimeter of a rectangle is 56 and its length is 16, what is the area of rectangle?
A. 160 B. 192 C. 200 D. 250 E. 300
2. The length of a rectangle is five times its width and its area is 125, then its perimeter
is given by?
A. 60 B. 50 C. 40 D. 45 E. 30
3. What is the circumference of a circle whose area is 25ӆ?
A. 5ӆ B. 10ӆ C. 15ӆ D. 18ӆ E. 25ӆ
4. The internal angle of a triangle is in the ratio 3:5:7. Find the degree measure of the
largest angle?
A. 36 B. 60 C. 84 D. 90 E. 180
5. What will be the Circumference of a circle of 56 cm diameter..?
A. 176 cm B. 144 cm C. 88 cm D. 204 cm E. 154 cm
6. What is the height of a triangle of base 3 cm and area 9 cm² is:
A. 6 cm B. 9 cm C. 18 cm D. 12 cm E. 15 cm
7. Find the area of triangle whose base is 15 and height is 20?
A. 100 B.120 C.150 D.300 E.500
8. If the radius of a circle is increased by 20% then the area is increased percent by:
(a) 44% (b) 120% (c) 144% (d) 40% (e) None
9. If the base of a rectangle is increased by 30% and the altitude is decreased by 20%
the area is increased percent by
(a) 25% (b) 10% (c) 5% (d) 1 % (e) 4%
10. Length and width of a rectangle both are doubled, what percent of the area changes?
(a) 25% (b) 50% (c) 100% (d) 200% (e) 300%
11. A farmer needs to build a boundary wall around his farm. If the area of the farm is
484 m2, what will be the total area of the wall if it is two meter high on three sides
and three meter high on one side?(CSS Ability 2020)
12. How many tiles of 20cm2 will be required to have a footpath 1m wide carried
around the outside of grassy plot 24m long and 14m broad?(CSS Ability 2021)
13. Find the number of triangles in the following two images.(CSS Ability 2021)

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 (i) (ii)
11. Calculate the total area and perimeter of the given shape. (CSS Ability 2021)

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 General Maths Definitions
Absolute Value: Always a positive number, absolute value refers to the distance of a number from 0.
Acute Angle: An angle whose measure is between 0° and 90° or with less than 90° (or pi/2) radians.
Algebra: The branch of mathematics that substitutes letters for numbers to solve for unknown values.
Algorithm: A procedure or set of steps used to solve a mathematical computation.
Angle: Two rays sharing the same endpoint (called the angle vertex).
Angle Bisector: The line dividing an angle into two equal angles.
Area: The two-dimensional space taken up by an object or shape, given in square units.
Average: The average is the same as the mean. Add up a series of numbers and divide the sum by the
total number of values to find the average.
Base: The bottom of a shape or three-dimensional object, what an object rests on.
Base 10: Number system that assigns place value to numbers.
Bar Graph: A graph that represents data visually using bars of different heights or lengths.
BEDMAS or PEMDAS Definition: An acronym used to help people remember the correct order of
operations for solving algebraic equations. BEDMAS stands for "Brackets, Exponents, Division,
Multiplication, Addition, and Subtraction" and PEMDAS stands for "Parentheses, Exponents,
Multiplication, Division, Addition, and Subtraction".
Centimetre: A metric unit of measurement for length, abbreviated as cm. 2.5 cm is approximately equal
to an inch.
Circumference: The complete distance around a circle or a square.
Chord: A segment joining two points on a circle.
Coefficient: A letter or number representing a numerical quantity attached to a term (usually at the
beginning). For example, x is the coefficient in the expression x(a + b) and 3 is the coefficient in the term
3y.
Common Factors: A factor shared by two or more numbers, common factors are numbers that divide
exactly into two different numbers.
Complementary Angles: Two angles that together equal 90°.
Composite Number: A positive integer with at least one factor aside from its own. Composite numbers
cannot be prime because they can be divided exactly.
Cone: A three-dimensional shape with only one vertex and a circular base.
Constant: A value that does not change.
Coordinate: The ordered pair that gives a precise location or position on a coordinate plane.
Congruent: Objects and figures that have the same size and shape. Congruent shapes can be turned into
one another with a flip, rotation, or turn.
Cosine: In a right triangle, cosine is a ratio that represents the length of a side adjacent to an acute angle
to the length of the hypotenuse.
Decagon: A polygon/shape with ten angles and ten straight lines.
Denominator: The bottom number of a fraction. The denominator is the total number of equal parts into
which the numerator is being divided.
Degree: The unit of an angle's measure represented with the symbol °.
Diagonal: A line segment that connects two vertices in a polygon.
Diameter: A line that passes through the center of a circle and divides it in half.
Dividend: A number being divided into equal parts (inside the bracket in long division).
Divisor: A number that divides another number into equal parts (outside of the bracket in long division).
Edge: A line is where two faces meet in a three-dimensional structure.
Equation: A statement that shows the equality of two expressions by joining them with an equals sign.
Even Number: A number that can be divided or is divisible by 2.
Event: This term often refers to an outcome of probability; it may answers question about the probability
of one scenario happening over another.
Exponent: The number that denotes repeated multiplication of a term, shown as a superscript above that
term. The exponent of 34 is 4.
Factor: A number that divides into another number exactly. The factors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and 10 (1 x 10,
2 x 5, 5 x 2, 10 x 1).
Factorial Notation: Often used in combinatorics, factorial notations requires that you multiply a number
by every number smaller than it. The symbol used in factorial notation is ! When you see x!, the factorial
of x is needed.
Fraction: A quantity that is not whole that contains a numerator and denominator. The fraction
representing half of 1 is written as 1/2.
Frequency: The number of times an event can happen in a given period of time; often used in probability
calculations.
Geometry: The study of lines, angles, shapes, and their properties. Geometry studies physical shapes and
the object dimensions.
Greatest Common Factor: The largest number common to each set of factors that divides both numbers
exactly. The greatest common factor of 10 and 20 is 10.
Hexagon: A six-sided and six-angled polygon.
Histogram: A graph that uses bars that equal ranges of values.
Hypotenuse: The longest side of a right-angled triangle, always opposite to the right angle itself.
Improper Fraction: A fraction whose numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator, such as 6/4.
Inequality: A mathematical equation expressing inequality and containing a greater than (>), less than
(<), or not equal to (≠) symbol.
Integers: All whole numbers, positive or negative, including zero.
Irrational: A number that cannot be represented as a decimal or fraction. A number like pi is irrational
because it contains an infinite number of digits that keep repeating. Many square roots are also irrational
numbers.
Isosceles: A polygon with two sides of equal length.
Line: A straight infinite path joining an infinite number of points in both directions.
Line Segment: A straight path that has two endpoints, a beginning and an end.
Linear Equation: An equation that contains two variables and can be plotted on a graph as a straight line.
Line of Symmetry: A line that divides a figure into two equal shapes.
Logarithm: The power to which a base must be raised to produce a given number. If nx = a, the
logarithm of a, with n as the base, is x. Logarithm is the opposite of exponentiation.
Mean: The mean is the same as the average. Add up a series of numbers and divide the sum by the total
number of values to find the mean.
Median: The median is the "middle value" in a series of numbers ordered from least to greatest. When
the total number of values in a list is odd, the median is the middle entry. When the total number of values
in a list is even, the median is equal to the sum of the two middle numbers divided by two.
Midpoint: A point that is exactly halfway between two locations.
Mixed Numbers: Mixed numbers refer to whole numbers combined with fractions or decimals. Example
3 1/2 or 3.5.
Mode: The mode in a list of numbers are the values that occur most frequently.
Normal Distribution: Also known as Gaussian distribution, normal distribution refers to a probability
distribution that is reflected across the mean or center of a bell curve.
Numerator: The top number in a fraction. The numerator is divided into equal parts by the denominator.
Number Line: A line whose points correspond to numbers.
Numeral: A written symbol denoting a number value.
Obtuse Angle: An angle measuring between 90° and 180°.
Octagon: A polygon with eight sides.
Odd Number: A whole number that is not divisible by 2.
Outcome: Used in probability to refer to the result of an event.
Parallelogram: A quadrilateral with two sets of opposite sides that are parallel.
Pentagon: A five-sided polygon. Regular pentagons have five equal sides and five equal angles.
Percent: A ratio or fraction with the denominator 100.
Perimeter: The total distance around the outside of a polygon. This distance is obtained by adding
together the units of measure from each side.
Perpendicular: Two lines or line segments intersecting to form a right angle.
Pi: Pi is used to represent the ratio of a circumference of a circle to its diameter, denoted with the Greek
symbol π.
Polygon: Line segments joined together to form a closed figure. Rectangles, squares, and pentagons are
just a few examples of polygons.
Prime Numbers: Prime numbers are integers greater than 1 that are only divisible by themselves and 1.
Probability: The likelihood of an event happening.
Product: The sum obtained through multiplication of two or more numbers.
Proper Fraction: A fraction whose denominator is greater than its numerator.
Quadrant: One quarter (qua) of the plane on the Cartesian coordinate system. The plane is divided into 4
sections, each called a quadrant.
Quadratic Equation: An equation that can be written with one side equal to 0. Quadratic equations ask
you to find the quadratic polynomial that is equal to zero.
Radius: A distance found by measuring a line segment extending from the center of a circle to any point
on the circle; the line extending from the center of a sphere to any point on the outside edge of the sphere.
Ratio: The relationship between two quantities. Ratios can be expressed in words, fractions, decimals, or
percentages. Example: the ratio given when a team wins 4 out of 6 games is 4/6, 4:6, four out of six, or
~67%.
Ray: A straight line with only one endpoint that extends infinitely.
Range: The difference between the maximum and minimum in a set of data.
Rectangle: A parallelogram with four right angles.
Repeating Decimal: A decimal with endlessly repeating digits. Example: 88 divided by 33 equals
2.6666666666666...("2.6 repeating").
Reflection: The mirror image of a shape or object, obtained from flipping the shape on an axis.
Remainder: The number left over when a quantity cannot be divided evenly. A remainder can be
expressed as an integer, fraction, or decimal.
Right Angle: An angle equal to 90°.
Right Triangle: A triangle with one right angle.
Rhombus: A parallelogram with four sides of equal length and no right angles.
Scalene Triangle: A triangle with three unequal sides.
Sector: The area between an arc and two radii of a circle, sometimes referred to as a wedge.
Slope: Slope shows the steepness or incline of a line and is determined by comparing the positions of two
points on the line (usually on a graph).
Square Root: A number squared is multiplied by itself; the square root of a number is whatever integer
gives the original number when multiplied by itself. For instance, 12 x 12 or 12 squared is 144, so the
square root of 144 is 12.
Stem and Leaf: A graphic organizer used to organize and compare data. Similar to a histogram, stem and
leaf graphs organize intervals or groups of data.
Subtraction: The operation of finding the difference between two numbers or quantities by "taking
away" one from the other.
Supplementary Angles: Two angles are supplementary if their sum is equal to 180°.
Symmetry: Two halves that match perfectly and are identical across an axis.
Tangent: A straight line touching a curve from only one point.
Term: Piece of an algebraic equation; a number in a sequence or series; a product of real numbers and/or
variables.
Unit: A standard quantity used in measurement. Inches and centimeters are units of length, pounds and
kilograms are units of weight, and square meters and acres are units of area.
Variable: A letter used to represent a numerical value in equations and expressions. Example: in the
expression 3x + y, both y and x are the variables.
Venn Diagram: A Venn diagram is usually shown as two overlapping circles and is used to compare two
sets. The overlapping section contains information that is true of both sides or sets and the non-
overlapping portions each represent a set and contain information that is only true of their set.
Volume: A unit of measure describing how much space a substance occupies or the capacity of a
container, provided in cubic units.
Vertex: The point of intersection between two or more rays, often called a corner. A vertex is where two-
dimensional sides or three-dimensional edges meet.
Weight: The measure of how heavy something is.
Whole Number: A whole number is a positive integer.
X-Axis: The horizontal axis in a coordinate plane.
X-Intercept: The value of x where a line or curve intersects the x-axis.
Y-Axis: The vertical axis in a coordinate plane.
Y-Intercept: The value of y where a line or curve intersects the y-axis.
Yard: A unit of measure that is equal to approximately 91.5 centimeters or 3 feet.
Addition rule: for mutually exclusive random events, the chance of at least one of them occurring is the
sum of their individual probabilities.
Alternative hypothesis: a research hypothesis; the hypothesis that is supported if the null hypothesis is
rejected.
Bar chart: a graphic that displays how data fall into different categories or groups.
Bell-shaped curve: symmetrical, single-peaked frequency distribution.
Also called the normal curve or gaussian curve.
Bias: the consistent underestimation or overestimation of a true value, because of preconceived notion of
the person sampling the population.
Bimodal: curve with two equal scores of highest frequency.
Binomial: event with only two possible outcomes.
Binomial probability distribution: for binomial events, the frequency of the number of favorable
outcomes. For a large number of trials, the binomial distribution approaches the normal distribution.
Bivariate: involving two variables, especially, when attempting to show a correlation between two
variables, the analysis is said to be bivariate.
Box plot (box-and-whiskers): a graphic display of data indicating symmetry and central tendency.
Central limit theorem: a rule that states that the sampling distribution of means from any population will
be normal for large sample n.
Chi-square: a probability distribution used to test the independence of two nominal variables.
Class frequency: the number of observations that fall into each class interval.
Class intervals: categories or groups contained in frequency graphics.
Coefficient of determination: a measure of the proportion of each other's variability that two variables
share.
Confidence interval: the range of values that a population parameter could take at a given level of
significance.
Confidence level: the probability of obtaining a given result by chance.
Continuous variable: a variable that can be measured with whole numbers and fractional (or decimal)
parts thereof.
Correlated: two (or more) quantities that change together in a consistent manner. Thus, if the value of
one variable is known, the other can be immediately determined from their relationship.
Correlation coefficient: a measure of the degree to which two variables are linearly related.
Critical value: the value of a computed statistic used as a threshold to decide whether the null hypothesis
will be rejected.
Data: numerical information about variables; the measurements or observations to be analyzed with
statistical methods.
Degrees of freedom: a parameter used to help select the critical value in some probability distributions.
Dependent events: events such that the outcome of one has an effect on the probability of the outcome of
the other.
Dependent variable: a variable that is caused or influenced by another.
Descriptive statistics: numerical data that describe phenomena.
Deviation: the distance of a value in a population (or sample) from the mean value of the population (or
sample).
Directional test: a test of the prediction that one value is higher than another; also called a one-tailed test.
Discrete variable: a variable that can be measured only by means of whole numbers; or one which
assumes only a certain set of definite values, and no others.
Disjoint occurrence: both outcomes unable to happen at the same time.
Distribution: a collection of measurements; how scores tend to be dispersed about a measurement scale.
Dot plot: a graphic that displays the variability in a small set of measures.
Double counting: a mistake encountered in calculating the probability of at least one of several events
occurring, when the events are not mutually exclusive. In this case, the addition rule does not apply.
Empirical rule: a rule that is founded on observation, without a theoretical basis. Or a "rule of thumb."
Frequency distribution: the frequency of occurrence of the values of a variable. For each possible value
of the variable, there is an associated frequency with which the variable assumes that value.
Frequency histogram: a graphic that displays how many measures fall into different classes, giving the
frequency at which each category is seen observed.
Frequency polygon: a graphic presentation of frequency of a phenomenon that typically uses straight
lines and points.
Grouped data: data that has been sorted into categories, usually in order to construct a frequency
histogram.
Grouped measures: a set of values that belong to the same class.
Independent events: events such that the outcome of one has no effect on the probability of the outcome
of the other.
Independent variable: a variable that causes, or influences, another variable.
Inference: conclusion about a population parameter based upon analysis of a sample statistic. Inferences
are always stated with a confidence level.
Intercept: the value of y at which a line crosses the vertical axis.
Interquartile range: set of measures lying between the lower quartile (25th percentile) and the upper
quartile (75th percentile), inclusive.
Interval: a scale using numbers to rank order; its intervals are equal but with an arbitrary 0 point.
Joint occurrence: both outcomes happening simultaneously; P(AB).
Least squares: any line- or curve-fitting model that minimizes the squared distance of data points to the
line.
Lower quartile: (Q1), the 25th percentile of a set of measures.
Mean: the sum of the measures in a distribution divided by the number of measures; the average.
Measures of central tendency: descriptive measures that indicate the center of a set of values, for
example, mean, median, and mode.
Measures of variation: descriptive measures that indicate the dispersion of a set of values, for example,
variance, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean.
Median: the middle measure in an ordered distribution.
Middle quartile: (Q2), the 50th percentile of a set of measures; the median.
Mode: most frequent measure in a distribution; the high point on a frequency distribution.
Mound-shaped curve: symmetrical, single-peaked frequency distribution. Also called the normal curve
or gaussian curve. Also called a bell-shaped curve.
Multiplication rule: the probability of two or more independent (hence, not mutually exclusive) events
all occurring is the product of their individual probabilities.
Mutually exclusive: events such that the occurrence of one precludes the occurrence of the other.
Negative relationship: a relationship between two variables such that when one increases, the other
decreases.
Negatively skewed curve: a probability or frequency distribution that is not normal, but rather is shifted
such that the mean is less than the mode.
Nominal: a scale using numbers, symbols, or names to designate different subclasses.
Non-directional test: a test of the prediction that two values are equal or a test that they are not equal; a
two-tailed test.
Non-parametric test: statistical test used when assumptions about normal distribution in the population
cannot be met, or when the level of measurement is ordinal or less. For example, the c-square test.
Normal distribution: smooth bell-shaped curve symmetrical about the mean such that its shape and area
obey the empirical rule.
Null hypothesis: the reverse of the research hypothesis. The null hypothesis is directly tested by
statistical analysis so that it is either rejected or not rejected, with a confidence level. If the null
hypothesis is rejected, the alternative hypothesis is supported.
Numerical statistics: statistical parameters presented as numbers (as opposed to pictorial statistics).
Ogive: a graphic that displays a running total.
One-tailed test: a test of the prediction that one value is higher than another.
Ordinal: a scale using numbers or symbols to rank order; its intervals are unspecified.
Outlier: a data point that falls far from most other points; a score extremely divergent from the other
measures of a set.
Parameter: a characteristic of a population. The goal of statistical analysis is usually to estimate
population parameters, using statistics from a sample of the population.
Pearson's product moment coefficient: identical to the correlation coefficient.
Percentile: the value in an ordered set of measurements such that p% of the measures lie below that
value.
Pictorial statistics: statistical parameters that are presented as graphs or charts (as opposed to simply as
numbers).
Pie chart: a graphic that displays parts of the whole, in the form of a circle with its area divided
appropriately.
Point estimate: a number computed from a sample to represent a population parameter.
Population: a group of phenomena that have something in common. The population is the larger group,
whose properties (parameters) are estimated by taking a smaller sample from within the population, and
applying statistical analysis to the sample.
Positive relationship: a relationship between two variables such that when one increases, the other
increases, or when one decreases, the other decreases.
Positively skewed curve: a probability or frequency distribution that is not normal, but rather is shifted
such that the mean is greater than the mode.
Power: the probability that a test will reject the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, false.
Probability: a quantitative measure of the chances for a particular outcome or outcomes.
Probability distribution: a smooth curve indicating the frequency distribution for a continuous random
variable.
Proportion: for a binomial random event, the probability of a successful (or favorable) outcome in a
single trial.
Qualitative variable: phenomenon measured in kind, that is, non-numerical units. For example, color is
a qualitative variable, because it cannot be expressed simply as a number.
Quantitative variable: phenomenon measured in amounts, that is, numerical units. For example, length
is a quantitative variable.
Random: an event for which there is no way to know, before it occurs, what the outcome will be. Instead,
only the probabilities of each possible outcome can be stated.
Random error: error that occurs as a result of sampling variability, through no direct fault of the
sampler. It is a reflection of the fact that the sample is smaller than the population; for larger samples, the
random error is smaller.
Range: difference between the largest and smallest measures of a set.
Ratio: a scale using numbers to rank order; its intervals are equal, and the scale has an absolute 0 point.
Region of acceptance: the area of a probability curve in which a computed test statistic will lead to
acceptance of the null hypothesis.
Region of rejection: the area of a probability curve in which a computed test statistic will lead to
rejection of the null hypothesis.
Regression: a statistical procedure used to estimate the linear dependence of one or more independent
variables on a dependent variable.
Relative frequency: the ratio of class frequency to total number of measures.
Relative frequency principle of probability: if a random event is repeated a large number of times, then
the proportion of times that a particular outcome occurs is the probability of that outcome occurring in a
single event.
Research hypothesis: a prediction or expectation to be tested. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the
research hypothesis (also called alternative hypothesis) is supported.
Residual: the vertical distance between a predicted value y and its actual value.
Sample: a group of members of a population selected to represent that population. A sample to which
statistical analysis is applied should be randomly drawn from the population, to avoid bias.
Sampling distribution: the distribution obtained by computing a statistic for a large number of samples
drawn from the same population.
Sampling variability: the tendency of the same statistic computed from a number of random samples
drawn from the same population to differ.
Scatter plot: a graphic display used to illustrate degree of correlation between two variables.
Skewed: a distribution displaced at one end of the scale and a tail strung out at the other end.
Slope: a measure of a line's slant.
Standard deviation: a measure of data variation; the square root of the variance.
Standard error: a measure of the random variability of a statistic, such as the mean (i.e., standard error
of the mean). The standard error of the mean is equal to the standard deviation divided by the square root
of the sample size (n).
Standardize: to convert to a z-score.
Statistic: a characteristic of a sample. A statistic is an estimate of a population parameter. For larger
samples, the statistic is a better estimate of the parameter.
Statistical significance: the probability of obtaining a given result by chance. High statistical significance
does not necessarily imply importance.
Statistics: a branch of mathematics that describes and reasons from numerical observations; or
descriptive measures of a sample.
Stem-and-leaf graphic: display that shows actual scores as well as distribution of classes.
Symmetry: a shape such that one side is the exact mirror image of the other.
Symmetric distribution: a probability or frequency distribution that has the property in which the mean,
median, and mode are all the same value.
Systematic error: the consistent underestimation or overestimation of a true value, due to poor sampling
technique.
T-distribution: a probability distribution often used when the population standard deviation is not known
or when the sample size is small.
Tabled value: the value of a computed statistic used as a threshold to decide whether the null hypothesis
will be rejected.
Test statistic: a computed quantity used to decide hypothesis tests.
Two-tailed test: a test of the prediction that two values are equal, or a test that they are not equal.
Type I error: rejecting a null hypothesis that is, in fact, true.
Type II error: failing to reject a null hypothesis that is, in fact, false.
Upper quartile: (Q3), the 75th percentile of a set of measures.
Value: a measurement or classification of a variable.
Variable: an observable characteristic of a phenomenon that can be measured or classified.
Variance: a measure of data variation; the mean of the squared deviation scores about the means of a
distribution.
Z-score: a unit of measurement obtained by subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard deviation.
Pictogram: (CSS Ability 2017)
Pictogram exhibits the data in picture form Picture are used to show the frequency of data values.
Example:
The following table shows the numbers of computers salt by a company fir the month’s January to
March. Constrict a pictograph for the table.
Month January February March
Number of computers 25 35 20
Solution:

January

February

March

Histogram:
In histogram we usemozi bar against data values Frequency is hsown using height of bvar instead of
no of pictures of pictogramas.
Example:
The histogram below shows the heights (in cm) distributaion of 30 People.
(a) How many people have heisghts between 1595
(b) Thow many people have geights less than 1595m cm?
(c) How many people have heights more than 169.5cm?
(d) What percentage of People have hights between 149.5 and 179.5cm?

Heights of 30 People
10
9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
139.5 - 149.5 159.5 169.5 179.5 189.5 199.5
Height in cm

Solution:
(a) 7 People
 (b) 9+6 = 15 People
(c) 5+2+1 = 8 People
(d) (9+7+5)/30 = 0.7 = 70%
Measure of central Tendency: (CSS Ability 2019)
Central tendency is the measure that determines a single value that accurately describes the center of
the distribution and represent the entire distribution and represents the entire distribution score.
The goal of measure of central tendency is to identify a single value that is the best presentative for
the entire set of data.
Types:
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
• Weighted Arithmetic mean
• Geometric mean
• Harmonic mean
Polygon: “Poly”-“many” “Gams”-“Sides” (CSS Ability 2019)
“A many-sided figure is called a polygon.”
The number of sides any polygon determines different shapes
Types of polygon:
Triangle 3 sided polygon
Quadrilateral 4 sided polygon
Pentagon 5 sided polygon
Hexagon 6 sided polygon
Heptagon 7 sided polygon
Octagon 8 sided polygon
Nonagon 9 sided polygon
Decagon 10-sided polygon
Regular Polygon:
A regular polygon is one where all sides are equal
Mental ability Scales (CSS Ability 2022)
Mental ability can be referred to as human intelligence or individual ability to constructively solve
problems in the environment without much instruction or assistance from another individual.
Measurement of the mental ability of students is a process of measuring the intelligence or cognitive
ability of an individual because the brain has different compartments, each hogged to a specific ability upon
which a test can be measured. The mental ability of any student can be measured by conducting cognitive
ability tests.
Cognitive ability tests assess abilities that involved thinking (e.g. reasoning, perception, memory, verba
and mathematical ability, and problem-solving). Such tests pose questions designed to estimate applicants’
potential to use mental processes to solve work-related problems or to acquire new job knowledge
Intelligence vs Aptitude
Traditionally, the general trait measured by cognitive ability tests is called `intelligence’ or `general
mental ability. However, an intelligence test often includes various product types which measure different
and more specific mental factors often referred to as ‘‘specific mental ability’’. Medical Dictionary (2016)
viewed intelligence as an individual’s ability to adapt and constructively solve problems in the
environment. Wechsler viewed intelligence not in terms of capacity, but rather in terms of performance
since intellectual capacity cannot be seen nor its existence concretely verified and cannot be reliably
measured but the achievement of any student can be reliably measured.
While intelligence is the ability of an individual to gain knowledge and understand cumbersome
situations, aptitude can be defined as the capacity to apply the same knowledge. For example, a person may
be intelligent enough to gain knowledge about military, navy, and air force or defense-related matters; but
may not possess an aptitude to practice the same effect in his/her real life.
Aptitude reflects specialized abilities and personal strengths & weaknesses. Aptitudes are natural
talents, special abilities for doing, or learning to do, certain kinds of things easily and quickly. They have
little to do with knowledge or culture, education, or even interests. They have to do with heredity. Musical
talent and artistic talent are examples of such aptitudes.
Factors Affecting Intelligence (CSS Ability 2022)
1. Heredity and Environment:
Heredity provided the physical body to be developed with certain inherent capabilities while the
environment provides for the maturation and training of the organism. In 1940 Newman concluded that
variations in I.Q. were determined about 68% by heredity and 32% by the environment.
During an individual’s lifetime variation in I.Q. is due to the environment, since the heredity cannot
change. Improved nutrition health, and stimulus situations would account for this change. The environment
of children ages 2 to 4 years appears to be critical since the child normally learns language at this time.
Better homes, schools, medical facilities, and less economic discrimination. Provides a means for achieving
a mentally able population.
2. Age:
A person who is bright or dull in childhood tends to remain bright or dull throughout his life. The
growth I intelligence can continue through the early twenties, person achieves his maximum 10 at about 20
years are and remain stable till 10 years and decreases after that. Some abilities remain constant while
others decline rapidly due to a decline in physical efficiency. It is observed that the more intelligent person
has more rapid mental growth and continues to develop longer than the mentally less able.
 3. Race and Nationality:
There is no prominent evidence to show that race is a factor in determining intellectual level.
Differences exist between families due to the environment. The differences in races are also due to the
opportunity for training in the early years.
All evidence indicates that there is little or no difference in inherited intellectual capacity due to race.
There are differences, mostly due to opportunities for training and learning. The idea of inferior races due to
heredity is not true.
4. Culture:
Answers in intelligent test questions are highly cultural. Cultural will determine the degree of a
person’s attitude and abilities.
5. Health and Physical Development:
Physical and mental health is related to one’s ability to gain the desired achievement. A mental activity
with delicate health, one may not possess enough energy to engage in mental activity to the extent that he
achieves success. Physical defects such as incomplete maturation of brain cells and sensory and physical
handicaps may interfere with observable intelligent behavior. Diseases also affect intelligence. Emotional
bodies may interfere with one’s ability. Unfavorable health affects the mental status of the individual.
6. Sex:
It is a popular belief that boys are supposed to be more intelligent than girls. Research studies have
shown that there are no significant differences between the sexes, on average, girls seem to show slight
superiority in language, memory, and appreciation. Differences in intelligence are caused partly by
environmental conditions
7. Social and Economic Conditions:
Home plays a significant role in the early developmental years. Home conditions influence behaviours
and attitudes. The financial status of the parents, neighborhood, and environmental conditions also affect
their intelligence due to their socioeconomic status.
Sampling (CSS Ability 2022)
Sampling is the research strategy of collecting data from a part of a population to draw inferences about
the whole. The “population” in this sense is often termed the “universe". A sample is defined as a smaller
set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger population by using a pre-defined selection
method. These elements are known as sample points, sampling units, or observations.
Non-Probability Sampling Methodologies
The non-probability sampling method uses the researcher’s discretion to select a sample. This type of
sample is derived mostly from the researcher’s or statistician’s ability to get to this sample. This type of
sampling is used for preliminary research where the primary objective is to derive a hypothesis about the
topic in research. Here each member does not have an equal chance of being a part of the sample
population, and those parameters are known only post-selection to the sample.
 We can classify non-probability sampling into four distinct types of samples. They are:
Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling, in easy terms, stands for the convenience of a
researcher accessing a respondent. There is no scientific method of deriving this sample. Researchers have
nearly no authority over selecting the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not
representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and costs limitations
in collecting feedback. For example, researchers are conducting a mall-intercept survey to understand the
probability of using a fragrance from a perfume manufacturer. In this sampling method, the sample
respondents are chosen purely on their proximity to the survey desk and their willingness to participate in
the research.
Dimensional sampling: You try to include participants who fit the critical dimensions of your study
(time spent as an architect or engineer, time using a particular product, experience with a set of software
tools).
Judgmental or purposive sampling: The judgmental or purposive sampling method is a method of
developing a sample purely on the basis and discretion of the researcher purely based on the nature of the
study along with his/her understanding of the target audience. In this sampling method, people who only fit
the research criteria and end objectives are selected, and the remaining are kept out. For example, if the
research topic is understanding what University a student prefers for a master’s, if the question asked is
“Would you like to do your Master’s?” anything other than a response, “Yes” to this question, everyone else
is excluded from this study.
Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined as a non-probability
sampling technique in which the samples have traits that are rare to find. This is a sampling technique, in
which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit samples required for a research study. For example,
while collecting feedback about a sensitive topic like AIDS, respondents aren’t forthcoming with
information. In this case, the researcher can recruit people with an understanding or knowledge of such
people and collect information from them or ask them to collect information.
Quota sampling: Quota sampling is a method of collecting a sample where the researcher has the liberty
to select a sample based on its strata. The primary characteristic of this method is that two people cannot
exist under two different conditions. For example, when a shoe manufacturer would like to understand
millennials' perception of the brand with other parameters like comfort, pricing, etc. It selects only
females who are millennials for this study as the research objective is to collect feedback about women’s
shoes.