Aballa, Carlos Jason J.

Rivas, Angeline A.

A REPORT ON HUMAN CLONING AND GENETIC MODIFICATION

WHAT IS HUMAN CLONING? WHAT IS GENETIC MODIFICATION?

Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy (or clone) of a human. The term is
generally used to refer to artificial human cloning, which is the reproduction of human cells and
tissue. It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical twins. The possibility
of human cloning has raised controversies. These ethical concerns have prompted several
nations to pass laws regarding human cloning.

Two commonly discussed types of human cloning are therapeutic cloning and reproductive
cloning:
- Therapeutic cloning would involve cloning cells from a human for use in medicine and
transplants. It is an active area of research, but is not in medical practice anywhere in
the world, as of 2023. Two common methods of therapeutic cloning that are being
researched are somatic-cell nuclear transfer and (more recently) pluripotent stem cell
induction.
- Reproductive cloning would involve making an entire cloned human, instead of just
specific cells or tissues.

Genetic modification is the process of altering the genetic makeup of an organism. This has
been done indirectly for thousands of years by controlled, or selective, breeding of plants and
animals. Modern biotechnology has made it easier and faster to target a specific gene for more-
precise alteration of the organism through genetic engineering.

There are four primary methods of genetically modifying organisms:

- Selective breeding: Two strains of plants are introduced and bred to produce offspring
with specific features. Between 10,000 and 300,000 genes can be affected. This is the
oldest method of genetic modification, and is typically not included in the GMO food
category.
- Mutagenesis: Plant seeds are purposely exposed to chemicals or radiation in order to
mutate the organisms. The offspring with the desired traits are kept and further bred.
Mutagenesis is also not typically included in the GMO food category.
 - RNA interference: Individual undesirable genes in plants are inactivated in order to
remove any undesired traits.
- Transgenics: A gene is taken from one species and implanted in another in order to
introduce a desirable trait.

The terms "modified" and "engineered" are often used interchangeably in the context of
labeling genetically modified, or "GMO," foods. In the field of biotechnology, GMO stands for
genetically modified organism, while in the food industry, the term refers exclusively to food
that has been purposefully engineered and not selectively bred organisms.

A SHORT HISTORY OF HUMAN CLONING:

1885 - First-ever demonstration of artificial embryo twinning
- A Sea urchin by Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch
- The sea urchin is a relatively simple organism that is useful for studying development.
Dreisch showed that by merely shaking two-celled sea urchin embryos, it was possible
to separate the cells. Once separated, each cell grew into a complete sea urchin. This
experiment showed that each cell in the early embryo has its own complete set of
genetic instructions and can grow into a full organism.

1996 - Dolly: First mammal created by somatic cell nuclear transfer

- Sheep by Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell
- In this landmark experiment, Wilmut and Campbell created a lamb by transferring the
nucleus from an adult sheep's udder cell into an enucleated egg. Never before had a
mammal been cloned from an adult somatic cell. What was the big deal? Every cell’s
nucleus contains a complete set of genetic information. However, while embryonic cells
are ready to activate any gene, differentiated adult cells have shut down the genes that
they don't need for their specific functions. When an adult cell nucleus is used as a
donor, its genetic information must be reset to an embryonic state. Often the resetting
process is incomplete, and the embryos fail to develop. Of 277 attempts, only one
produced an embryo that was carried to term in a surrogate mother. This famous lamb,
named Dolly, brought cloning into the limelight. Her arrival started conversations about
the implications of cloning, bringing controversies over human cloning and stem cell
research into the public eye.

2013 - Human embryonic stem cells created by somatic cell nuclear transfer
- Human by Shoukhrat Mitalipov and colleagues
- Overcoming decades of technical challenges, Mitalipov and colleagues were the first to
use somatic cell nuclear transfer to create a human embryo that could be used as a
 source of embryonic stem cells. The resulting stem cell lines were specific to the patient
they came from, a baby with a rare genetic disorder. In this experiment, researchers
took a skin cell from the patient and fused it with a donated egg cell. Key to the success
of the experiment were modifications to the culture liquid in which the procedure was
done and to the series of electrical pulses used to stimulate the egg to begin dividing.
Following the cloning controversy of 2004–2005, in which South Korean scientists falsely
claimed to have used somatic cell nuclear transfer to create embryonic stem cell lines,
the scientific community demanded much stronger evidence that the procedure had
actually been successful.

Cloning in the Philippines

- In 2009, Philippine researchers have used cells from the ear of Bulgarian water buffalos
and fused it with the eggs of the local buffalo in the cloning process. The Bulgarian
animals are descendants of the high yielding breed from India.
- In 2013, Senate launched an inquiry regarding the result of said project.

WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS? THE MORAL ISSUES?

- Cite list of arguments presented in the PowerPoint.

- Work on cloning techniques has advanced our basic understanding of developmental

biology in humans. Observing human pluripotent stem cells grown in culture provides
great insight into human embryo development, which otherwise cannot be seen.
Scientists are now able to better define steps of early human development. Studying
signal transduction along with genetic manipulation within the early human embryo has
the potential to provide answers to many developmental diseases and defects. Many
human-specific signaling pathways have been discovered by studying human embryonic
stem cells. Studying developmental pathways in humans has given developmental
biologists more evidence toward the hypothesis that developmental pathways are
conserved throughout species.

- Cells produced with could eventually be used in stem cell therapy, or to create organs to
be used in transplantation, known as regenerative medicine. Stem cell therapy is the use
of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition. Bone marrow transplantation is
a widely used form of stem cell therapy. No other forms of stem cell therapy are in
clinical use at this time. Research is underway to potentially use stem cell therapy to
treat heart disease, diabetes, and spinal cord injuries.
- Regenerative medicine is not in clinical practice, but is heavily researched for its
potential uses. This type of medicine would allow for autologous transplantation, thus
removing the risk of organ transplant rejection by the recipient. For instance, a person
with liver disease could potentially have a new liver grown using their same genetic
material and transplanted to remove the damaged liver. In current research, human
pluripotent stem cells have been promised as a reliable source for generating human
neurons, showing the potential for regenerative medicine in brain and neural injuries.

- In bioethics, the ethics of cloning refers to a variety of ethical positions regarding the
practice and possibilities of cloning, especially human cloning. While many of these
views are religious in origin, for instance relating to Christian views of procreation and
personhood, the questions raised by cloning engage secular perspectives as well,
particularly the concept of identity.

- Advocates support development of therapeutic cloning in order to generate tissues and

whole organs to treat patients who otherwise cannot obtain transplants, to avoid the
need for immunosuppressive drugs, and to stave off the effects of aging. Advocates for
reproductive cloning believe that parents who cannot otherwise procreate should have
access to the technology.

- Opposition to therapeutic cloning mainly centers around the status of embryonic stem
cells, which has connections with the abortion debate. Some opponents of reproductive
cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe – for
example, the position of the American Association for the Advancement of Science as of
2014, while others emphasize that reproductive cloning could be prone to abuse
(leading to the generation of humans whose organs and tissues would be harvested),
and have concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with
society at large.

- Members of religious groups are divided. Some Christian theologians perceive the
technology as usurping God's role in creation and, to the extent embryos are used,
destroying a human life;others see no inconsistency between Christian tenets and
cloning's positive and potentially life-saving benefits.

- In 2018 it was reported that about 70 countries had banned human cloning.
 LEGAL ASPECTS OF HUMAN CLONING

Human cloning debates fall into two broad categories:

- Reproductive and Therapeutic. Both varieties of human cloning have important legal
aspects from ownership of genetic material, stem cell research, the dignity and respect
for human life, reproductive rights of individuals, to the rights of potentially cloned
individuals.

Two basic facts complicate the legal issues with cloning:

- The biological technology needed to achieve human cloning can be found in most labs.
- Writing and enforcing laws on either kind of human cloning is difficult to achieve.

Even though there is a general consensus about the need to ban reproductive cloning in the
world community, the views concerning therapeutic cloning are varied and have complicated
the legal matters internationally and in individual nations.

Key Concepts
- Reproductive cloning is cloning where the live birth of another individual is intended,
and has been consistently opposed by all government and most individuals.

- Therapeutic cloning is cloning for purposes other than the live birth of an individual, and
has seen support by some governments and many individuals.

- UNESCO or the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization which
functions as a mechanism that attempts to gain universal agreements on emerging
ethical issues related to science and education.

- The UK has a clear prohibition on reproductive human cloning, but works to keep laws
current with and relevant to technological advances.

- The EU supports funding for embryonic stem cell research, but has banned human
cloning.

- The USA has a complex mix of state and federal regulations and interlocutors often
conflate the cloning issues with the abortion debate, which gives rise to strong
objections to both types of cloning and to stem cell research.
United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning

a. Member States are called upon to adopt all measures necessary to protect adequately
human life in the application of life sciences;
b. Member States are called upon to prohibit all forms of human cloning inasmuch as they
are incompatible with human dignity and the protection of human life;
c. Member States are further called upon to adopt the measures necessary to prohibit the
application of genetic engineering techniques that may be contrary to human dignity;
d. Member States are called upon to take measures to prevent the exploitation of women
in the application of life sciences;
e. Member States are also called upon to adopt and implement without delay national
legislation to bring into effect paragraphs (a) to (d);
f. Member States are further called upon, in their financing of medical research, including
of life sciences, to take into account the pressing global issues such as HIV/AIDS,
tuberculosis and malaria, which affect in particular the developing countries.

Reaction to the United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning

- The declaration states that all forms of human cloning are incompatible with human
dignity and with the protection of human life.
- The vote reflects the profound division between the supporters and the opponents of
the declaration.
- Supporters consider it as a landmark in the defence of individual integrity and the
advancement of civil rights.
- Opponents criticized the link between the ban on reproductive cloning and the ban on
cloning for medical purposes stating it to be an important opportunity to adopt a
binding convention on the forbidden act of reproductive cloning that had been missed.
- The present declaration is not binding and has just the function of a suggestion.
Representatives of the governments who voted against the declaration-including China,
Belgium, and the United Kingdom-have made it known as the resolution which should
have little impact on their stance on ‘therapeutic cloning.’