Animals 11 01384
Animals 11 01384
Animals 11 01384
Review
Research Progress on Oxidative Stress and Its Nutritional
Regulation Strategies in Pigs
Yue Hao, Mingjie Xing and Xianhong Gu *
State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, Beijing 100193, China; [email protected] (Y.H.); [email protected] (M.X.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Simple Summary: In the process of production, especially the modern intensive scale farming where
high quality and high efficiency are pursued, pigs are subjected to a series of adverse stimuli from
birth to slaughter (e.g., immunotherapy, environmental changes, uncomfortable temperature, feed
contamination, improper transportation, slaughter methods, etc.). These adverse stimuli eventually
translate into an imbalance in redox levels in the body, resulting in oxidative stress. The generation of
oxidative stress, in turn, eventually causes damage to the pigs. To eliminate/reduce this harmful effect
and counteract oxidative stress, pigs use part of the energy reserved for growth, which eventually
leads to a decrease in production performance and causes unnecessary economic losses.
Abstract: Oxidative stress refers to the dramatic increase in the production of free radicals in human
and animal bodies or the decrease in the ability to scavenging free radicals, thus breaking the
antioxidation–oxidation balance. Various factors can induce oxidative stress in pig production.
Oxidative stress has an important effect on pig performance and healthy growth, and has become
one of the important factors restricting pig production. Based on the overview of the generation
of oxidative stress, its effects on pigs, and signal transduction pathways, this paper discussed the
Citation: Hao, Y.; Xing, M.; Gu, X.
nutritional measures to alleviate oxidative stress in pigs, in order to provide ideas for the nutritional
Research Progress on Oxidative Stress
research of anti-oxidative stress in pigs.
and Its Nutritional Regulation
Strategies in Pigs. Animals 2021, 11,
Keywords: oxidative stress; pigs; performance; signaling pathways; nutritional additive modulation
1384. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ani11051384
Figure 1. When the oxidative system in the body is stronger than the antioxidant system, the
Figure 1. When the oxidative system in the body is stronger than the antioxidant system, t
generation of excess ROS cannot be scavenged in time. This disrupts the homeostasis of redox
eration of excess ROS cannot be scavenged in time. This disrupts the homeostasis of redox
balance in the body and causes oxidative stress, ultimately leading to DNA, membrane, protein, and
in the body and causes oxidative stress, ultimately leading to DNA, membrane, protein, an
lipid damage.
damage.
Various factors can induce oxidative stress in pig production. Oxidative stress is often
accompanied
Variousbyfactors
other pathological
can inducefactors, whichstress
oxidative has a in
direct
pignegative impactOxidative
production. on pig stre
performance and healthy growth. Therefore, studying the mechanism of oxidative stress in
ten accompanied by other pathological factors, which has a direct negative impac
animals and human intervention programs are of great significance to animal and human
performance andishealthy
health. This review planned togrowth. Therefore,
summarize studying
the generation the mechanism
of oxidative of oxidativ
stress, its effects
in
on animals and
pigs, signal human intervention
transduction programs
pathways of oxidative are
stress, andofthe
great significance
nutritional measurestotoanimal
man health. This review is planned to summarize the generation offor
alleviate oxidative stress in pigs. The aim is to provide alternative nutritional ideas the
oxidative st
research of anti-oxidative stress in pigs.
effects on pigs, signal transduction pathways of oxidative stress, and the nu
measures to alleviate oxidative stress in pigs. The aim is to provide alternative nu
ideas for the research of anti-oxidative stress in pigs.
of oxygen free radicals, and autophagy may be the underlying mechanism. In a previous
study, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology was used to knock out key genes of autophagy,
and the results showed that the lack of autophagy affected the expression of stress-related
genes in cells [15]. Yin et al. (2015) established a H2 O2 -induced acute oxidative stress
model in piglets and further found that oxidative stress could induce autophagy and is
linked to the signaling pathways of the inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase (IKK). It
mediates the expression of antioxidant genes (such as SOD and GSH-Px) in the body [16].
Feeding DON-contaminated feed induced oxidative stress in piglets and caused a
disturbance of the nutrient metabolism. However, the addition of functional amino acids
(such as glutamate and arginine) promoted the body’s antioxidant capacity and alleviated
oxidative stress injury [17–19]. Effects of mixed mycotoxins (including aflatoxin B1, DON,
ochratoxin, and fumatoxin) on piglets were studied by natural fermentation and mildewing.
The results showed that the mixed mycotoxin significantly reduced the performance and
blood SOD activity, and addition of arginine significantly increased blood glutathione
(GSH) content [20].
At present, the main way to establish oxidative stress in pigs is the diquat model,
by intraperitoneal injection of a certain dose of diquat (8–15 mg/kg). It can not only
decompose superoxide anion free radicals by itself, but also stimulate the generation of free
radicals by acting on the cellular respiratory cycle, causing the disorder of the antioxidation–
oxidation balance in the body environment and inducing the oxidative stress reaction in
animals [26,27]. Xu et al. (2008) evaluated the oxidative stress effect of diquat injection
in growing pigs, and found that diquat injection significantly induced oxidative stress
response in the pig systems 7 days after diquat injection, and the stress effect lasted for
28 days [28]. The study by Cao et al. (2018) showed that diquat-induced oxidative stress
increases intestinal permeability, impairs mitochondrial function, and triggers mitophagy
in piglets. At present, the diquat model has been widely used to study the effects of
nutritional intervention on the oxidative stress response in pigs [29].
Through gastric intubation, Yin et al. (2015) established an acute model of H2 O2
oxidative stress in piglets [16]. Injection of 5–10% H2 O2 significantly induced systemic
oxidative stress in piglets within 2 days, and at the same time, caused intestinal damage by
destroying the intestinal permeability and intestinal villus structure [16]. Although this
model is directly induced by H2 O2 , due to the need to perform surgery on pigs in advance
and the fact that H2 O2 can easily cause gastrointestinal ulcer in pigs, it has great limitations
in application. However, in cell experiments, H2 O2 is the most important and direct
inducer of oxidative stress, which is of great significance for the study of oxidative stress
mechanisms in cell models [30]. It was found that H2 O2 treatment could induce autophagy,
mitochondrial disorders, and apoptosis in piglets or a porcine intestinal epithelial cell
model, and NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways were involved in H2 O2 -induced oxidative
stress [16,31].
The lipopolysaccharide model has been widely used as an inflammatory response
model in piglet studies [32–34], but the inflammatory response is closely related to oxidative
stress. The production of free radicals in the process of inflammatory reaction is also
stimulated, and oxidative stress reaction is also involved in the process of the inflammatory
response [35,36]. Tang et al. (2018) used LPS to establish a cell oxidative injury model in
IPEC-J2 cells [37].
Furthermore, a large number of in vivo and in vitro experiments have found that
DON can induce the generation of free radicals in addition to mycotoxins, so some studies
have also used DON to induce oxidative stress [15,38]. The results of Marin et al. (2018)
indicated that ochratoxin A (OTA) and aristolochic acid (AA) could induce inflammation
and oxidative stress in the liver and kidney of weanling piglets [39].
In addition, Li et al. (2020) established in a chronic oxidative stress pig model induced
by D-galactose [40]. The results demonstrated that administration of D-gal significantly
affected the growth performance and SOD and GSH-Px levels, including related mRNA
expression suppression, MDA levels enhancement, gut microbiota dysfunction, and serum
amino acid alteration in pigs.
Figure 2. The structural regions of Nrf2 and Keap1 proteins. A, Domains of Nrf2; B, Domains of
Figure 2. The structural regions of Nrf2 and Keap1 proteins. A, Domains of Nrf2; B, Domains of
Keap1.
Keap1.
Keap1 belongs to the BTB-Kelch protein family and consists of about 50 members
named Kelch-like
4.1.2. Signaling 1–42 or
Pathway inKelch and BTB domain-containing
Keap1/Nrf2/ARE Oxidative Stress1–14 [57]. Keap1 is a cyto-
State
plasmic protein of 624 amino acids and five distinct regions, the amino-terminal region,
Nrf2 is located in the cytoplasm and Keap1 is a pro-electron oxidative stress sensor
the BTB/POZ (Bric-a-brac, tramtrac, broad-complex/poxvirus zinc finger) domain, a
that acts as a stress
cysteine-rich receptorregion,
intervening and a the
splice component repeat
double-glycine of the Cullin3
or Kelch(Clu3)-based
domain, and ubiquitin
the
E3carboxy-terminal
ligase. Nrf2 andregion
Keap1[58]
bind to each other in a 1:2 ratio, in which
(Figure 2). Keap1 binds to the N-terminal Neh2 two Keap1
domainproteins
of
form
Nrf2a through
homodimer andDLG
common bindand
through
ETGE their
motifs.BTB structural
Upon oxidativedomains
stress, thetoDLG
the motif
Nrf2 in
protein
Nrf2 is released from the DRG region of Keap1; thus, it blocks the ubiquitination and
degradation of Nrf2 [59].
Animals 2021, 11, 1384 [60]. Under normal (stress-free) conditions, Keap1 binds to ubiquitinated 7Nrf2, of 21 which
leads to rapid degradation of Nrf2 via the proteasome pathway, thus inhibiting the tran-
scriptional activity of Nrf2 and maintaining it in a low and inactive steady state in the cell
[61]. Upon
activity cellular
of Nrf2 exposure ittoinoxidative
and maintaining or electrophilic
a low and inactive steady state stress,
in theelectrophilic
cell [61]. Uponreagents
modify
cellular the reactive
exposure cysteine residues
to oxidative of Keap1,
or electrophilic causing
stress, a loss of
electrophilic its ability
reagents to ubiquitinate
modify the
reactive
Nrf2 andcysteine residues
its activity ofE3
as an Keap1,
ligasecausing a loss ofNrf2
component. its ability to ubiquitinate
is stabilized Nrf2 and to the
and translocated
its activitywhere
nucleus, as an E3
it ligase component. Nrf2
heterodimerizes withissmall
stabilized
Mafandviatranslocated to the nucleus,
the antioxidant/electrophile re-
sponse element (ARE/EpRE), and activates protective cellular target geneselement
where it heterodimerizes with small Maf via the antioxidant/electrophile response for transcrip-
(ARE/EpRE), and activates protective cellular target genes for transcription [62]. These
tion [62]. These cytoprotective genes include: (1) two genes for detoxifying enzymes,
cytoprotective genes include: (1) two genes for detoxifying enzymes, NAD(P)H quinone
NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) and glutathione S-transferases and (2) antiox-
oxidoreductase (NQO1) and glutathione S-transferases and (2) antioxidant genes such
idant genes
as heme oxygenasesuch as1 and
heme oxygenase 1 andsynthase
γ-glutamylcysteine γ-glutamylcysteine
[63] (Figure 3).synthase [63] (Figure 3).
With continuous
With continuous
regulation regulation
in vivo, after in vivo,
redox levels reachafter redox levels
equilibrium, Keap1reach equilibrium,
translocates into the Keap1
nucleus translo-
cates intoNrf2
to escort the nucleus
out of theto escort
nucleusNrf2 out of the nucleus
for proteasomal for proteasomal
degradation degradation
in the cytoplasm, thus in the
cytoplasm, thus terminating Nrf2 activity [64].
terminating Nrf2 activity [64].
Figure4.4.Signaling
Figure Signaling pathway
pathway of MAPK
of MAPK under
under oxidative
oxidative stress.stress.
The MAPK
4.3. AMPK familyPathway
Signaling is an important component of the oxidative stress-sensitive signal-
ing pathway that is involved in regulating cellular responses such as growth, development,
AMPK is and
differentiation, a highly conserved
apoptosis regulator
when cells of cellular
are exposed energystimuli
to external metabolism [83,84] that i
(e.g., growth
activated
factors, by multiple
cytokines, upstream signals,
neurotransmitters, such as cellular
and hormones) [70–73].AMP:ATP
Research on andtheADP:ATP
relation- ratios
CaMKKb,
ship between and LKB1.
stress and AMPK participates
MAPK signaling in theis regulation
pathway of cellular
a topic of interest. events,that
It is evident such as the
activation
assembly of of the
thep38MAPK signaling
tight junction, pathway is an and
cell proliferation, important manifestation
differentiation of organ-
[85–89]. Inhibition o
ismal oxidative
the AMPK stress. has
pathway Shinaet al. [74] found
suppressive that on
effect overexpression of p38MAPK
barrier function [90], butinhibited
activation of the
apoptosis induced by oxidative stress and played a protective
pathway can facilitate the assembly of tight junctions [91]. The study role for cells. of
Their
Yangstudy
et al. (2018
confirmed that the MAPK signaling pathway is activated in oxidative stress and is involved
a, b) indicated that heat stress induced the dephosphorylation of AMPK in Sertoli cells
in mediating oxidative stress-induced cellular damage [75–77].
but this was contrary
The MAPK signaling to pathway
its effectisinsignificant
other somatic
in thecells [92]. Furthermore,
regulation of skeletal muscle the finding
indicated thatWill
development. in cultured
et al. (2013)immature
found thatboar
leptinSertoli
could cells,
affect heat stress of
the growth inhibited the AMPK sig
porcine skeletal
naling pathway by suppressing the expression of CaMKKb, and
muscle myogenic cells by altering the expression of key genes in the MAPK signaling activation or overexpres
sion of AMPK
pathway [78]. Thiscouldwasreverse the heat-induced
also corroborated by recentdownregulation
studies that theofMAPK
tight junction
signaling protein
pathway
[93]. plays a key role in regulating skeletal muscle growth and development during
oxidative stress [79–81].
Numerous studiesMAPKshowed may be accumulation
that involved in regulating
of ROS genes
couldcontrolled
lead to the bydysfunction
the
of tight junction via various signaling pathways [94,95]. In the gill of fish, ROS induced
tight junction damage through Nrf2, mTOR, and NF-κB signaling molecules [96]. LPS
induced excessive generation of ROS led to disruption of gut epithelial barrier in vitro
[97]. Activation of AMPK also improved LPS-induced dysfunction of the blood–brain bar
Animals 2021, 11, 1384 9 of 21
of key genes for embryonic development (e.g., GJA1 and POU5F1 genes, gap junction
protein α1, and POU 5-like homology cassette 1), which cause significantly enhanced rabbit
embryo development (p < 0.001). Vitamin A supplementation (129 mg/kg) in lactating and
post-weaning rats attenuated oxidative stress and metabolic disturbances due to a high-fat
diet, significantly reducing the body weight and amount of the white adipose tissue in rat
pups, but increased the amount of brown adipose tissue. This provides one of the possible
reasons for obesity/overweight in early life.
Vitamin C: Vitamin C protects cells from damage by acting as an antioxidant to scav-
enge ROS and prevent lipid peroxidation and protein alkylation through the vitamin
E-dependent pathway [126]. Dietary supplementation with vitamin C at any dose (LVc and
HVc) significantly improved growth and feed utilization in fish and increased animal body
weight [127]. The role of vitamin C in metabolic syndrome was reviewed in 2020 [128], and
positive outcomes of vitamin C were found to be mediated in part through its antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory properties. Vitamin C supplementation significantly increased SOD
and GPx levels and reduced MDA levels compared to those in controls (p < 0.05). Reduced
oxidative stress induced by the insecticide mixture fipronil (Fip) + pirimiphos-methyl (Pyr),
reduced insecticide neurotoxicity, and improved motility in juvenile zebrafish, possibly by
mechanisms that alter the expression of hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis genes [129]
and increase cortisol levels [130].
sources, such as sodium selenite, soy protein-chelated Se, and selenized yeast [144]. To
study the oxidative stress induced by diquat, they categorized the nursery pigs into five
groups, (1) the negative control (NC): fed with basal diet and injected with sterile saline
via the intraperitoneal cavity, (2) the positive control (PC): fed with basal diet and injected
with diquat solution, (3) fed with a basal diet supplemented with 0.3 mg/kg of Se from
sodium selenite (SS), (4) soy protein-chelated Se (SC), and (5) selenized yeast (SY). Organic
selenium-enhanced endogenous antioxidant activity in all aspects compared to the PC
group (p < 0.05), with SY being the most effective, ultimately indicating that the addition of
a selenium-enriched yeast source at a dose of 0.3 mg/kg selenium was the most effective.
In the mouse model of intestinal oxidative stress, a new form of selenium nanoparticle
(biogenic nanoselenium (BNS) particles) were found to protect the mouse intestinal bar-
rier function and preserve intestinal redox homeostasis more efficiently than Se-Met and
Nano-Se [145]. In vitro experiments with porcine jejunum epithelial (IPEC-J2) cells verified
the stronger epithelial barrier-protecting effect of BNS particles against oxidative stress,
with reduced cell apoptosis and an improved cell redox state. Furthermore, the study
of Sun et al. (2020) reported that selenium supplementation protects against oxidative
stress-induced cardiomyocyte cell cycle arrest through activation of PI3K/Akt [146].
Table 1. Cont.
6. Conclusions
Therefore, enhancing the antioxidant capacity of pigs by supplementing/adding
relevant nutrients is a good practice to enhance the amount of enzymatic/non-enzymatic
antioxidants or stimulate the expression of antioxidant genes, as well as to control the key
sites of the redox signaling pathway in animal production.
At present, there are still many topics that need to be studied urgently in the field of
pig oxidative stress and nutrition regulation. (1) Pig weaning is a comprehensive process,
and the specific mechanism of weaning oxidative stress and its accompanying or leading
role in the process of weaning stress still need to be further studied. (2) Oxidative stress is
closely related to a variety of human metabolic diseases, and pigs are the most ideal model
animal for human disease research [81]; however, there are still few studies on pig oxidative
stress and related human diseases. (3) There is a lack of mature and stable models of pig
oxidative stress at home and abroad, which directly restricts the study of pig oxidative
stress. Methionine overdose can induce oxidative stress. Thus, it is unknown whether
oxidative stress is induced by increasing dietary methionine content in a pig model. (4)
The research on oxidative stress of pigs at home and abroad is mainly focused on the
piglet stage. There is no systematic comparison of the oxidative stress response in different
growth stages of pigs, and different oxidative stress models have different targeting organs
for oxidative damage in pigs, which hinders the systematic study of the mechanism of
oxidative stress in pigs.
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