Differential Calculus

Lecture 1

Limits and Continuity

Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 2

Introduction

• In this lecture we show how to use limits to investigate the behaviour of a function near a point where the
function is undefined and we introduce the concept of continuity for functions.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 3

Limits

• Consider the function,

x2 − 1
y = f (x) = .
x−1
• To plot the graph of the function we begin by constructing a table of values.

x −3 −2 −1 0 2 3
x2 − 1
y = f (x) =
x−1
• Note that we excluded x = 1 from the table of values because
12 − 1 0
y = f (1) = = is undefined.
1−1 0
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 4

Limits

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 5

Limits

• A plot of the points (−3, −2) , . . . , (3, 4) seems to suggest that the graph of the function is a straight line.

• However, we cannot join all the points (−3, −2) , . . . , (3, 4) with a straight line because the function is
undefined at x = 1.

• To complete our sketch of the graph of the function, we must investigate the behaviour of the function
“close to” x = 1.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 6

Left-Hand Limits

• Let us use a table of values to investigate the behaviour of the function “close to” x = 1 but to the left
of x = 1.

x 0, 99 0, 999 0, 9999
x2 − 1
y = f (x) =
x−1
• The table of values suggests that the value of the function gets “closer and closer” to 2 as the value of x
gets “closer and closer” to 1 from the left.

• In other words, the limit of the function as x tends to 1 from the left is equal to 2.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 7

Left-Hand Limits

• We can express this statement mathematically as

f (x) −→ 2 as x −→ 1−

or
lim f (x) = 2.
x→1−

• Therefore, based on the table of values, the graph of the function for x < 1 is a straight line that passes
through the points (−3, −2) , . . . , (−1, 0) and approaches the point (1, 2) from the left.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 8

Left-Hand Limits

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 9

Right-Hand Limits

• Let us now use a table of values to investigate the behaviour of the function “close to” x = 1 but to the
right of x = 1.

x 1, 01 1, 001 1, 0001
x2 − 1
y = f (x) =
x−1
• The table of values suggests that the value of the function gets “closer and closer” to 2 as the value of x
gets “closer and closer” to 1 from the right.

• In other words, the limit of the function as x tends to 1 from the right is equal to 2.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 10

Right-Hand Limits

• In this case we can express this statement mathematically as

f (x) −→ 2 as x −→ 1+

or
lim f (x) = 2.
x→1+

• Therefore, based on the table of values, the graph of the function for x > 1 is a straight line that passes
through the points (3, 4) and (2, 3) and approaches the point (1, 2) from the right.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 11

Right-Hand Limits

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 12

Right-Hand Limits

• We can now complete the sketch of the graph of the function by using an “open dot” at the point (1, 2)
to show that the value of the function is undefined at x = 1.

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 13

The Existence of a Limit

• In the above example we have that lim− f (x) = 2 and lim+ f (x) = 2; that is, the left-hand limit is equal
x→1 x→1
to the right-hand limit.

• Consequently we say that the limit of the function as x approaches 1 exists and we write lim f (x) = 2.
x→1

• However, if the left-hand limit is not equal to the right-hand limit, then we say that the limit does not
exist.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 14

The Existence of a Limit

• Example 1.

• Below is a sketch of the graph of a piecewise defined function, y = g(x).

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 15

The Existence of a Limit

• Example 1.
y
3

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

• Note that the graph of the function approaches the point (1, 2) as we get “closer and closer” to x = 1
from the left; that is, lim− g(x) = 2.
x→1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 16

The Existence of a Limit

• Example 1.
y
3

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

• On the other hand, the graph of the function approaches the point (1, 1) as we get “closer and closer” to
x = 1 from the right; that is, lim+ g(x) = 1.
x→1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 17

The Existence of a Limit

• Example 1.
y
3

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

• Since lim− g(x) 6= lim+ g(x) we have that lim g(x) does not exist.
x→1 x→1 x→1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 18

The Existence of a Limit

• Consider now the function,

1
y = f (x) = ,
x
where x 6= 0 because
1
y = f (0) = is undefined.
0
• Using a table of values, let us investigate the behaviour of the function “close to” x = 0.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 19

The Existence of a Limit

• Consider values of x that are “close to” x = 0, but to the right of x = 0.

x 0, 1 0, 01 0, 001
1
y = f (x) =
x
• Since the table of values shows that the function is not approaching a fixed number as x gets “closer
and closer” to 0 from the right but is instead tending towards very large positive numbers, we have that
lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0+
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 20

The Existence of a Limit

• Let us now use a table of values to investigate the behaviour of the function “close to” x = 0, but to the
left of x = 0.

x −0, 1 −0, 01 −0, 001

1
y = f (x) =
x
• Similarly, since the table of values shows that the function is not approaching a fixed number as x gets
“closer and closer” to 0 from the left but is instead tending towards very large negative numbers, we have
that lim− f (x) does not exist.
x→0
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 21

The Existence of a Limit

• In this case a plot of the graph of the function will include a dotted vertical line at x = 0 to indicate that:

◦ y = f (0) is undefined,


f (x) −→ ∞ as x −→ 0+,











◦ lim f (x) does not exist because and
x→0 





f (x) −→ −∞ as x −→ 0−.






• We call this dotted vertical line a vertical asymptote.

Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 22

The Existence of a Limit

x
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 23

Limits at Infinity

• To complete a sketch of the graph of the function, let us investigate the behaviour of the function “far
away” from x = 0.

• Consider values of x that are “far away” to the right and left of x = 0.

x 100 1 000 10 000

1
y = f (x) =
x

x −100 −1 000 −10 000

1
y = f (x) =
x
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 24

Limits at Infinity

• It is apparent from both tables of values that the value of the function gets “closer and closer” to 0 as the
value of x tends towards very large positive and very large negative numbers; that is,

f (x) −→ 0 as x −→ ±∞.

• We indicate this behaviour of the function by means of a dotted horizontal line at y = 0 on the sketch of
the graph of the function as shown below.

• We call this dotted horizontal line a horizontal asymptote.

Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 25

Limits at Infinity

x
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 26

Determining Limits Algebraically

• Consider the following tables of values to investigate the behaviour of the function

y = g(x) = x + 1

at x = 1.

x 1, 01 1, 001 1, 0001
y = g(x) = x + 1 2, 01 2, 001 2, 0001

x 0, 99 0, 999 0, 9999
y = g(x) = x + 1 1, 99 1, 999 1, 9999

• Based on the tables of values we have that lim g(x) = 2.

x→1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 27

Determining Limits Algebraically

• If we evaluate the function at x = 1,

y = g(1) = 1 + 1 = 2,

then we have that the limit of the function as x approaches 1 is equal to the value of the function at
x = 1; that is,
lim g(x) = g(1) .
x→1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 28

Determining Limits Algebraically

• Is it always true that the limit of a function is equal to the value of the function?
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 29

Determining Limits Algebraically

x2 − 1
• If we substitute x = 1 into the function y = f (x) = , then
x−1
12 − 1 0
y = f (1) = = ;
1−1 0
that is, the function is undefined at x = 1.

• However, in the previous section we showed that lim f (x) = 2.

x→1

• Therefore,
lim f (x) 6= f (1) .
x→1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 30

Determining Limits Algebraically

• We can resolve this discrepancy by noting that x2 − 1 = (x + 1) (x − 1).

• If we use this result to simplify the function first before substituting x = 1, then
x2 − 1 (x + 1) 
(x
−1)


lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2.

x→1 x→1 x − 1 x→1 (x
−1)

x→1
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 31

Determining Limits Algebraically — Indeterminate

• As a consequence of this example, if we evaluate a function at x = a and

0
y = f (a) = ,
0
then we say that the limit of the function at x = a is “indeterminate” — it means the value of the limit
does exist, but we have to simplify the function first before substituting x = a.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 32

Determining Limits Algebraically — Indeterminate vs Undefined

• It is important to note the following.

(1) ◦ We only use the word “indeterminate” when calculating a limit; that is,
0
y = f (a) =
0
means that the function is undefined at x = a but the limit is indeterminate at x = a.
0
(2) ◦ When calculating a limit we only use the word “indeterminate” to describe the quantity .
0
◦ For example,
1
y = f (a) =
0
means that the limit does not exist.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 33

Limits at Infinity — Rational Functions

• It was shown in the previous section that

1
lim = 0.
x→±∞ x

• In general, for any positive number n,

1
lim = 0.
x→±∞ xn

• This result is useful when attempting to calculate the limit at infinity of a rational function,
p(x)
f (x) = ,
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 34

Limits at Infinity — Rational Functions

• To evaluate the limit at infinity of a rational function, apply the following two steps.

Step 1. Divide each term in the numerator and denominator by the variable with the highest power.
1
Step 2. Replace all the terms of the form where n is any positive number with 0 and then simplify.
xn
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 35

Limits at Infinity — Exponential Functions

• Given the graph of the exponential function, f (x) = ex .

lim ex does not exist.

• Note that f (x) −→ ∞ as x → ∞; thus, x−→∞
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 36

Limits at Infinity — Exponential Functions

lim e−x = 0.
• However, from the graph of the exponential function, f (x) = e−x , we note that x−→∞

x
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 37

Determining Limits Algebraically

• Example 2.

◦ Given the function,

x2 + 5x + 6
h(x) = .
x2 − 4
◦ Calculate (if possible) lim h(x).
x→2
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 38

Determining Limits Algebraically

• Example 2.

◦ Given the function,

x2 + 5x + 6
h(x) = .
x2 − 4
◦ Calculate (if possible) lim h(x).
x→−2
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 39

Determining Limits Algebraically

• Example 2.

◦ Given the function,

x2 + 5x + 6
h(x) = .
x2 − 4
◦ Calculate (if possible) lim h(x).
x→±∞
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 40

Determining Limits Algebraically

• Example 3.

◦ Given the function,

g(x) = 5 + 10e−x.

◦ Determine x→∞
lim g(x).
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 41

Determining Limits Algebraically

• Example 4.

◦ Given the piecewise defined function,

 

x2 + 1, x ≤ 0 





p(x) =  
 .
2
x − 1, x > 0
 




◦ Determine lim p(x).

x→0
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 42

Continuity

• The graph of a function is said to be continuous if it is possible to sketch the graph of the function without
lifting our pen from the paper.

• Consequently, if we have to lift our pen from the page at a point, then the graph of the function will not
be continuous at that point.

• There are three reasons why we may have to lift our pen from the page.

(1) The function is undefined.

(2) The function is defined, but the value of the function is not equal to the value of the limit.

(3) The function is defined, but the limit of the function does not exist.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 43

Continuity

• Example 5.

◦ Below is a sketch of a piecewise defined function, y = f (x).

◦ Determine all the points where the graph of the function is not continuous and state the reason why
the function is not continuous at each point.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 44

Continuity

• Example 5.
y
3

1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 45

Continuity

• Example 5.
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 46

Continuity

• In general,

if f (x) is continuous at x = a, then

lim f (x) exists,

x→a
f (a) defined, lim f (x) = f (a) .
x→a
Differential Calculus, Lecture 1 47

Continuity

• Example 6.

◦ If
lim f (x) = −2,
x→3

then which of the following statements is/are true?

(a) f (3) is defined.

(b) f (3) = −2

(c) f (x) is continuous at x = 3.