Lecture 18

Memory – Foundations and Types

MEMORY – DEFINITION
 Memory is the process of maintaining information over time.” (Matlin,
2005)
 “Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in
order to use this information in the present’ (Sternberg, 1999).
 Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the
storage and subsequent retrieval of information.
 This information takes many different forms, e.g. images, sounds or
meaning.
Memory Foundations
 Memory is a single term that reflects a number of different abilities
 The key to improving one’s memory is to improve processes of encoding
and to use techniques that guarantee effective retrieval.
 Good encoding techniques include relating new information to what one
already knows, forming mental images, and creating associations among
information that needs to be remembered.
 The key to good retrieval is developing effective cues that will lead the
remember back to the encoded information.
  Encoding refers to initial experience of perceiving & learning
information.
 When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input),
it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it
can be stored.
 Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different currency
when you travel from one country to another.
 For example, a word which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is
changed (encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e. semantic processing).
• There are three main ways in which information can be encoded
(changed):
 1. Visual (picture)
 2. Acoustic (sound)
 3. Semantic (meaning)
Memory storage
  This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the information is
stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how much can be stored
at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held.
 The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it.
Memory Retrival
 Information can be stored for a brief duration in short term memory
(0-30 seconds), but long time.
 This refers to getting information out storage.
 If we can’t remember something, it may be because we are unable to
retrieve it.
 STM is stored and retrieved sequentially.
 LTM is stored and retrieved by association.
 The general principle that underlies the effectiveness of retrieval cues is
the encoding specificity principle (Tulving & Thomson, 1973)
 when people encode information, they do so in specific ways.
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
• Sensory memory allows individuals to recall great detail about a complex
stimulus immediately following its presentation.
• There are different types of sensory memory, including
 Iconic memory,
 Echoic memory,
 Haptic memory.
• In sensory memory, no manipulation of the incoming information occurs,
and the input is quickly transferred to the working memory.

Iconic Memory
• Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, so named
because the mental representations of visual stimuli are referred to as
icons.
• Example :look at an object in the room you are in now, and then close
your eyes and visualize that object.
Echoic Memory
• Echoic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the auditory
system.
• Echoic memory is capable of holding a large amount of auditory
information, but only for 3–4 seconds.
• This echoic sound is replayed in the mind for this brief amount of time
immediately after the presentation of auditory stimulus.
Haptic Memory
• Haptic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the sense of
touch.
• Sensory receptors all over the body detect sensations like pressure,
itching, and pain, which are briefly held in haptic memory before
vanishing or being transported to short-term memory.
• This type of memory seems to be used when assessing the necessary
forces for gripping and interacting with familiar objects.
Short Term Memory
• Short-term memory, which includes working memory, stores information
for a brief period of recall for things that happened recently.
• Short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of
information in an active, readily available state for a brief period of time
• How long this storage lasts depends on conscious effort from the
individual
• Without rehearsal or active maintenance, the duration of short-term
memory is believed to be on the order of seconds.
• The duration of STM seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, and the
capacity about 7 items.
• Short term memory has three key aspects:
• 1. limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time)
• 2. limited duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost
with distraction or passage of time)
• 3. encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into
sounds).
Long Term Memory
• Long-term memory is the final, semi-permanent stage of memory;
• It has a theoretically infinite capacity, and information can remain there
indefinitely.
• Long-term memories can be categorized as :
 Explicit memories
 Implicit memories
Explicit Memory
Explicit memory, also known as conscious or declarative memory, involves
memory of facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the
information.
• The individual must actively think about retrieving the information from
memory.
• This type of information is explicitly stored and retrieved—hence its
name.
• Explicit memory can be further subdivided into:
 Semantic memory, which concerns facts, and
 Episodic memory, which concerns primarily personal or autobiographical
information.
Semantic memory
 Semantic memory refers to facts, concepts and ideas which we have
accumulated over the course of our lives.
 Semantic memory generally encompasses matters widely construed as
common knowledge, which are neither exclusively nor immediately
drawn from personal experience.
 Example: Recalling that Washington, D.C., is the U.S. capital and
Washington is a state.
Episodic Memory
 Episodic memory is used for more contextualized memories.
 They are generally memories of specific moments, or episodes, in one’s
life.
  An example of an episodic memory would be recalling your family’s trip
to the beach.
 Autobiographical memory (memory for particular events in one’s own
life) is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic
memory.
 One specific type of autobiographical memory is a flashbulb memory,
which is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of the moment
and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or
emotionally arousing) news was heard.
Implicit Memory
 Implicit also called “unconscious” or “procedural” which involves
procedures for completing actions.
 These actions develop with practice over time.
 Example: Athletic skills
 You learn the fundamentals of a sport, practice them over and over, and
then they flow naturally during a game.
 These memories are accessed without conscious awareness-they are
automatically translated into actions without us even realizing .
References
• McLeod, S. A. (2013, August 05). Stages of memory - encoding storage
and retrieval. Simply Psychology.
www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html
 Lecture 20
Social Cognitive Theory
 Social cognitive theory was developed by Stanford psychologist Albert
Bandura.
 Theory acknowledges the constant interaction that exists between the
individual and his or her environment, both structural and social, to shape
behavior.

Three personal cognitive factors that are affected by the environment influence
behaviour
 Observational learning:
Individuals are more likely to perform a desired behavior if they observe others
modeling that behavior and experiencing the subsequent positive rewards.
 Outcome expectations:
Individuals are more likely to practice a desired behavior if they believe the
benefits of performing that behavior and outweigh the costs.
 Self-efficacy:
Individuals are more likely to practice a desired behavior if they perceive that
they have the necessary skills and capacity to do so.

Observational Learning
  Through which people observe and imitate models they encounter in their
environment, enables people to acquire information more quickly
 Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four processes:
Attentional processes:
Account for the information that is selected for observation in the environment.
Retention processes:
Involve remembering the observed information so it can be successfully
recalled and reconstructed later.
Production processes:
Reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was learned can be
applied in appropriate situations.
Motivational processes:
If an observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be more motivated to
reproduce it later. However, if a behavior was punished in some way, the
observer would be less motivated to reproduce it. Thus, social cognitive theory
cautions that people don’t perform every behavior they learn through modeling.
Self Efficacy
 Perceptions of self-efficacy influence people’s choices and beliefs in
themselves, including the goals they choose to pursue and the effort they
put into them,
 How long they’re willing to persevere in the face of obstacles and
setbacks, and the outcomes they expect.
 Thus, self-efficacy influences one’s motivations to perform various
actions and one's belief in their ability to do so.
Such beliefs can impact personal growth and change
Modelling media

 The prosocial potential of media models has been demonstrated through

serial dramas that were produced for developing communities on issues
such as literacy, family planning, and the status of women.
These dramas have been successful in bringing about positive social change,
while demonstrating the relevance and applicability of social cognitive theory to
media
Learning Theory
1. Behavourism
2. Cognitivism
3. Constructivism
4. Connectivism

Constructivist Approach
Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than
just passively take in information.
As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build
their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-
existing knowledge (schemas).
Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into
an existing schema.
Accommodation refers to using newly acquired information to revise and
redevelop an existing schema.
Examples of constructivist classroom activities
Reciprocal teaching/learning
 Allow pairs of students to teach each other.
Inquiry-based learning (IBL)
 Learners pose their own questions and seek answers to their questions via
research and direct observation.
 They present their supporting evidence to answer the questions.
 They draw connections between their pre-existing knowledge and the
knowledge they’ve acquired through the activity. Finally, they draw
conclusions, highlight remaining gaps in knowledge and develop plans
for future investigations.
Problem - based learning (PBL)
 Learners acquire knowledge by devising a solution to a problem.
 PBL differs from IBL in that PBL activities provide students with real-
world problems that require students to work together to devise a
solution.
 As the group works through the challenging real-world problem, learners
acquire communication and collaboration skills in addition to knowledge.
Cooperative learning
 Students work together in small groups to maximize their own and each
other's learning.
 Cooperative learning differs from typical group work in that it requires
interdependence among group members to solve a problem or complete
an assignment.
Principles of constructivism
Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed
 Human learning is constructed, that learners build new knowledge upon
the foundation of previous learning.
Learning is an active process
  learners construct meaning only through active engagement with the
world (such as experiments or real-world problem solving).
 Information may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for
it must come from making meaningful connections between prior
knowledge, new knowledge, and the processes involved in learning.
All knowledge is socially constructed
 For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence
how they think and what they think about.
 Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating
socially constituted knowledge.
All knowledge is personal
 Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing
knowledge and values.
 This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different
learning by each pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ.
Learning exists in the mind
 Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own individual mental
model of the real world from their perceptions of that world.
 As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update
their own mental models to reflect the new information, and will,
therefore, construct their own interpretation of reality.
Types of Constructivism
1. Cognitive constructivism
2. Social constructivism
3. Radical constructivism
4. Cognitive constructivism
Cognitive constructivism Developed by Jean Piaget
knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on
their existing cognitive structures.
Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development.
 Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new
information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the
appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to
accommodate that information.
social constructivism
 According to social constructivism learning is a collaborative process,
and knowledge develops from individuals' interactions with their culture
and society.
 Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky
 who suggested that,
Every function in the child's cultural development appears
twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first,
between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).
Radical constructivism
 Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974)
 It states that the knowledge individuals create tells us nothing about
reality, and only helps us to function in your environment.
 Thus, knowledge is invented not discovered.
 The humanly constructed reality is all the time being modified and
interacting to fit ontological reality, although it can never.
References
 Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. (1993). In search of understanding: the case for
constructivist classrooms, ASCD. NDT Resource Center database.
Bandura, Albert. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social
Cognitive Theory. Prentice Hall, 1986
Self Regulated Learning

• SRL refers to our ability tounderstand and control our learning

environments
• It is a goal directed strategic action that is guided by motivation and
metacognition
• Example: Avoiding distractions and listening in classroom
SRL Involves

Attending to features of
the environment
Persisting in the face of
difficulty

Resisting distractions
 Responding adaptively &
flexibly
Controlling or adapting
thoughts, actions,
emotions & motivation
Goal directedness
Delaying gratification to
meet a goal

Social Cognitive Theory of Albert Bandura

SRL theory is a relatively recent development in cognitive psychology had its

origin from Social-cognitive theory of Albert Bandhura (1997

According to this Theory

Learning
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Types and Components of SRL
Models of SRL
1.Pressley’s Good Information Processor Model
2. Winney’sSelf Regulated Learning Model
3. Zimmerman’s Phases of Self Regulation Model
Pressley’s Good Information Processor Model
Focuses on Effective strategy Use
Characteristics
1. Broad repertoire strategies
2. Metacognitive knowledge about why, when and where to use strategies
3. A broad knowledge base that is relevant to the task at hand
4. Ability to eliminate distractions
5. Automaticity in the four components mentioned previously
1.Broad Repertoire of Strategies
Strategies
1.Domain Specific – Specific task
2. Higher order – Sequencing domain specific strategies
Eg.Situation : A person reading a book
Domain specific strategy ------ Reading
Higher order strategy -------- Skimming
Before reading, drawing conclusions and reviewing book
2. Metacognitive knowledge/ conditional knowledge
Knowledge about when, why and where to use the strategies in an optimal
fashion
Eg: Students maintaining decorum in the classrooms
Broad Knowledge base
Researchers agree that learning is extremely difficult and time consuming
without supporting knowledge in long term memory
Indeed a number of studies report that average ability students with high levels
of knowledge about a topic generally outperform higher ability students with
low levels of background knowledge
5. Ability to eliminate distractions
Pressley et al (1989) refer to this as action control
Students with action control are able to motivate themselves in several ways
They attribute their success to controllable cause such as effort and strategy use
They tune out unwanted distractions
Automaticity
Automaticity refers to being able to perform a task or retrieve information from
memory with little conscious effort
It is one of the key components of self regulation because our effort an be
devoted to planning and monitoring the outcome of our performance rather than
performing the task
Winney’sSelf Regulated Learning Model
Assumptions
It gives importance to the sequence of SRL over the 5 individual components
described by Pressley and Colleagues
1. Strategy
2. Where, When and Why
3. Meta cognitive
4. ----
5. ------
 Feedback
Ability to bridge the gap between setting and achieving learning goals
Highlights the importance of self generated feedback as mechanism that
supports SRL
Four Stages of Winney’s SRL model
Defining the task
Lanning and goal setting
Enacting tactics
Adapting meta cognition
Zimmerman’s Phase of SRL
1. Forethought
2. Performance control
3. Self Reflection
Learning Styles – is the way that different students learn
1. Visual
2. Auditory
3. Physical/Kinesthetic
4. Verbal/Linguistic
5. Logical
6. Social
7. Solitary
Applications in learning
• SRL includes the psychological correlates (e.g., self-efficacy, effort
regulation, procrastination) that influence academic performance
• It includes skill developmental approach, which is more beneficial for
learning
• SRL skills develop over time with practice, feedback, and observation
• As it is goal-driven, it directs the students to achieve their goals
 Lecture 22
CHOICES
Meaning, criteria for evaluating options, theories and models and choice
architecture
Choice : Meaning
Choice is our ability to make decisions when presented with two or more
options. The psychology of choice explores why we subconsciously make the
decisions we do, what motivates those decisions, and what needs these
decisions are meant to satisfy
But choice is difficult because it also represents sacrifice. Choosing something
inherently means giving up something else -- something we might want
tomorrow, or next week -- and that won’t be available to us if we don’t grab it
today.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING OPTIONS
Six C's of Evaluation of our Choices
1. Construct.
2. Compile.
3. Collect.
4. Compare.
5. Consider.
6. Commit.
SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) is a common
tool that aids the evaluation of a problem or person. - Barbara Ostrowska
It is one of the most effective methods to identifying strengths and weaknesses.
It increases efficiency because the strengths and weaknesses are analyzed in the
context of the opportunities and threats that we face.
Situational influences
Knowledge
Expert opinions
Social influence
Perception.
Priority.
Acceptability.
Risk.
Resources.
Goals.
Values.
Demands.
Judgement
Choice Theory
 Choice theory was created by Dr. William Glasser. Choice theory
emphasizes the individual’s control over his or her feelings and actions.
Conflict arises because we can only control our own behavior. The William
Glasser theory teaches the concept that all behavior is chosen.
Glasser Choice Theory states that all human behavior is driven by the
desire to satisfy five basic human needs:
the need to be loved and accepted
the need to be powerful
the need to be free
the need to have fun
the need to survive
The William Glasser Theory argues that everything we do is to fulfill one
(or more) of these five basic needs.
 Supporting
 Encouraging
 Listening
 Accepting
 Trusting
 Respecting
 Negotiating Differences

On the flip side, Choice Theory brings to light seven Disconnecting Habits that
break down relationships.
 Criticizing
 Blaming
 Complaining
 Threatening
 Punishing
 Bribing
We all choose whether to use Connecting or Disconnecting Habits in our
relationships. Happy, positive relationships come from choosing Connecting
Habits.
Rational Choice Theory
Rational Choice Theory states that people make decisions based on analyzing
the pros and cons of a situation. This means that people weigh the costs and
benefits of potential choices before settling on a course of action.
Rational Choice Theory assumes that all behavior is rational and actions can be
studied for underlying rational motivations.
Choice Modelling
Choice modelling is a scientific methodology used by academics, economists
and policy-makers to measure consumer preferences.
It is regarded as the most scientifically robust method to investigate and
understand how choices are made.
1. SIMPLE CHOICE MODELLING
2. DISCRETE CHOICE MODELLING
3. CONSUMER CHOICE MODEL

SIMPLE CHOICE MODELLING

A very simple model of a choice made by people indexed by i across choice-
alternatives indexed by j combines a score that each individual assigns to each
possible choice.
This is called 'revealed preferences' because the decision-making behavior has
been revealed by actions.
Eg : The perception of people for transportation, even when they possess car
differs.
Nested Logit Model
MULTI NOMINAL LOGIT MODEL

Discrete choice modelling

Discrete choice models are used to explain or predict a choice from a set of two
or more discrete (i.e. distinct and separable; mutually exclusive) alternatives.
Common features of discrete choice models
Choice set.
Defining choice probabilities.
Consumer utility.
Binary choice.
E.g. : The choice of which car to buy, where to go to college, which mode
of transport (car, bus, rail) to take to work
Consumer Choice Modelling
This is an invaluable gift to marketers and business strategists for planning
purposes and is particularly powerful when linked to a company’s business
planning or budgeting process.
What makes them pick one bottle of shampoo than the other lying beside?
What makes them purchase one car over the other?
What do they prefer to pay for a product and why?
How much more can they pay for certain features and why?
When do they prefer to buy the most?
How much do they want to buy?
Overall there are 3 types of consumer models:
Count — how much they buy
Timing — When do they buy
Choice — What do they buy
This sheds a light on ‘consumer choice models’.
Choice Architechture
• Make choice of our own. Don’t relay.
• Anchoring our bias.
• Priming and behaviour
References:
Leslie Ye -The Psychology of Choice: How to Make Easier Decisions
Sheena Iyengar – The art of Choosing
DECISION MAKING – MEANING , PROBLEM ANALYSIS ; STEPS &
TECHNIQUES OF DECISION MAKING UNDER DIFFERENT CONTEXTS
Decision Making
Definition
The process of examining your possibilities options , comparing them , and
choosing a course of action .
Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision,
gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions. Using a step-by-
step decision-making process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful
decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives.
Decision and Decision Making
A decision is a choice made between two or more available alternatives.
Decision making is the process of choosing the best alternative for reaching
objectives. (Samuel C. Certo, 2003)
Decision making can be defined as a process of choosing between alternatives
to achieve a goal. It is the process by which an individual chooses one
alternative from several to achieve a desired objective. (Manmohan Prasad,
2003)
Making effective decisions
Factors :
Perception
Goals
Priority
Values
Acceptability
Demands
Risk
Style
Resources
Judgement

Six c's of decision making

1.Construct - Construct a clear picture of precisely what must be decided
2.Compile - Compile a list of requirements that mustbe met.
3.Collect - Collect information on alternatives that meet the reuirements.
4.Compare - Compare alternatives that meet the reuirements .
5.Consider -Consider the " What mights go wrong " factor with each
alternatives
6.Commit - Commit to a decision and follow through with it .
Basis of Decision Making
INTUTION: Decision making by intuition is characterized by inner feeling of
the person. He takes a decision as per the dictates of his conscious
FACTS :It is considered to be the best basis of decisions making. Such
decisions will be sound and proper
Experience :Past experience of a person becomes a good basis for taking
decisions. When a similar situation arises the manager can rely on his past
decisions and takes similar decisions.
Operations research: It helps managers by providing scientific basis for
solving organized problems involving interaction of components of the
organization.
Values : Being confused and unclear about one‘s values may affect decision-
making ability. Overcoming a lack of self- awareness through values
clarification decreases confusion
Individual Preference : Overcoming this area of vulnerability, involves self-
awareness, honesty and risk taking.
The Elements of Decision Making
The problem context (Who is affected by the problem)
Problem finding and agenda setting
Rationales (the reason for doing or believing in something)
Scope and Level (how serious is the problem)
Procedural and technical aids
Outcome (The result of the decision)
Implementation
Problem Solving Approach
1. Forecasting and perceiving the threats
This is the initial stage. At this stage, sensitivity is increased, possible
threats are evaluated and priority is given to one of them.
2. Gathering information about the threat
Maximum information is gathered about the identified threat. Multi-
dimensional evaluations are performed about the threat. The factors affecting
the threat most are identified precisely and accurately.
3. Detecting and defining the problem
At this stage the problem is defined clearly.
4. Creating opinions
At this stage many alternative solutions are produced without
making a final decision.
5. Determining the solution
The criteria about choosing the right solution is specified at this
stage. The best solution according to specified criteria is chosen.
6. Applying the solution
 Appropriate measures are taken to apply the right solution. An action
plan is designed and implemented. The results of the action plan are
continuously re-evaluated so that a control cycle may be established

Mess-finding (Objective Finding)

Fact-finding.
Problem-Finding.
Idea-finding.
Solution finding (Idea evaluation)
Acceptance-finding (Idea implementation)
TECHNIQUES :
Brainstorming
Nominal group technique
Delphi method
Electronic meeting
Multi- voting
Brainstorming
It is a combination of group problem-solving and discussions. It works on the
belief that the more the number of ideas, greater the possibility of arriving at a
solution to the problem that is acceptable to all.

The decision-making process takes place virtually with the help of technology.
For example, we can have a Skype call with the client.
ELECTRONIC MEETING
In this method of decision-making, the facilitator allows team members to
individually brainstorm and submit their ideas “anonymously”. Other team
members do not know the owner of the ideas. The facilitator then collects all the
inputs and circulates them among others for modifying or improving them. This
process continues until a final decision is made.
MULTI-VOTING
 It starts with a round of voting where an individual casts his vote for the
shortlisted options. Each individual can cast one vote at a time. The options
with the maximum number of votes are carried to the next round. This process
is repeated until a clear winning option is obtained.
NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE
In a nominal group technique, the team divides itself into smaller groups and
generates ideas. Possible options are noted down in writing and the team
members further discuss these to narrow down the possible choices they would
like to accept. Team members then discuss and vote on the best possible choice.
The choice that receives the maximum votes is accepted as the group decision.
 Lecture 24
Attitude – meaning, assumptions, types, theories and models of attitude
formation; methods of changing attitudes
Meaning
Allport (1935) defined ATTITUDE as a mental state of readiness, organized
through experience, exerting a directive and dynamic influence upon the
individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.

Positive Attitude
Negative Attitude

Neutral Attitude
Indifference and Detachment are traits that represent neutral attitude
People with a neutral attitude don’t give enough importance to situations or
events.
They ignore the problem, leaving it for someone else to solve. Also, they don’t
feel the need to change.
Sikken Attitude
It is one of the most complicated type of attitudes
It reflects a constant state of negativity and aggressiveness.
It's difficult to navigate this type of attitude since it's rooted in one's personality
and is very tough for people to change their viewpoint substantially.
Attitude Formation Theories
• FUNCTIONALIST THEORY – we do what benefits us
• LEARNING THEORY – maybe our past experience have taught us how
to act
• COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY – it might just be an attempt to
restore harmony to two opposing truths that are held
Model of Attitude
• COGNITIVE
• AFFECTIVE
• BEHAVIOURAL
Cognitive
It refers to the beliefs, thoughts, attributes that we would associate with an
object.
It is related in general knowledge of people.
Affective component
• It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about
something such as fear or hate.
• It is related to the statement which affects another person.

Behavioural Component
It consists of a person’s tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an
object.
It refers to which reflects the intention of a person in the short-run or long run.
Methods of changing attitude
Always act with a purpose.
Stretch yourself past your limits every day.
Take action without expecting results.
Use setbacks to improve your skills.
Seek out those who share your positive attitude.
Don't take yourself so seriously.
Forgive the limitations of others.
Say “thank you” more frequently.
References
• http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com
• http://www.simplenotes.com
• http://study.com
• http://www.google.com
• http://www.inc.com
Lecture No 25 RELATED to others – LIKING, attraction, helping
behaviour, prejudice, discrimination, and aggression
Helping Behaviour
 Helping behavior refers to voluntary actions intended to help the others,
with reward regarded or disregarded.
 It is a type of prosocial behavior(voluntary action intended to help or
benefit another individual or group of individuals such as sharing,
comforting, rescuing and helping).
 Gorden Allport defined prejudice as a "feeling, favorable or
unfavorable, toward a person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual
experience".
 Prejudice is an assumption or an opinion about someone simply based
on that person's membership to a particular group.
 Discrimination is the act of making unjustified distinctions between
people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they
belong or are perceived to belong.
 People may be discriminated on the basis of race, gender, age, religion,
disability and sexual orientation.
 Aggression is overt or covert, often harmful, social interaction with the
intention of inflicting damage or other harm upon another individual.
 References
 http://www.study.com
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org
 https://www.sparknotes.com
 Lecture 25
LIKING / AFFECT – MEANING, TYPES AND THEORIES
Liking
The feeling that you like somebody or something
Liking principle, “We like people who are similar to us, who pay us
compliments and who cooperate with us towards mutual goals”
According to liking principle, “We are more likely to be persuaded by people
we like and those we want to be like”
Types of Liking
Philia - Affectionate Love. Philia is love without romantic attraction and occurs
between friends or family members
Pragma - Enduring Love
Storge - Familiar Love
Eros - Romantic Love
Ludus - Playful Love
Mania - Obsessive Love
Philautia - Self Love
Agape - Selfless Love
PHILIA – AFFECTIONATE LOVE
Philia is love without romantic attraction and occurs between friends or family
members. It occurs when both people share the same values and respect each
other. It’s commonly referred to as “Brotherly Love”
Love Catalyst: (The mind)
Your mind articulates which friends are on the same wavelength as you
and who you can trust
How to Show Philia:
Engage in deep conversation with a friend
Be open and trustworthy
Be supportive in hard times
Bonus: Gift a gratitude card to a friend
PRAGMA – ENDURING LOVE
Pragma is a unique bonded love that matures over many years. It’s an
everlasting love between a couple that chooses to put equal effort into their
relationship. Commitment and dedication are required to reach “Pragma.”
Instead of “falling in love,” you are “standing in love” with the partner you
want by your side indefinitely
Love Catalyst: Etheric (Subconscious)
The subconscious drives partners towards each other. This feeling comes
unknowingly and feels purposeful
How to Show Pragma:
Continue to strengthen the bond of long-term relationships
Seek and show effort with your partner
Choose to work with your partner forever
Bonus: Gift a love coupon booklet
Storge – Familiar Love
Storge is a naturally occurring love rooted in parents and children, as well as
best friends. It’s an infinite love built upon acceptance and deep emotional
connection. This love comes easily and immediately in parent and child
relationships
Love Catalyst: Causal (Memories)
Your memories encourage long-lasting bonds with another individual. As
you create more memories, the value of your relationship increases
How to Show Storge:
Sacrifice your time, self or personal pleasures
Quickly forgive harmful actions
Share memorable and impactful moments
Bonus: Show how much you care with love words
Eros – Romantic Love
Eros is a primal love that comes as a natural instinct for most people. It’s a
passionate love displayed through physical affection. These romantic
behaviorsinclude, but are not limited to kissing, hugging and holding hands.
This love is a desire for another person’s physical body
Love Catalyst: Physical body (Hormones)
Your hormones awaken a fire in your body and must be satiated with
romantic actions from an admired partner
How to Show Eros:
Admiring someone’s physical body
Physical touch, such as hugging and kissing
Romantic affection
Bonus: Steal from our romance ideas
Ludus is a child-like and flirtatious love commonly found in the beginning
stages of a relationship (Honeymoon stage). This type of love consists of
teasing, playful motives and laughter between two people. Although common in
young couples, older couples who strive for this love find a more rewarding
relationship
Love Catalyst: Astral (Emotion)
Your emotions allow you to feel giddy, excited, interested and involved
with another person
Ludus – Playful Love
How to Show Ludus:
Flirt and engage in whimsical conversation
Spend time together to laugh and have fun
Exemplify childlike behavior together
Bonus: Gift a bouquet of roses
Mania – Obsessive Love
Mania is an obsessive love towards a partner. It leads to unwanted jealousy or
possessiveness known as codependency. Most cases of obsessive love are found
in couples with an imbalance of love towards each other. An imbalance of Eros
and Ludus is the main cause of Mania. With healthy levels of playful and
romantic love, the harm of obsessive love can be avoided
Love Catalyst: Survival instinct
Survival instinct drives a person to desperately need their partner in order
to find a sense of self-value
How to Avoid Mania:
Recognize obsessive or possessive behavior before acting upon it
Focus on yourself more versus another person
Put trust into your relationships
Philautia – Self Love
Philautia is a healthy form of love where you recognize your self-worth and
don’t ignore your personal needs. Self-love begins with acknowledging your
responsibility for your well-being. It’s challenging to exemplify the outbound
types of love because you can’t offer what you don’t have
Love Catalyst: Soul
Your soul allows you to reflect on your necessary needs and physical,
emotional and mental health
How to Show Philautia:
Create an environment that nurtures your well-being
Take care of yourself like a parent would care for a child
Spend time around people who support you
Bonus: Use flowers to boost your mood
Agape
Agape is the highest level of love to offer. It’s given without any expectations
of receiving anything in return. Offering Agape is a decision to spread love in
any circumstances including destructive situations. Agape is not a physical act,
it’s a feeling but acts of self-love can elicit. Agape since self monitoring leads to
results
Love Catalyst: Spirit
Your spirit creates purpose bigger than yourself. It motivates you to pass
kindness on to others
How to Show Agape:
• Dedicate your life to improving the lives of others
• Stay conscious of your actions for the good of humankind
• Offer your time and charity to someone in need
• Bonus: Start a random acts of kindness calendar

Triangular theory of love

A theory of love developed by Robert Sternberg. In the context
of interpersonal relationships, Three components of love, According to the
triangular theory,
Intimacy component, Passion component, Decision/commitment
component

Sternberg says that,

Intimacy refers to "feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness
in loving relationships”
Passion refers to "the drives that lead to romance, physical attraction,
sexual consummation and related phenomena in loving relationships"
 Decision/commitment means different things in the short and long term.
In the short-term, it refers to "the decision that one loves a certain other“ and in
the long-term, it refers to "one's commitment to maintain that love”

Attachment theory of love

A psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory concerning relationships
between humans. The most important tenet is that young children need to
develop a relationship with at least one primary care giver for normal social and
emotional development. The theory was formulated by psychiatrist and
psychoanalysis
Color wheel theory of love is an idea created by Canadian psychologist John
Alan Lee that describes six lovestyles
Lee defines three primary, three secondary and nine tertiary love styles
describing them in the traditional color wheel

1.Primary love styles

Eros
Ludus
Storge
2.Secondary love styles
Mania
Pragma
Agape
3.Tertiary love styles
 Manic eros
Manic ludus
Manic storge
Agapic eros
Agapicludus
Agapic storge
Pragmatic eros
Pragmatic ludus
Pragmatic storge
FILTER THEORY OF LOVE
Filter theory is a sociological theory concerning dating and mate selection.
Most often, this takes place due to Homogamy, as people seek to date and
marry only those similar to them (characteristics that are often taken into
account are age, race, social status and religion), where Heterogamy denotes
marriage between spouses of different characteristics. The idea of "opposites
attract” is heterogamous, as well as the idea that one spouse has
complementing, not similar characteristics to the other
Helpful terms in defining filter theory are,
“Endogamy", which indicates that both partners come from the same
group (ethnicity, religion, culture, age similarity, lifestyle, etc.) and may also
carry cultural sanctions against marrying outside of one's own group
“Exogamy", which indicates marrying out of one's own social group.
Example of exogamy: Marrying outside of one's own race or religion
Vulnerability and Care theory of love
Vulnerability and care theory of love was put forward by Giles in an article
entitled "A Theory of Love and Sexual Desire" (1994) and later developed in
his book The Nature of Sexual Desire (2004). According to Giles,
romantic love is a complex of reciprocal desires for mutual vulnerability and
care. One desires to be vulnerable before the beloved in order that the beloved
may show care. At the same time one desires that the beloved be vulnerable
before oneself in order that one may care for them. Although vulnerability has
often been thought to be an unavoidable and perhaps unwanted consequence of
love, Giles sees it as being an essential object of the desires of love
References
https://www.ftd.com/blog/give/types-of-love
https://en.m.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_love
 Lecture 26
ATTRACTION – MEANING, TYPES AND THEORIES
Attraction
• The interest in and liking of one individual by another or the mutual
interest and liking between two or more individuals. Interpersonal
attraction may be based on shared experiences or characteristics, physical
appearance, internal motivation
• Something that attracts or intended to attract people by appealing to their
desires and tastes
• Types of Attraction
• Sexual attraction
• Romantic attraction
• Physical attraction
• Emotional attraction
• Aesthetic attraction
Sexual Attraction
• Sexual attraction might not leave much to the imagination because it's
just that, being sexually attracted to someone and having the desire to be
with them on a physical and intimate level. But it doesn't stop there
• For example: Sexual attraction doesn't have to be limited to someone
you know in real life. It can spill over into a fantasy world and stay
confined there
• Romantic Attraction
• Romantic attraction is wanting to be involved intimately with another
person or develop a relationship that focuses on mutually beneficial
connections and experiences. You may feel personally invested or want
to be invested in another person's life, feelings and experiences. These
feelings share similarities with friendships but extend beyond traditional
friendship in that romantic attraction tends to be concentrated on a
particular person and may register more profoundly than existing
friendships
 • Romantic attractions can include sexual attraction and emotional
attraction for some, but not for everyone
For example: Someone who is asexual can experience romantic attraction to
someone without experiencing any sexual attraction. (On the slip side, the
absence of experiencing romantic attraction is known as being aromantic)
Physical Attraction
• Physical attraction is the desire for a sensual and tactile connection that
may hold sexual, emotional or romantic implications, but it doesn't
necessitate them. Some people resonate with tactile stimuli independent
of sex and romance such as hugs, cuddles, holding hands or massages
For example: You may enjoy cuddling with a friend but don't want to have sex
with them. You can just enjoy sharing proximity, company and contact with
them
Physical touch whether it be between lovers, friends, family or you and your
pet is an expression of love and affection as such it makes physical attraction a
very real type of attraction
Emotional Attraction
Emotional attraction can exist separately but may also contribute to other types
of attraction
For example: Demisexual is a person who requires a deep emotional
connection to develop a sexual or romantic relationship
When it comes to emotional attraction, it's more about a desire for intimacy than
anything else
What you get out of this type of attraction and this connection is the sharing of
hopes, fears, dreams and values
Aesthetic Attraction
Aesthetic attraction is purely about appearance
For example: If you appreciate the physique of a Calvin Klein model but don't
feel sexual desire or even really want to know them personally, that's aesthetic
attraction. It doesn't usually include the desire for sex, touch, intimacy or
romance, as much as it's a focus on what one finds beautiful
Theory of Attraction
1.Proximity: How close are they to you?
 Proximity in attraction means that people are more likely to be attracted
to someone who is in close proximity to them. But don’t worry this doesn’t
mean that your crush needs to live next door to you in order to like you or that
the girl with the cubicle next to your crush will get to him before you do.
Because sometimes proximity is physical
For instance: A New Yorker on Tinder would be more likely to be attracted to
another New Yorker that they see on Tinder rather than someone who lives in
Los Angeles. However proximity more commonly refers to social proximity,
specifically within communities, schools and workplaces
For example: If you are a college student, you’re more likely to be attracted to
someone who goes to your school rather than someone who does not. If you
spend 8 hours a day working in an office, you’re more likely to be attracted to
someone at work than someone you stumble upon in the grocery store
Similarity: How similar are they to you?
Similarity means exactly what you would think. It means that people are more
likely to be attracted to people who have similar traits to them. This information
may conflict with attraction theories you might have heard previously with the
hypothesis that opposites attract there is more evidence in psychology to
suggest the contrary
For example: People who are introverted are more likely to be attracted to
other introverts. Democrats are more likely to be attracted to other Democrats,
etc. But you and your crush don’t have to be twins to be compatible. Similarity
just means that the similar traits you do have can count as bonus points towards
your attraction for each other
Physical Attractiveness: How physically attracted are you to each other?
Physical attractiveness is also pretty self-explanatory. It means that people are
more likely to be emotionally or romantically attracted to people that they also
find physically attractive. Each person has their own idea of physical
attractiveness, so each case and preference of physical attractiveness will look
different
Reciprocity: Is the attraction mutual?
 Reciprocity is the idea that people are more likely to be attracted to
people who are also attracted to them. If you know someone who likes
you or expresses their feelings for you, you might feel more inclined to
like them back. Knowing someone has feelings for you can serve as fuel
for attraction
  The reciprocity element of attraction is most prominent in safe,
close relationships. No one should feel pressured or guilted into liking
someone because of reciprocity especially if they are being objectified by
the other party
 Responsiveness: How do you react or respond to the attraction?
Responsiveness in attraction is slightly more complicated and looks
different in every context. Responsiveness defines how responsive a
person is to the attraction that someone feels for them and how they
choose to exhibit their own attraction. Do you and your crush flirt a
lot? Did they say yes to a date with you after finding out that you
liked them? Do you two prioritize time together in order to get to
know each other better? All of these are positive signals that both
parties are being responsive to the attraction being felt. Theoretically, the
more responsive you are the more fuel that is for the relationship and the
more chances you are giving yourselves to establish a bond
References:
 https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/attraction/what-are-different-types-of-
attraction/
 https://medium.com/hello-love/these-are-the-5-elements-of-attraction-
98b1dbca49ca
 Lecture 26
PERSUASION – MEANING, THEORIES AND TECHNIQUES
Persuasion
Persuasion is the process by which a person’s attitudes or behaviour are
without duress influenced by communication from other people. One’s
attitude and behaviour are also affected by other factors
Action or process of persuading someone or of being persuaded to do or
believe something
For example: Verbal threats, physical coercion, one’s physiological
states
1.Social Judgment Theory
• MuzaferSherif and Carl Hovland (1980) created social judgment
theory attempts to determine what types of communicative
messages and under what conditions communicated messages will
lead to a change in someone’s behavior by comparing it with
current attitudes. In essence, Sherif and Hovland found that
people’s perceptions of attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors
exist on a including latitude of rejection, latitude of non-
commitment and latitude of acceptance
For example: If you are giving your speech on majoring in a foreign
language, people who are in favor of majoring in a foreign language are
more likely to positively evaluate your message, assimilate your advice
into their own ideas and engage in desired behavior. On the other hand,
people who reject your message are more likely to negatively evaluate
your message, not assimilate your advice and not engage in desired
behavior
For example: In a foreign language scenario where students are being
persuaded to major, we may see the following possible opinions from our
audience members,
1. Complete agreement: Let’s all major in foreign languages
2. Strong agreement: I won’t major in a foreign language, but I will double
major in a foreign language
3. Agreement in part: I won’t major in a foreign language, but I will minor
in a foreign language
4. Neutral: While I think studying a foreign language can be worthwhile, I
also think a college education can be complete without it. I really don’t
feel strongly one way or the other
5. Disagreement in part: I will only take the foreign language classes
required by my major
6. Strong disagreement: I don’t think I should have to take any foreign
language classes
7. Complete disagreement: Majoring in a foreign language is a complete
waste of a college education
Cognitive Dissonance theory
In 1957, Leon Festinger proposed another theory for understanding how
persuasion functions. Cognitive dissonance theory is an aversive
motivational state that occurs when an individual entertains two or more
contradictory attitudes, values, beliefs or behaviors simultaneously
For example: May be you know, you should be working on your speech
but you really want to go to a movie with a friend. In this case, practicing
your speech and going to the movie are two cognitions that are
inconsistent with one another. The goal of persuasion is to induce enough
dissonance in listeners that they will change their attitudes, values, beliefs
or behaviors
Frymier and Nadler (2013) noted that for cognitive dissonance to
work effectively there are three necessary conditions:
1.Aversive consequences
2.Freedom of choice
3. Insufficient external justification
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasionis a dual process
theory describing the change of attitudes. The ELM was developed
by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in 1980. The model aims to
explain different ways of processing stimuli why they are used and their
outcomes on attitude change
The ELM proposes two major routes to persuasion:
• Under Central route, persuasion will likely result from a person's careful
and thoughtful consideration of the true merits of the information
presented in support of an advocacy. The central route involves a high
 level of message elaboration in which a great amount of cognition about
the arguments are generated by the individual receiving the message. The
results of attitude change will be relatively enduring, resistant and
predictive of behavior
• Under Peripheral route, persuasion results from a person's association
with positive or negative cues in the stimulus or making a simple
inference about the merits of the advocated position. The cues received
by the individual under the peripheral route are generally unrelated to the
logical quality of the stimulus. These cues will involve factors such as the
credibility or attractiveness of the sources of the message or the
production quality of the message. The likelihood of elaboration will be
determined by an individual's motivation and ability to evaluate the
argument being presented
Techniques of Persuasion
• ETHOS
• Ethos relies on credibility as the method for convincing others
• You can establish credibility in a range of ways such as experience or
education. If an established and trained psychologist wrote a paper on the
psychology that impacts anxiety and depression the credibility comes
from that individual's experience and knowledge in the field. However if
that same psychologist wrote an article about cooking they wouldn't have
the same assumed credibility in that particular field
• Pathos is a mode of persuasion that appeals to the human emotions.
Human beings feel complex emotions and feelings can often trump
common sense and logic in behaviors and actions. Due to the complexity
of feelings, pathos is a powerful mode of persuasion that allows people to
connect with one another and experience emotions. The feelings a person
experiences can also motivate them to act differently or believe
something to be true making pathos very effective for persuasion
• Logos appeals to the logical side of the audience members and using
logos can help establish the ethos in writing. Performing research is a
good starting point when relying on logos as your dominant mode of
persuasion. As you research a topic, you can gather information that will
help you present it more logically to your audience
• Also referred to as Logical fallacy, this situation may occur if you try to
use logic that isn't accurate or based on facts
• Examples of logical fallacies to avoid include,
• Appealing to ignorance: Using an ignorant position as an appeal
• Strawman: Attacking a position that the audience doesn't hold
• Slippery slope: Moving through potential steps from a starting point to
reach an unlikely extreme
• Red herring: Straying from the topic with an irrelevant argument
Kairos
• Appealing to authority: Citing false, poor or irrelevant authorities or
citing only the opinion of an expert while ignoring other evidence
• Aristotle also mentioned a fourth mode of persuasion, although he didn't
group it with the other three in his teachings. This mode is known as
Kairos, which translates from Greek to opportune or right moment. When
applying the mode of persuasion known as Kairos, the speaker or writer
must take advantage of or create the ideal moment to deliver a message
• For example: A government representative trying to convince their
constituents to take action around gun laws might reach out to them after
a local shooting incident. This example incorporates both Kairos or
taking advantage of the right moment and pathos or appealing to
emotions
How To Use 10 Psychological Theories To Persuade People?
• 1. Amplification Hypothesis
• When you express with certainty a particular attitude, that attitude
hardens. The opposite is true as well. Expressing uncertainty softens the
attitude
• 2. Conversion Theory
• The minority in a group can have a disproportionate effect on
influencing those in the majority. Typically, those in the majority who are
most susceptible are the ones who may have joined because it was easy to
do so or who felt there were no alternatives. Consistent confident
minority voices are most effective
• Information manipulation theory
• His theory involves a persuasive person deliberately breaking one
of the four conversational maxims
• Quantity: Information is complete and full
• Quality: Information is truthful and accurate
• Relation: Information is relevant to the conversation
• Manner: Information is expressed in an easy-to-understand way and non-
verbal actions support the tone of the statement
• 4. Priming
• You can be influenced by stimuli that affect how you perceive
short-term thoughts and actions. Here’s a really smart example from
Changing Minds
• A stage magician says ‘try’ and ‘cycle’ in separate sentences in priming a
person to think later of the word ‘tricycle’
• 5. Reciprocity Norm
• A common social norm, reciprocity involves our obligation to
return favors done by others
• 6. Scarcity Principle
• You want what is in short supply. This desire increases as you
anticipate the regret you might have if you miss out by not acting fast
enough
• 7. Sleeper Effect
• Persuasive messages tend to decrease in persuasiveness over time,
except messages from low-credibility sources. Messages that start out
with low persuasion gain persuasion as our minds slowly disassociate the
source from the material (i.e., Car salesman and his advice on what car is
best)
• 8. Social Influence
• We are influenced strongly by others based on how we perceive
our relationship to the influencer
• For example: Social proof on web copy is persuasive if the testimonials
and recommendations are from authoritative sources, big brands or peers
• 9. Yale Attitude Change Approach
• This approach based on multiple years of research by Yale
University, found a number of factors in persuasive speech including
 being a credible, attractive speaker when it’s important to first or go last
and the ideal demographics to target
• 10. Ultimate Terms
• Certain words carry more power than others. This theory breaks
persuasive words into three categories:
• God terms: Those words that carry blessings or demand
obedience/sacrifice. Example: Progress, value
Devil terms: Those terms that are despised and evoke disgust.
• Example: Fascist, pedophile
Charismatic terms: Those terms that are intangible less observable than
either God or Devil terms
• Example: Freedom, contribution
References:
• http://kell.indstate.edu/public-comm-intro/chapter/11-5-theories-of-
persuasion/
• https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/modes-of-
persuasion
• https://www.fastcompany.com/3030173/how-to-use-10-psychological-
theories-to-persuade-people