Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics

• The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is
most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.
• Thermodynamics is a branch of physics, concerned with heat, temperature and their relation to energy,
work.
• Now the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations,
including power generation, refrigeration and relationships among the properties of matter.

Thermodynamic System

• A thermodynamic system is simply any object, quantity of matter, or region of space that has been
selected for thermodynamic study.
• Anything outside the boundaries is called its surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surrounding is called boundary.

Properties of Boundary

1. It may be real or imaginary, at rest or in motion

2. It may change its shape and size
3. It neither contains matter nor occupies volume
4. It has zero thickness.
Classification of Thermodynamics System

1. Open system: The working substance (mass) can cross the boundary. The heat and work may also cross
the boundary.

2. Closed system: This is a system of fixed mass (i.e. - working substance cannot cross the boundary). The
heat and work may also cross the boundary.

3. Isolated System: It is a system of fixed mass and no heat or work cross the boundary.
Adiabatic System

• In Adiabatic system the boundary is impermeable to heat.

State

• The condition of a system at any instant of time is called its state.

• State at a given instant determines the properties of the system.

Property

• A property is a quantity whose numerical value depends on the state but not on the history of the system,
• Mostly used properties in thermodynamics are:
o Pressure,
o Temperature,
o Volume,
o Density,
o Energy,
o Entropy and
o Enthalpy.
• Two states are identical if, and only if, the properties of the two states are identical.
Pressure

• Pressure (P) is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
• We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid.
• Units:
o N/m2 (SI)
o mm(Hg)
o atm
• The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they
indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference
is called the gage pressure. Pgage can be positive or negative, but pressures below atmospheric pressure
are sometimes called vacuum pressure.
Math-01:
Math-01: AAvacuum
vacuumgage
gageconnected
connectedtotoaachamber
chamberreads
reads700
700mm(Hg).
mm(Hg).Determine
Determinethe
theabsolute
absolutepressure
pressureininthethe
chamber
chamberin
inSI
SIunit.
unit.

Math-02:
Math-02:AApressure
pressuregage
gageconnected
connectedtotoaachamber
chamberreads
reads1460
1460mm(Hg).
mm(Hg).Determine
Determinethe
theabsolute
absolutepressure
pressureininthethe
chamber
chamberin
inSI
SIunit.
unit.

Volume

• Space occupied by a matter is called volume (V).

• Units:
o m3 (SI unit)
o L (Litre)

Temperature

• Physical property that determines whether two bodies are in thermal equilibrium or not is Temperature
(T).
• Units:
o K (kelvin, SI unit)
o °C (Celsius)
o °F (Fahrenheit)

𝑪 𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝑲 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
= =
𝟓 𝟗 𝟓

• If two bodies are in contact, heat transfer between them solely depends on temperature.

Math-01: Find the temperature that has same value on both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scale.

Density

• Density (ρ) is defined as mass per unit volume.

• Unit:
o kg/m3 (SI unit)
Classification of Thermodynamic Properties:

The thermodynamic properties are divided into the following two classes:

1. Extensive Properties:
o The properties of the system, whose value for the entire system is equal to the sum of the values
for the individual parts of the system, are called extensive properties.
o Extensive properties depend on the size or extent of the system.
o Example -Total volume, total mass and total energy.
2. Intensive Properties:
o The properties of the system, whose value for the entire system is not equal to the sum of the values
for the individual parts of the system, are called intensive properties.
o Intensive properties are independent of the size or extent of the system.
o Example- Temperature, pressure and density.

Specific Property

• Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass and are denoted by lower case letters.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆, 𝒗 = 𝑽/𝒎
• Specific properties are intensive because they do not depend on the mass of the system.

Process

• A thermodynamic process is the succession of thermodynamic states that a system passes through as it
goes from an initial state to a final state.
Cycle

• A system process is said to go through a thermodynamic cycle when the final state and the initial state of
the process are same.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

• A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies the following stringent requirements:

1. Mechanical Equilibrium: no unbalance forces acting on any part of the system or the system as a
whole.
2. Thermal Equilibrium: no temperature differences between parts of the system or between the system
and the surrounding.
3. Chemical Equilibrium: no chemical reactions within the system.
• Any property has a fixed value in a given (equilibrium) state, regardless of how the system arrives at the
state.

Quasi-Static Equilibrium:

• During a quasi-static process, the system is at all times infinitesimally near a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium.
• So, the process should be carried out infinitely slow to allow the system to settle to a stable state at the
end of each infinitesimal step in the process.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

• If two systems are in thermal equilibrium respectively with a third system, they must be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• This law helps define the notion of temperature.

Work in Mechanics

• The scalar quantity, work, is defined as the scalar product of force and displacement: W = F · s

Thermodynamic Work

• Work is performed by a system on its surroundings during a process if the only effect external to the
system could be the raising of a weight.

Heat

• Heat is energy in transition from one body or system to another solely because of a temperature difference
between the systems.
• The magnitudes of heat and work depend on the arbitrary selection of boundaries between interacting
systems. These are not properties.
• Heat and work transfers are the only mechanisms by which energy can be transferred across the boundary
of a closed system.
• An energy transfer can be heat or work, depending on system selection.
Comparison of Heat & Work

• Heat and work are both transient phenomena. Systems never possess heat or work.
• Both heat and work are boundary phenomena. Both are observed only at the boundary of the system, and
both represent energy crossing the boundary.
• Both heat and work are path functions.

Categories of Thermodynamics Quantities

1. State functions: all properties are state functions.

2. Process or Path functions: quantities whose values depend on the path of the process.
Expansion & Compression Work

Work as a path function

• Work done by a system depends not only on the initial and final states but also on the path of the process.
So, work is a path function.

First Law of Thermodynamics:

• The heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible. According to this law, when a closed system
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat transfer is equal to the net work transfer.
 • The energy can neither be created nor destroyed though it can be transformed one form to another.
• When energy passes, as work, as heat, or with matter, into or out from a system, its internal energy changes
in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer:

• Heat Transfer, Q
• Work Transfer, W
• Mass Flow, m

Physical significance of the property Energy (E):

• It represents all the energy of the system in the given state. This energy might be present in a variety of
forms, such as:
o Kinetic Energy (KE): energy of a system associated with motion.
o Potential Energy (PE): energy associated with a mass that is located at a specified position in a
force field.
o Internal Energy (U): some forms of energy, e.g., chemical, nuclear, magnetic, electrical, and
thermal depend in some way on the molecular structure of the substance that is being considered,
and these energies are grouped as the internal energy of a system, U.
 𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬 + 𝑼

Math-01: A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the
internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the paddle
wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.

Math-02: When a system is taken from state A to state B, in Figure, along the path ACB, 80kJ of heat flows into
the system and system does 30kJ of work.
 1. How much heat flows into system along the path ADB, if the work done by system is 10kJ?
2. When the system is returned from the state B to state A along the curved path, the work done on the
system is 20kJ. How much heat is absorbed or liberated?
3. If the internal energy at A is 0 kJ and at D is 40kJ. Find heat absorbed in processes AD and DB.

Limitation of First Law of Thermodynamics

1. When a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat transfer is equal to the net work
transfer. It does not specify the direction of flow of heat and work (i.e. whether the heat flows from hot
body to cold body or cold body to hot body). It also does not give any condition under which these transfer
takes place.
2. The heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible. Though the mechanical work fully converted
into heat energy, but only a part of heat energy converted to mechanical work.

Enthalpy (H): A Thermodynamic Property

• In the analysis of certain types of processes, particularly in power generation and refrigeration, we
frequently encounter the combination of properties u+Pv.
• For the sake of simplicity and convenience, this combination is defined as a new property, enthalpy, and
given the symbol h.

𝒉 ≡ 𝒖 + 𝑷𝒗

• Heat transfer in a constant-pressure quasi-equilibrium process is equal to the change in enthalpy, which
includes both the change in internal energy and the work for this particular process.
Specific Heats

• The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
by one degree.
• In thermodynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats:
1. Specific heat at constant volume cv which is the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit
mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.
2. Specific heat at constant pressure cp which is the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit
mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant.

• 𝒄𝒑 + 𝒄𝒗 = 𝑹
𝒄𝒑
• = 𝒌 = 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 (𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒊𝒓, 𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆)
𝒄𝒗

• 𝒅𝑯 = 𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏 = 𝒏𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )
• 𝒅𝑼 = 𝑼𝟐 − 𝑼𝟏 = 𝒏𝒄𝒗 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

Second Law of Thermodynamics

• According to Kelvin Planck - It is impossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic process, whose
sole purpose is to convert heat energy into equivalent amount of work.
• According to Clausius - It is impossible for a self-acting machine, working on a cyclic process, to transfer
heat from lower temperature to higher temperature without the help of external agency.
Thermal Reservoir

• A thermal reservoir is a closed system with the following characteristics:

1. Temperature remains uniform and constant during a process.
2. Changes within the thermal reservoir are internally reversible.
3. Heat transfer to or from a thermal reservoir only results in an increase or decrease in the internal energy
of the reservoir.
• A thermal reservoir is an idealization which in practice can be closely approximated. Large bodies of
water, such as oceans and lakes, and the atmosphere behave essentially as thermal reservoirs.
• A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source.
• A reservoir that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink.

Heat Engine: Classifications

Heat Engine:

• Converting heat to work requires the use of some special devices. These devices are called heat engines.
• Heat engines can be characterized by the following:
1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
• Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a fluid to and from which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle. This fluid is called the working fluid.

Refrigerator/Air-conditioner

• The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one requires special devices
called refrigerators.
• Refrigerators are cyclic devices.
• The working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle is called a refrigerant.
Heat Pump

• Heat pump, maintains a heated space at a high temperature.

• This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low-temperature source (such as well water or cold outside
air in winter), and supplying this heat to the high-temperature medium (such as a house).

• An ordinary refrigerator that is placed in the window of a house with its door open to the cold outside air
in winter will function as a heat pump since it will try to cool the outside by absorbing heat from it and
rejecting this heat into the house through the coils behind it.

Reversible Engines

• A reversible process for a system is defined as a process that once having taken place can be reversed and
in so doing leave no change in either the system or the surrounding. This is possible only if the net heat
and net work exchange between the system and the surroundings is zero for the combined (original and
reverse) process. An engine that is solely based on reversible processes is reversible engine.
• A reversible power cycle can be changed to a reversible refrigeration cycle by just reversing all the heat
and work flow quantities.
 • For reversible processes,
𝑸𝑯 𝑸𝑳
=
𝑻𝑯 𝑻𝑳
• Highest efficiency can be only achieved if the engine is reversible which isn’t practically possible.

Irreversible Process

• Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.

• A process is called irreversible if the system and all parts of its surroundings cannot be exactly restored to
their respective initial states after the process has occurred.
• A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of the system
during the process.
• A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries during
the process.
• A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves no irreversibilities within the
system or its surroundings.

Common Forms of irreversibilities

• The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities.

• Most common forms of irreversibilities include:
1. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
2. Unrestrained expansion of a gas or liquid to a lower pressure
3. Spontaneous chemical reaction
4. Spontaneous mixing of matter at different compositions or states
5. Friction—sliding friction as well as friction in the flow of fluids
6. Electric current flow through a resistance
7. Magnetization or polarization with hysteresis
8. Inelastic deformation
 Math-01: An engine works between the temperature limits of 1775K and 375K. What is the maximum
thermal efficiency of the engine?

Math-02: An inventor claims to have developed a power cycle capable of delivering a net work output of
410 kJ for an energy input by heat transfer of 1000 kJ. The system undergoing the cycle receives the heat
transfer from hot gases at a temperature of 500 K and discharges energy by heat transfer to the atmosphere at
300 K. Evaluate this claim.

Math-03: A cold storage is to be maintained at -5°C while the surroundings are at 35°C. The heat removed
from the cold storage is estimated to be 29kW. The actual COP is one-third of the ideal COP between same
working temperatures. Find the work/power required to drive the plant.

Math-04: A heat pump is to be used to heat a house during winter. The house is to be maintained at 210 C at
all times. The house is estimated to be losing at rate of 135 kW when the outside temperature drops to -50 C.
Determine the minimum power required to drive the plant.

Perpetual Motion Machines

• A perpetual-motion machine of the first kind (PMM1) would create work from nothing or create mass or
energy, thus violating the first law.
• A perpetual-motion machine of the second kind (PMM2) would extract heat from a source and then
convert this heat completely into other forms of energy, thus violating the second law.

A perpetual-motion machine of the second kind.

Entropy

• Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system's thermal energy for
conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system.
• Entropy is a property, hence change in entropy between two end states is same for all processes, both
reversible and irreversible.
• If no irreversibility occur within the system boundaries of the system during the process, the system is
internally reversible.
• For an internally reversible process, the change in the entropy is due solely for heat transfer. So, heat
transfer across a boundary associated with it the transfer of entropy as well.
𝑑𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠
• For isothermal heat transfer processes (internally reversible),
𝑄
∆𝑆 =
𝑇
• The entropy of a system can increase in only two ways, either by heat addition or by the presence of
irreversibility.
• The entropy of a system can decrease only by heat removal.
• Reversible process: ds = dq/T & adiabatic process: dq = 0. So, s = constant. For reversible adiabatic
process, entropy is constant. That means reversible adiabatic process is isentropic.
• All isentropic processes are not necessarily reversible and adiabatic. Entropy can remain constant during
a process if the heat removal balances the irreversibility.
• Entropy change for an isolated system cannot be negative.
• In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the participating thermodynamic systems
increases.

Equation of State (EOS)

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻

Where,

P ≡ pressure [Pa]

V ≡ volume [m3]

T ≡ temperature [K]

R ≡ universal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol.K = 287 J/kg.K

n = Mole
Some Thermodynamic Processes:

1. Adiabatic process is one that occurs without transfer of heat or matter between a system and its
surroundings.
2. Isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the temperature remains constant: ΔT = 0. This
typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir (heat bath), and the change
occurs slowly enough to allow the system to continually adjust to the temperature of the reservoir
through heat exchange.
3. Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the pressure stays constant: ΔP = 0. The term
derives from the Greek iso-(equal) and baros (weight).
4. Isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, an iso-volumetric process, or an isometric
process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system undergoing such a
process remains constant. An isochoric process is exemplified by the heating or the cooling of the contents
of a sealed, inelastic container.

Math-01: Estimate the pressure exerted by 3.7 kg CO in a 0.030 m3 container at 215K.

Math-02: A certain gas occupies a space of 0.3m3 at a pressure of 2 atm and a temperature of 77°C. It is heated
at a constant volume, until the pressure is 7 atm.

Determine:

1. Temperature at the end of the process.

2. Mass of gas.
3. Change in internal energy.
4. Change in enthalpy.

Assume, cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K , cv = 0.712 kJ/kg.K and R = 287 J/kg.K

Math-03: A quantity of gas has a volume of 0.14m3, pressure 1.5 atm, and temperature 100°C. If the gas is
compressed at a constant pressure, until its volume becomes 0.112m3, determine:

1. Temperature at the end of compression.

2. Work done in compression.
3. Decrease in internal energy.
4. Heat given out by gas.

Assume, cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K , cv = 0.712 kJ/kg.K and R = 287 J/kg.K

Math-04: One litre of hydrogen at 0°C and 1 atm pressure is suddenly compressed to one half of its volume. Find
the final temperature and pressure. Assume, k = 1.4

Pure Substance

• A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition. It may exist in
more than one phase, but the chemical composition is the same in all phases.
• Liquid water, a mixture of liquid water and water vapour (steam), and a mixture of ice and liquid water
are all pure substances; every phase has the same chemical composition.
• A mixture of liquid air and gaseous air is not a pure substance as the composition of the liquid phase is
different from that of the vapour phase.
• Sometimes a mixture of gases, such as air, is considered a pure substance as long as there is no change of
phase.
Vapour-Liquid-Solid Phase Equilibrium

• Saturation temperature, Tsat is the temperature at which vaporization takes place at a given pressure.
This pressure is called the saturation pressure, Psat for the given temperature.
• If a substance exists as liquid at Tsat and Psat is called a saturated liquid.
• If the temperature of the liquid is lower than the saturation temperature for the existing pressure, it is called
either a sub-cooled liquid (implying T < Tsat(P) or a compressed liquid (implying P > Psat(P)).
• When a substance exists as part liquid and part vapour at the saturation temperature, its quality, x is
defined as the ratio of the mass of vapour to the total mass.
• If a substance exists as vapour at Tsat, it is called saturated vapour.
• When the vapour is at T > Tsat, it is said to exist as superheated vapour.
Property Diagrams for Phase change processes

1. The T-v Diagram:

T-v diagram of constant-pressure phase-change processes of a pure substance at various pressures (numerical
values are for water).
• Critical point is defined as the point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states are identical.
• The temperature, pressure, and specific volume of a substance at the critical point are called, respectively,
the critical temperature, critical pressure and critical specific volume.
• For water:
o Pcr = 22.06 MPa,
o Tcr = 373.95°C,
o vcr = 0.003106 m3/kg.
2. The P-v Diagram:
3. The P-T Diagram:

• P-T phase diagram is composed of three unique curves:

1. Fusion line - region of 2-phase solid-liquid equilibrium,
2. Vaporization line - region of 2-phase liquid-vapour equilibrium,
3. Sublimation line - region of 2-phase solid-vapour equilibrium.
• These three lines intersect at one point, called the triple point, which is the only point where all three
phases can be in equilibrium,
• At Triple point all three phases of a substance coexist in equilibrium.
• For water,
o the triple-point temperature = 0.01°C
o the triple-point pressure = 0.6117 kPa
Measuring the quality using T-v Diagram
Math-01: A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 40°C. If 8 kg of the water is in the liquid form and the rest
is in the vapor form, determine-

1. The pressure in the tank and

2. The volume of the tank.

Math-02: An 80-L vessel contains 4 kg of water at a pressure of 800 kPa. Determine

1. the temperature,
2. the quality,
3. the enthalpy of water, and
4. the volume occupied by the vapour.

Gibb’s Phase Rule

The number of degrees of freedom within a heterogeneous mixture of pure substances is given by Gibb’s phase
rule as

𝒇 = 𝑪 − 𝑷 + 𝟐

Where,

f ≡ number of degrees of freedom

C ≡ number of components (pure substances) in the mixture

P ≡ number of phases

• A homogeneous (P = 1) pure substance (C =1) requires f = 1 − 1 + 2 = 2 intensive properties to fix its

state.
• A homogeneous (P = 1) mixture of two pure substances (C = 2) requires f = 2 − 1 + 2 = 3 intensive
properties to fix its state.
• A two-phase (P = 2) pure substance (C = 1) ⇒ f = 1 − 2 + 2 = 1: Each phase requires one intensive property
to fix its state & one intensive property can be varied independently.
 Thermodynamic Cycles

Classification:

• Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories:

1. Power cycles
• The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines, and the
thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called power cycles.
2. Refrigeration cycles
• The devices or systems used to produce a refrigeration effect are called refrigerators, air
conditioners, or heat pumps, and the cycles they operate on are called refrigeration cycles.
• Depending on the phase of the working fluid, Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as,
1. Gas cycles
• In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle.
2. Vapor cycles.
• In vapor cycles the working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in the
liquid phase during another part.

Ideal Cycle

• The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyse because of the presence of complicating
effects, such as
o friction, and
o the absence of sufficient time for establishment of the equilibrium conditions during the cycle.
• To make an analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to keep the complexities at a manageable level
and utilize some idealizations.
• When the actual cycle is stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities, we end up with a
cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of internally reversible processes. Such
a cycle is called an ideal cycle.
• The idealizations and simplifications commonly employed in the analysis of power cycles can be
summarized as follows:
1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does not experience any
pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and heat transfer
through them is negligible.
Carnot Cycle

• The best known reversible cycle or ideal cycle is the Carnot cycle, first proposed in 1824 by French
engineer Sadi Carnot.

• It can be shown that it is the most efficient cycle for converting a given amount of thermal energy
into work, or conversely, creating a temperature difference (e.g. refrigeration) by doing a given amount
of work.
• The four reversible processes that make up the Carnot cycle are as follows:
1. Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant). Initially (state 1), the temperature
of the gas is TH and the cylinder head is in close contact with a source at temperature TH. The gas is
allowed to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings. As the gas expands, the temperature of
the gas tends to decrease. But as soon as the temperature drops by an infinitesimal amount dT, some
heat is transferred from the reservoir into the gas, raising the gas temperature to TH. Thus, the gas
temperature is kept constant at TH. Since the temperature difference between the gas and the reservoir
never exceeds a differential amount dT, this is a reversible heat transfer process. It continues until the
piston reaches position 2. The amount of total heat transferred to the gas during this process is QH.

2. Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL). At state 2, the
reservoir that was in contact with the cylinder head is removed and replaced by insulation so that the
system becomes adiabatic. The gas continues to expand slowly, doing work on the surroundings until
its temperature drops from TH to TL (state 3). The piston is assumed to be frictionless and the process
to be quasi-equilibrium, so the process is reversible as well as adiabatic.
3. Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant). At state 3, the insulation at the
cylinder head is removed, and the cylinder is brought into contact with a sink at temperature TL. Now
the piston is pushed inward by an external force, doing work on the gas. As the gas is compressed, its
temperature tends to rise. But as soon as it rises by an infinitesimal amount dT, heat is transferred from
the gas to the sink, causing the gas temperature to drop to TL. Thus, the gas temperature remains
constant at TL. Since the temperature difference between the gas and the sink never exceeds a
differential amount dT, this is a reversible heat transfer process. It continues until the piston reaches
state 4. The amount of heat rejected from the gas during this process is QL.

4. Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH). State 4 is such
that when the low-temperature reservoir is removed, the insulation is put back on the cylinder head,
and the gas is compressed in a reversible manner, the gas returns to its initial state (state 1). The
temperature rises from TL to TH during this reversible adiabatic compression process, which completes
the cycle.
P-v and T-s Diagram of Carnot Cycle

Figure: P-v diagram of Carnot Cycle Figure: T-s diagram of Carnot Cycle

Efficiency of Carnot Cycle

• 100% efficiency can’t be achieved in Carnot Cycle.

• Carnot engine is not possible to build in actual practice because-
1. Isothermal expansion and compression carried out extremely slow.
2. Adiabatic expansion and compression carried out as quickly as possible.
Since sudden changes in the speed of an engine are not possible. So in actual practice this type of
engine is not possible.
Engine Terminologies
1. Bore: Inside diameter of the cylinder is termed as Bore.
2. Top Dead Center (TDC): The extreme position reached by the piston at the top of the cylinder in the
vertical engine is called Top Dead center.
3. Bottom Dead Center (BDC): The extreme position reached by the piston at the Bottom of the cylinder
in the vertical engine is called Bottom Dead center.
4. Stroke: The nominal distance travelled by the piston in the cylinder between the extreme upper and lower
positions of the piston (TDC & BDC) is termed as stroke.
5. Cylinder volume (V): It is the sum of swept volume and the Clearance volume.

V = Vs + Vc
6. Swept volume (Vs): It is the volume of space generated by the movement of piston from one dead center
to another dead center. It is also called displacement volume.
7. Clearance Volume (Vc): It is the space in the cylinder, when the piston is at Top Dead Center.
8. Compression ratio (r): It is the ratio of Maximum cylinder volume to the Clearance volume.

9. Mean Effective Pressure (MEP): It is a fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the
entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that produced during the actual
cycle.
Math-01: Find the compression ratio, swept volume and stroke of an engine if volume inside the cylinder at
TDC is 25cm3 and at BDC is 80cm3. Cylinder bore is 15cm.

Math-02: A 4-cylinder engine has 4 cm bore, 3.5 cm stroke and a clearance volume of 9 cm3. Find the volume of
engine in cc. If the net work output is 1000 J. Find MEP.
Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
Efficiency of Otto cycle:

• r is the compression ratio and k is the specific heat ratio cp /cv.

Math-01: In an Otto cycle engine, air at 1 atm and 290 K is compressed until the pressure is 15 atm. The heat is
added at constant volume until the pressure rises to 40 atm. Determine:

(i) Temperature at the end of heat addition,

(ii) Compression ratio of the engine,
(iii) Efficiency of the engine.

Math-02: The bore and stroke of a single cylinder engine working on Otto cycle are 200 mm and 300 mm
respectively with clearance volume of 2.78L. Determine the efficiency of the engine.
Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines

• The cutoff ratio rc, as the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the combustion process.

• Efficiency of a diesel engine

 • For same compression ratio, Otto engine is much more efficient than diesel engine because the
third bracket term is always greater than unity.
• For same power output, diesel engines are more efficient as they operate on higher compression
ratio.

Heat Engine

• Heat Engine is a machine which converts heat energy supplied to it into mechanical work. Heat energy
is supplied to the engine by burning the fuel.

Classification of Heat Engines

i) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)

o In IC engines, combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder.
o Examples: Diesel Engines, Petrol Engines, Gas engines.
ii) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
o In EC engines, combustion of fuel takes place outside the working cylinder.
o Examples: Steam Engines and Steam turbines.

Classification of IC Engines:

• IC Engines are classified into:

i) Cycle of operation (No of Strokes per cycle)
a. Two Stroke cycle Engines
b. Four Stroke Cycle Engines
ii) Thermodynamic Cycle or Method of Heat addition:
a. Otto Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant volume)
b. Diesel Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant Pressure)
c. Semi Diesel Engines (Dual Combustion Engines)
iii) Types of Fuel Used:
a. Petrol Engines
b. Diesel Engines
c. Gas Engine
iv) Ignition Method:
a. Spark Ignition (SI)
b. Compression Ignition (CI)
 v) Cooling System:
a. Air cooled Engines
b. Water Cooled Engines

Main Components of IC Engines

Piston rings:

• Piston rings are inserted in the grooves provided in the piston. Two types of piston rings are used in the
piston.
i) Compression rings
ii) Oil rings or oil control rings.
Compression rings:

• Compression rings provide an effective seal for the high pressure gases inside the cylinder.

• They prevent the leakage of high pressure gases from the combustion chamber into the crank case.

• Each piston is provided with at least two compression rings.

Oil rings:

• Oil rings wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls.
• It also returns excess oil to the oil sump, through the slots provided in the rings.

Connecting Rod:

• It connects the piston and crank shaft.

• It transmits the force of explosion during power stroke to the crankshaft.

Crank Shaft:

• It is the main rotating shaft of the engine.

• Power is obtained from the crank shaft.
• The crank shaft is combination with connecting rod converts reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion.
Camshaft:
• Camshaft contains number of cams.
• It is used to convert rotary motion into linear or straight line motion.
• It has so many cams as the number of valves in an engine.
• The opening and closing of the engine valves are controlled by the cams provided on the cam shaft.

Fly wheel:

• It is a big wheel, mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its speed constant.
 • It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke, which is returned during other strokes.

Two and Four Stroke Engines:

• In a two-stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of
the crankshaft. This is achieved by carrying out the suction and compression processes in one stroke (or
more precisely in inward stroke), expansion and exhaust processes in the second stroke (or more precisely
in outward stroke).
• In a four-stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in four-strokes of the piston or two-revolutions of
the crankshaft. This is achieved by carrying out suction, compression, expansion and exhaust processes in
each stroke.

Working Principle of Four Stroke Petrol Engine:

Working Principle of Four Stroke Diesel Engine:

Working Principle of Two Stroke Petrol Engine:

Working Principle of Two Stroke Diesel Engine:

Now think:

• How can you identify a petrol or diesel engine?

Advantages of Two Stroke Engine:

1. A two stroke cycle engine gives twice the number of power strokes than the four stroke cycle engine at
the same engine speed. Theoretically, a two-stroke cycle engine should develop twice the power as that
of a four-stroke cycle engine.
2. For the same power developed, a two-stroke cycle engine is lighter. So, it is suitable for marine engines
and other light vehicles.
 3. The initial cost of a two-stroke cycle engine is considerably less than a four-stroke cycle engine.
4. The mechanism of a two-stroke cycle engine is much simpler than a four-stroke cycle engine.
5. The Iwo-stroke cycle engines are much easier to start.

Disadvantages of Two Stroke Engine:

1. Thermal efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is less than that a four-stroke cycle engine, because a
two-stroke cycle engine has less compression ratio than that of a four-stroke cycle engine.
2. Overall efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is also less than that of a four-stroke cycle engine
because in a two-stroke cycle, inlet and exhaust ports remain open simultaneously for some time. In
spite of careful design, a small quantity of charge is lost from the engine cylinder.
3. In case of a two-stroke cycle engine, the number of power strokes are twice as those of a four-stroke
cycle engine. Thus the capacity of the cooling system must be higher. Beyond a certain limit, the cooling
capacity offers a considerable difficulty. Moreover, there is greater wear and tear in a two-stroke cycle
engine.
4. The consumption of lubricating oil is large in a two-stroke cycle engine because of high operating
temperature.
5. The exhaust gases in a two-stroke cycle engine creates noise, because of short time available for their
exhaust.

SIT (Self Ignition Temperature):

• If the temperature of an air-fuel mixture is raised high enough, the mixture will self-ignite without the
need of an external igniter. The temperature above which this occurs is called the SIT.
• If the mixture temperature is lower than SIT, no ignition will occur without an igniter and the mixture
will cool off.
• If mixture temperature is above SIT, self-ignition will occur after a short time delay called ignition delay
(ID).
• The higher mixture temperature above SIT, the shorter will be the ID.
Now think:

• What will happen if you use Diesel in Petrol engine and Petrol in Diesel engine?
• Why diesel engine has higher compression ratio than petrol engine and much more efficient?

Cooling Systems for I.C. Engines

• Air Cooling System

 • Water Cooling System

Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines

 • Efficiency of Bryton Cycle

• rp is the pressure ratio.

Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles

Deviation of Actual Vapour Power Cycle
How can we increase the efficiency of the rankine cycle?

1. Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

2. Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)

3. Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

4. Reheating of steam
Boiler (Steam Generator)

• A steam generator or boiler is usually a closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the heat
produced by the combustion of fuel to water and ultimately to generate steam.

Classification of Boilers

i) Fire Tube Boiler

• The hot gas passes through the tubes that are surrounded by water.
• Examples:
a) Simple vertical boiler,
b) Cochran boiler,
c) Lancashire boiler,
d) Cornish boiler,
e) Scotch marine boiler.
ii) Water Tube Boiler
• In water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes (called water tubes) which are
surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside.
• Examples of water tube boilers are:
a) Babcock and Wilcox boiler,
b) Stirling boiler,
c) La-Mont boiler.