UNIT V

Ethernet is a standard for connecting Local Area Networks. Standards enable intercommunication of
equipments manufactured from different manufacturers. The standard was adopted by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI).The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) also
approved it as an international standard.

10 Mbps Ethernet:
If the number of bits transmitted per sec by the Ethernet cable is 10 Megabits it is known as
10 Mbps Ethernet.

In these categories 10 specifies the bit rate ie., no of bits transmitted per sec and T and F
specifies the type of cable and 5 and 2 are the thickness of the cable.

10 Base 5:Thick Ethernet:

This Ethernet specification uses bus topology
An external transceiver is used to connect the stations with an coaxial cable.
The transceiver is responsible for transmitting ,receiving and detecting collisions

The maximum length of the cable must not exceed 500 m. If it is exceed there will be degradation
of the signal. If the length is more than 500m after 500m repeaters are provided .Repeaters just
reproduces the signal at it its input.

Encoding in 10Mbps cable: Manchester encoding is used. This is the type of digital to digital
conversion in which bit patterns are represented by bit levels.
Here the duration of bits is divided into two halves. The voltage remains at one level during the
first half and moves to the other level in the next half .
 In the bit pattern 010011 the bit 0 is represented bydecreasing level and bit 1 is represented by
increasing level.

10 Base 2 Ethernet:
In this the length of the cable is 185 cm and the thickness is small when compared to the 10
base 5 Ethernet.Since the thickness is small there is possibility of collision.It is less expensive
and flexible.Installation is simpler.Here too the length of the cable should not exceed 185 m

10 Base T Ethernet:
It uses physical star topology.
The stations are connected to the hub
If a device needs to communicate it will transmit the data to the central hub and the hub will
transport the data to the corresponding stations.

Since all the data will reach the hub collision may occur in the hub.It replaces coaxial cable
with the Twisted pair cable.The max.length of the twisted pair cable is defined to be 100 m.

10Base F: Fiber Ethernet:

 This also uses star topology.Here fiber optic cable is used.

10 Mbps Industrial Ethernet:

Ethernet network concept was initially developed by Xerox corporation and later a joint venture
between digital equipment corporation , Intel and Xerox (IEEE 802.3). Ethernet V2 standard was
offered to IEEE later.IEEE 802.3 standard is for( CSMA/CD) LANs. The difference between these
two standards were only minimum.( 802.3 & Ethernet V2).
802.3 Network Ethernet Network(V2)
Star topology supported using UTP, Fibre Only bus topology is supported
optic cable etc.,
Both base brand broad band signaling Base band only
Data link layer ((sub layer) No subdivision of data link layer
Preamble+ SFD No SFD
Length field in data frame Type field, which is used to indicate higher
protocols using data link service.
Frame Format:

10 Base-2
Thin wire coaxial cable( 6.3 mm/ 0.25 in. dia), 10 Mbps baseband operation , bus topology.
10BASE2 coax cables have a maximum length of 185 meters(607)ft. the maximum practical number
of nodes that can be connected to a 10BASE2 segment is limited to 30. In this network, each segment
of cable is connected to the transceiver using a BNC T-Connector, with one segment connected to
each female connector of the T. the T-connector must be plugged directly into the network adaptor
with no cable in between.
As is the case with most other high-speed buses, Ethernet segments have to be terminated with a
resistor at each end. Each end of the cable has a 50 ohm resistor attached. Typically this resistor is
built into a male BNC and attached to the last device on the bus. A few devices such as digital
DEMPR and DESPR had a built in terminator and so could only be used at one physical end of the
cable run. This reflected signal is indistinguishable from a collision and no communication would be
able to take place. Some terminators have a metallic chain ached to them for grounding purposes. The
network outages when swells of electricity traversed the cabling outer shield on its path to the ground
with least resistance.

When wiring a 10BASE2 network, special care has to be taken to ensure that cables are properly
connected to all T-Connectors, and appropriate terminators are installed. One terminator must be
connected to ground via a ground wire. Time domain reflector will find problems quickly. A failure
at any point of the network cabling tends to prevent all communications.
10Base2 (Thin Wire)
10 Base-5
Thick wire coaxial cable (13mm/ 0.5 in. dia),10Mbps baseband operation, bus topology. RG-8
CABLE RG-8cable (RG stands for radio government) is a thick coaxial cable that provides the
backbone of the IEEE 802.3 standard.

TRNASCIEVER: Each station is attached by an AUI cable to an intermediary device called a

medium attachment unit (MAU) or, more commonly, a transceiver (short for transmitter-receiver).
The transceiver performs the CSMA/CD function of checking for voltages and collisions on the line
and may contain a small buffer. It also serves as the connector that attaches a station to the thick
coaxial cable itself via a tap.
AUI cables: Each station is linked to its corresponding transceiver by an attachment unit interface
(AUI), also called a transceiver cable. An AUI is 15-wire cable with plugs that performs the physical
layer interface functions between the station and the transceiver. Each end of an AUI terminates in a
DB-15(15-pin) connector. One connector plugs into a port on the NIC , the other into a port on the
transceiver.
TRANSCEIVER TAP: Each transceiver contains a connecting mechanism, called a tap because it
allows the transceiver to tap into the line at any point. The tap is a thick cable-sized well with a metal
spike in the center. The spike is attached to wires inside the transceiver. 10 base 5 wiring is shown
below fig:

10Base-T
Unscreened twisted pair cable (0.1-0.6 mm conductor diameter) , 10 Mbps baseband.
10 Base-F
Optical fiber cables, 10 Mbps baseband operation, point to point topology.

10 base 5 is the original coaxial cable system and is also called thick net. The coaxial cable (50
impedance) is yellow or orange in color. The naming conversion 10 base 5 means 10 Mbps signaling
on a cable that will support 500m segment lengths. The cable is difficult to work with and cannot
normally be taken to the node directly. Instead it is laid in a cabling tray and the transceiver
electronics (MAU) is installed directly on the cable. From there, an intermediate cable known as an
attachment unit interface(AUI) cable, is used to connect to the NIC . This cable can be a maximum of
50m long compensating for the lack of flexibility of placement of the coaxial cable. The AUI cable
consists of five individually shielded pairs- two each (control and data) for both transmit and receive,
plus one for power. Cutting the cable and inserting N-connectors and a coaxial T or more commonly
a bee string or vampire tap can make the MAU connection to the cable.
Jabber unit provides a control over the frame transmission(64 bytes or 512 bits or 51.2 ms)
When MAU & AUI cable are used, the transceiver on NIC is unused. MAU is fed with power
from NIC via AUI cable. A Signal Quality Error (SQE) test function in MAU performs
collision detection. The SQE signal is sent from MAU to NIC of the node on detecting
collision on the bus. SQE pulse occur during inter-frame gap between packets and are not
confused with the jam signal (collision).But if MAU is connected to a repeator, SQE is turned
off, because the repeater would mistake SQE for noise & respond with a jam signal, which
will slow down the network.
One end of network with (50 character impedance) terminated and other end of the cable is
grounded.
Totally 5 pairs of cables are used in MAU (2 Pairs for transmission of control & data
information, other 2 pairs for reception of data & control info, remaining one pair for supply
& ground).

Requirements:
1. Each segment <500m to avoid signal attenuation
2. Not more than 2500m cable length of entire network.
3. Taping at only every 2.5 m
100MBPS
By adding propagation delay of all electronic components + cables that makes the longest
signal path and doubling it to provide round strip delay time
100Mbps Industrial Ethernet
This standard transmits 10 times faster than 10Mbps. The frame format and the access
mechanism remains the same, but instead being half-duplex, this provides full duplex communication
(Explain about 802.3 frame format)
(Explain Access Mechanism Full duplex mode)

Fast Ethernet(100 Mbps Ethernet):

It can transmit faster.
It can transmit the data at he rate of 100 Mbps per second.
The goals of the fast ethernet are:
Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
Make it compactible with the standard ethernet.
Keep the same 48-bit address.
Keep the same format.
Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.

Fast Ethernet Implementation:

100 Base TX:
Uses two pairs of twisted pair cables.
For implementation ML-3 encoding is used.
4B/5B Block coding used bit synchronization by preventing the occurance of long sequence of 0and
1.It also creates data rate of 125Mbps which is fed to theMLT-3 for encoding. Fast Ethernet is a
version 100 Mbps data rate.
The minimum size of an Ethernet frame is 72 bytes .to send 576 bits at a data rate of 10Mbps. The
100 Mbps Ethernet is the shorthand identifier for all systems including twisted pair copper and fiber
versions. There is no change in access method. The MAC layer is the data rate and the collision
domain. The data rate is increased by a factor of 10; the collision domain is decreased by factor 10.
100BaseX is the designator for the 100Base TX(Copper) and 100BaseFX(fiber)systems based on the
same 4B/5B block encoding system used for FDDI fiber distributed interface system. 100BaseTX, the
most widely used version, is a 100 Mbps baseband system operating over 2 pairs of Cat5 UTP. This
effectively limits the distance between a workstation and hub to 100m the same as for 10BaseT.this
means that networks larger than 200 m must be logically connected together by store and forward
type devices such as bridges, routers or switches. The use of bridge and routers for traffic segregation
is done on industrial Ethernet networks. The format of the frame has been left unchanged.

The way Ethernet designed it is easy to increase the speed if the collision domain is decreased.
To increase the data rate without changing the minimum size of a frame, we decrease the round trip
time. With the speed of 100 Mbps the round trip time reduces to 5.76 microseconds.

100 base-FX designs use two optical fibers, one to carry frames from the station to the hub and the
other from hub to the station. The encoding is 4B/5B and signaling is NRZ-I. The distance b/w the
station and the hub should be less than 2000 m.
100base T4 scheme was designed in an effort to avoid rewiring. It requires four pairs of category 3
UTP that are already available for telephone service.
100BASE TX design uses two category 5 unshielded twisted pair cables to connect a station to the
hub. One pair is used to carry frames from the station to the hub and the other to carry frames from
the hub to the station.

Cables used Twisted pair, fiber optic cable

1. FULL DUPLEX:
The original Ethernet could operate only in half-duplex but 100BaseX could operate in full-duplex,
which means a node can transmit and receive simultaneously and whenever it wants, since the not
possibility of contention, the CSMA/CD mechanism is switched off. It describes an optional set of
mechanism for flow control over full-duplex link, called MAC control.
Requirements for full- duplex operation:
Separate transmit and receive paths.
 There must be only two stations on a segment. Because of the arrangement there is no
possibility of collision as the two station on segment can talk and listen simultaneously with
their transmit a receive ports cross connected.
Both station must be capable of a must be set in full-duplex operation
2. AUTO NEGOTIATION :
Auto-negotiation can be supported on all Ethernet system that use twisted pair and fibre and fibre
-Negotiation enables devices to be set to a mutually acceptable speed and operational
mode (full or half duplex). Following concepts are included.
If the desired distance is too great it is possible to create a new collision domain by using switch
instead of repeaters. In 100BaseT, repeaters are stackable, means multiple units can be place on top of
one another and connected together by a fast backplane bus. In such case, it is not considered as a
repeater hop, instead it is considered as a single repeater. Hence, component and cable delays must be
considered appropriately.

Encoding method implemented:

ML-3 Encoder
Here there are three levels:
In this Encoding if the next bit is zero there is no transition.
If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not zero the next level is 0
If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0 the next level is opposite to last non-zero level

4B/5B Encoder:
Converts block of m bits into block of n bits where n>m

100 Base-FX:
Uses twp pair of fiber optic cable. The NRZ-I encoding scheme is used.
In this if the next bit is zero there will be no in- version.
It also provides bit synchronization for long sequences.
The block encoding increases the bit rate from 100 Mbps to 125 Mbps which can be easily
handled by the fibre optic cable.
NRZ-I Encoding:
In this type of encoding if the next bit is zero No inversion and if the next bit is 1 there is
inversion.
100 Base TX:
This uses category 5 UTP or STP cable
The encoding method used here is 8B/6T in which 8 data elements are encoded in to
six signal elements.
8B/6T Encoder:
In this type of encoding the 8 bit pattern is represented as 6 signal elements

Here each bit pattern is represented by the signal elements of alternate -,0,+.
The components of Radio Link
Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves with the frequency range of 3KHz to 300GHz.Radio
waves are the basic unit of wireless communication. A radio wave that is used to transmit
information, is impressed onto the carrier wave carries the signal to its destination.Here either the
amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier wave is varied according to the information signal. At
the receiver the carrier is filtered out, allowing the original message to be recovered.
A radio link consists of the following components:

nsmitters

Antennas:
It is the device used to detect the electromagnetic waves. There are many different designs of
antennas available. Each one radiates the signal (electromagnetic waves) in a different manner.
The type of antenna used depends on the application and on the area of coverage required.
 Transmitter:
It is the device that converts the data signal into a modulated signal.Modulation is the process in
which the in which the information signal is added to the carrier wave.Either the carrier wave
amplitude,frequency or phase is varied according to the information signal.The frequency of the
carrier wave is greater than that of the information signal.Then it feeds the signal to the antenna
where it is radiated into the free space
Receiver:
It is the device that is used to obtain the orignal information signal.The original information
signal is extracted from the carrier signal by the process of demodualation.
Antenna support structure:

An antenna support structure is used to mount antennas, in order to provide a height advantage,
which generally provides increased transmission distance and coverage. It may vary in
construction from a three-meter wooden pole to 1000 m steel structure. A structure, which has
guy wires to support it, is generally referred to as a mast. A structure, which is free standing, is
generally referred to as a tower.
Cabling:
There are three main types of cabling used in connecting radio systems:
al cable for all radio frequency connections

Interface equipment:
This allows connection of voice and data into the transmitters and receivers from external
sources. It also controls the flow of information, timing of operation on the system and
control and monitoring of the transmitter and receiver.
Radio Spectrum:
Band of frequency at which the radio signals can be transmitted is known as Radio spectrum.
Radio waves are the basic building block of radio communications.The number of cycles, or
times that a wave repeats in a second, is called frequency. Frequency is measured in the unit hertz
(Hz)
The frequencies from approximately 30 kHz up to more than 300 GHz that can be used for
radio communications. Frequencies are grouped in ranges called bands. Bands of frequency
include
HF (high frequency)
VHF (very high frequency)
UHF (ultra high frequency), and
SHF (super high frequency)

Certain sections of these bands will have been allocated for telecommunication systems.
The allowed sections of the spectrum to be sold off to large private organizations to be
managed, and then sold to smaller individual users.
Application must be made to the government or independent groups that hold larger band of
the spectrum to obtain a frequency band for transmission.No transmission is allowed on any
frequency unless a license is obtained.

VHF Radio Characreristics

 UHF Radio Characteristics
There are very strict regulations that govern the use of various parts of the radio frequency spectrum.
Specific sections of the radio frequency spectrum have been allocated for public use. All frequencies
are allocated to users by a government regulatory body. Table illustrates the typical sections of the
radio spectrum allocated for public use around the world. Each section is referred to as a band.
Certain sections of these bands will have been allocated specifically for telemetry systems. In some
countries, a deregulated telecommunications environment has allowed sections of the spectrum to be
sold off to large private organizations to be managed, and then sold to smaller individual users.
Application must be made to the government body, or independent groups that hold larger chunks of
the spectrum for on selling, to obtain a frequency and no transmission is allowed on any frequency
unless a license is obtained.

The Block Diagram of Radio modems

The models in which the Radio Modems can be used. Radio Modems transfer data wirelessly up to a
range of ten kilometers. Modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates (changes) the
analog carrier signal according to the information signal.
Modern radio modems operate in the 400 to 900 MHz band. Propagation in this band requires
a free line of sight between transmitting and receiving antennae for reliable communications.
The protocol for these applications can use a simple poll/response technique. The more
sophisticated communications applications require a protocol based on carrier sensing multiple access
with collision detection (CSMA/CD).
The interface to the radio modem is typically EIA-232 but EIA-422, EIA-485 and fiber optics
are also options.
 Multi Modem
The interface to the radio modem is typically EIA-232 but EIA-422, EIA-485 and fiber
optics are also options.
Typical speeds of operation are up to 9600 bps. Hardware and software flow control
techniques are normally provided in the radio modem firmware.

Block Diagram of Radio modem

PTT Push to talk signal

RSSI Receive signal strength indicator indicates the
received signal strength is proportionally varying with
DC voltage.
Noise squelch Attempts to minimize the reception of any noise
signal at the discriminator output.
RSSI squelch Opens the receive audio path when the signal strength
of the RF carrier is of a sufficiently high level.
Channel monitor indicates if the squelch is open.
Soft carrier delay allows the RF transmission to be extended slightly
after the actual end of the data message which avoids the
end of transmission bursts that occur when the carrier
stops and the squelch almost simultaneously disconnects
the studio path.
RTS, CTS, DCD, Clock, Transmit Data, Receive Data All relate to EIA 232.
The radio modem has a basic timing system for communications between a terminal and the
radio modem.
Data transmission begins with the RTS line becoming active at the remote terminal
side.
The radio modem then raises the CTS line to indicate that transmission can proceed.
At the end of the transmission, the PTT is kept active to ensure that the receiving side
detects the remaining useful data before the RF carrier is removed.
Radio modems can be used in two modes:
-to-point
-to-multi-point
Point-to-Point:
A point-to-point system can operating in continuous RF mode(data
transmission without interruption), which has a minimal turn on delay in
transmission of data
In Non -continuous mode where there is a considerable energy saving.
The RTS to CTS delay for continuous and switched carriers is of the order of
10 ms and 20 ms respectively.
Point to multipoint system:
A point-to-multi-point system generally operates with only the master and one
radio modem at a time
In a multi-point system includes a repeater for regeneration. Data regeneration
must be performed to eliminate signal distortion and jitter. Regeneration is not
necessary for voice systems where some error is tolerable.
Regeneration is performed by passing the radio signal through the modem
which converts the RF analog signal back to a digital signal and then applies
this output binary data stream to the other transmitting modem, which repeats
the RF analog signal to the next location.
A radio modems transmits data wirelessly over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint link. Radio
modem based data transfer is usually used in mission-critical applications where reliability and
latency of the data transfer are essential to the operation of the system. Radio modem network is
independent of mobile and satellite network operators and no cost is associated with data transfer.
Private radio modem networks can use either unlicensed (e.g. ISM) or licensed frequency bands
(UHF, VHF).
Range up to 100 km
The operation range varies depending on the transmission power, antenna gain and mast height and
environment. In rural areas a 1 W radio modem with a line-of-sight radio link may range over 20 km
and even up to 50 km in ideal environments. In dense metropolitan areas, a corresponding range may
vary from several kilometers to over 10 km. With a 10 W radio modem, a range of up to 100 km can
be reached. By using several radio modems, much broader areas can be covered.
Radio modems transfer data wirelessly across a range of up to tens of kilometers. Using radio
modems is a modern way to create Private Radio Networks (PRN). Private radio networks are used in
industrial critical applications, when real-time data communication is needed. Also Radio Data
Modem enables user to be independent of telecommunication or satellite network operators. In most
cases users use licensed frequencies either in UHF or VHF band. Licensed frequency is reserved for
given user in certain area thus ensuring that there is less likelihood to have radio interference from
other RF transmitters. Also license free frequencies are available in most countries, enabling easy
implementation, but at the same time other users may use same frequency, thus making it possible
that given frequency is blocked. Typical users for Radio Data Modems are: Land survey differential
GPS, fleet management applications, SCADA applications (utility distribution networks), automated
meter reading (AMR), telemetry applications and many more. Since applications usually require high
reliability of data transfer and very high uptime, radio performance plays a key role. Factors
influencing radio performance are: antenna height and type, the sensitivity of the radio, the output
power of the radio and the complete system design.
The operation of a synchronous and asynchronous modems and their synchronization.

Asynchronous- the common modem used today. Each byte is placed between a stop and a start bit.
Each modem must operate with the same start and stop bit sequence, operate at the same baud rate
and have the same parity settings for the data checking in order to communicate correctly. Define
parity checking.
Synchronous- synchronous modems can be faster than asynchronous. They depend on timing to
communicate. Data is transmitted in frames with synchronization bits which are used to be sure the
timing of the transmission and reception of data is accurate. These modems are normally used on
dedicated leased lines. Synchronous modems are one of binary synchronous communications
protocol (bisync),high level data link control or SLDC. Three methods can be used to control
synchronization: additional clock signal, guaranteed state change-Clocking is part of the data signal;
oversampling- the receiver samples the signal much faster than the data is sent. The extra samples can
be used to be sure the clock is synchronized.
Digital Modems: these are used with ISDN services and are not actually modems, although they are
called modems. They can provide connection speeds of 128 Kbps.
The concept of clock recovery and equalization in Modem.
Clock Recovery in Modem: using a training sequence to get receiver lined up,
Send a few, known initial training bits. Adds inefficiency: only m data bits out of n transmitted.
Need to combat clock drift as signal proceeds. Use transitions to keep clock synched up.
Quick and dirty every Time: Asynchronous coding. Spend a lot of effort to get it right.
Equalization in Modem:
The equalizers, as used in the receivers of data modems operating above 2400 bits/s over telephone
channels, are usually realize in the form a transversal filter with variable tap gains and tap spacing equal
to the symbol spacing T. For automatically adjusting the tap gains at the beginning of transmission, and
for fine tuning them later on in an adaptive manner during the entire period of transmission, the least
mean square error algorithm has become a standard method.
A tap spacing equal to the symbol spacing has obvious advantages for the digital implementation of the
equalizer, since it permits operations of the entire equalizer at symbol clock rate 1/T. the equalizers
cannot suppress noise at frequencies outside the Nyquist band.