Using prepositions and adverbs

1
1. Cấu trúc “from (start point) to (ending point)”

• [Y] + verb + from L1 to L2 from T1 to T2

- The elderly population in country C rose from 1.5 million to 4

million from 1975 to 2005.

• “from L1 to L2 from T1 to T2” => “from L1 in T1 to L2 in T2”

- The elderly population in country C rose from 1.5 million in 1975 to

4 million in 2005.

Note: The number of people aged 65 and over in country C started

at 1.5 million in 1975. However, it rose to 4 million over the next 30
years .

2
3
2. Giới từ chỉ “lượng” tăng/giảm

• “by+figure” sau các động từ chỉ sự thay đổi.

• “of+ figure” sau các danh từ chỉ sự thay đổi.

- The number of elderly people in country C rose from 1.5 to 4

million over the next 30 years.

- The number of elderly people in country C rose by 2.5 million

over the next 30 years.

- The number of elderly people in country C showed a rise of 2.5

million over the next 30 years.

4
3. At + figure

• The figure for country D started at 8 million.

• The figure for country D stood at 8 million in 1975.
• The elderly population in country A remained unchanged/levelled off
at around 1 million during the last 15 years.
• It peaked at exactly 9 million in 1980. (country D)
• It finished/ended at just under 4 million. (country D)

“At” is used to add “figures”

In 1975, the ederly population in country D was the highest of the four
countries, at 8 million.

5
 EXERCISE
You should spend about twenty minutes on this task. ​

The graph shows the contribution of tourism in billions of from to at by

dollars to the Egyptian economy from 1982 to 2003.

In 1982, income from tourism stood (1) ______ the lowest amount of the whole
Summarize the information by selecting and reporting the period (2) _______ roughly 0.3 billion dollars. Between 1982 and the year 2000,
main features, and make comparisons where relevant. income from tourism in Egypt increased significantly. From 1982 to 1993 it
increased (3) _______1.5 billion dollars to approximately 1.8 billion. 2 years later
the figure stood (4) ______ 2.3 billion and in a further 2 years it was just below 3
billion dollars. Earnings reached a peak in 2000 (5) ______ around 4.3 billion dollars.

From 2000 to 2001, income from tourism dropped slightly (6) ______ 3.8 billion
dollars and it remained stable at this level in the following year. From 2002 to 2003
there was a significant drop in the contribution of tourism as it fell (7) ______ 3.8
billion (8) ______ the same level as in 1993 (9) _______ roughly 1.8 billion dollars.

6
 Answers
You should spend about twenty minutes on this task. ​

The graph shows the contribution of tourism in billions of

dollars to the Egyptian economy from 1982 to 2003. from to at by

Summarize the information by selecting and reporting the In 1982, income from tourism stood (1) at the lowest amount of the whole period
main features, and make comparisons where relevant. (2) at roughly 0.3 billion dollars. Between 1982 and the year 2000, income from
tourism in Egypt increased significantly. In 1993 it increased (3) by 1.5 billion dollars
to approximately 1.8 billion. 2 years later the figure stood (4) at 2.3 billion and in a
further 2 years it was just below 3 billion dollars. Earnings reached a peak in 2000
(5) at around 4.3 billion dollars.

In 2001, income from tourism dropped slightly (6) to 3.8 billion dollars and it
remained stable at this level in the following year. In 2003 there was a significant
drop in the contribution of tourism as it fell (7) from 3.8 billion (8) to the same level
as in 1993 (9) at roughly 1.8 billion dollars.

7
4.Just over + figure

- around/about/approximately/roughly/almost/nearly: khoảng, gần,

xấp xỉ
- just under = slightly under: thấp hơn một chút
- just over = slightly over: cao hơn một chút
- exactly = precisely: chính xác

The elderly population in country C rose steadily over the 40-year

period to reach approximately 8 million in 2015.

The figure for country B fell gradually to just under 2 million in

2015.

The figures declined to their lowest point of exactly 2 million in

2005 (country B).

8
 5. Respectively

The population proportions of China and Japan decreased to 15% and about 2% respectively.
In 2000, the number of car and train users stood at 3 and 7 million respectively.

9
 Exercise
from between to at in by over with for around of

1. The rate of unemployment in Australian rural areas fell ____ 2% from 7% to 5% between 2005 and 2007.
2. The percentage of people without work remained constant ____ 5.5% over the remainder of the period.
3. It decreased ____ the lowest point ____ 10% in 2005.
4. There was a sharp climb at the end of the period, ____ the rate eventually reaching almost 6.5%.
5. 1990 to 2000 witnessed a steady increase from 3% to 6% ____ the unemployment rate in Australian urban areas.
6. The figure ____ country D dropped steadily from around 8 million in 1975 to a little less than 4 million in 2015.
7. It fluctuated ____ 1.5 million over the first half of the period.
8. The number of those driving per day overtook that ____ train users in 2000, ____ the figure reaching almost 7 million.
9. This continues to increase gradually over the following years to finish ____ a high ____ approximately 3 million.
10. It decreased dramatically from 8 billion to only 2 billion ____ 2000 and 2010.
11. The graph illustrates the changes ____ the number of tourists to Southeast Asia from four European countries ____ the
period from 2000 to 2010.

10
 Exercise
from between to at in by over with for around of

1. The rate of unemployment in Australian rural areas fell __by__ 2% from 7% to 5% between 2005 and 2007.
2. The percentage of people without work remained constant __at__ 5.5% over the remainder of the period.
3. It decreased __to__ the lowest point __of__ 10% in 2005.
4. There was a sharp climb at the end of the period, __with__ the rate eventually reaching almost 6.5%.
5. 1990 to 2000 witnessed a steady increase from 3% to 6% __in__ the unemployment rate in Australian urban areas.
6. The figure __for__ country D dropped steadily from around 8 million in 1975 to a little less than 4 million in 2015.
7. It fluctuated __around__ 1.5 million over the first half of the period.
8. The number of those driving per day overtook that __of__ train users in 2000, __with__ the figure reaching almost 7 million.
9. This continues to increase gradually over the following years to finish __at__ a high __of__ approximately 3 million.
10. It decreased dramatically from 8 billion to only 2 billion __between__ 2000 and 2010.
11. The graph illustrates the changes __in__ the number of tourists to Southeast Asia from four European countries __over__
the period from 2000 to 2010.

11
 EXERCISE
You should spend about twenty minutes on this task. Fill in the missing prepositions (at, from, by, to)

The graph shows the income of four restaurants in Cambridge in 2016.

The graph illustrates the earnings made by 4 restaurants in 2016 in Cambridge.
Summarize the information by selecting and reporting the main features, and
make comparisons where relevant.
Overall, the Pizza House, Old Hall and Taj Mahal saw increased profits by the end of the
year, whereas the Grosvenor saw its profits greatly reduced.

The Pizza House, Old Hall and Taj Mahal, increased their profits over the year. The Pizza
House started the period 1 _____ only £50,000 but profits doubled by July. Over the
next two months profits declined 2 ______ £100,000 3. ______ £60,000. From
September profits rose very rapidly so that in December they stood 4 ______ £190,000.
The Taj Mahal, which started the year as the weakest performing café of the group 5
______ only £30,000 earnings in January, also saw a rapid increase in profits from
September onwards 6 ______ £120,000 by the end of the year. The Old Hall started and
finished the year as the second most successful restaurant of the group despite its
profits increasing overall. Profits in January were £100,000 and this increased 7 ______
£40,000 8 ______ £140,000 by the last month of the year.

The Grosvenor started the year with the highest income of the four restaurants 9
______ £160,000 a month but by the end of the year this figure had dropped 10
______ £110,000 11 ______ around 50,000 pounds a month so that the Grosvenor was
the worst performing café at the year’s end.

12
 Answers
You should spend about twenty minutes on this task.
The graph illustrates the earnings made by 4 restaurants in 2016 in
Cambridge. The Pizza House, Old Hall and Taj Mahal saw increased profits by
The graph shows the income of four restaurants in Cambridge in 2016. the end of the year, whereas the Grosvenor saw its profits greatly reduced.

Summarize the information by selecting and reporting the main features, and
The Pizza House, Old Hall and Taj Mahal, increased their profits over the year.
make comparisons where relevant. The Pizza House started the period 1. at only £50,000 but profits doubled by
July. Over the next two months profits declined 2. from £100,000 3. to
£60,000. From September profits rose very rapidly so that in December they
stood 4. at £190,000. The Taj Mahal, which started the year as the weakest
performing café of the group 5. at only £30,000 earnings in January, also saw
a rapid increase in profits from September onwards 6. to £120,000 by the end
of the year. The Old Hall started and finished the year as the second most
successful restaurant of the group despite its profits increasing overall. Profits
in January were £100,000 and this had increased 7. by £40,000 8. to £140,000
by the last month of the year.

The Grosvenor started the year with the highest income of the four
restaurants 9. at £160,000 a month but by the end of the year this figure had
dropped 10. by £110,000 11. to around 50,000 pounds a month so that the
Grosvenor was the worst performing café at the year’s end.

13
 A common error
Notice that the y axis of the graph is labeled 'Profits in 1000s of pounds'.

Because of this, students will often write figures like this:

The Pizza House saw profits rise to 190 thousands of pounds.

This is incorrect. We use 'number + s of...' if we do not have a specific value to multiply (in this example, 'Profits...' is not a specific value). If we use a specific
number (like '190') we do not use an 's'.

So the correct sentence is: 'The Pizza House saw profits rise to 190 thousand pounds'
or to save time: 'The Pizza House saw profits rise to £190,000'

More examples of using plural multiples

Specific: Four hundred people attended the wedding. General: Hundreds of people attended the wedding.
Specific: Twelve million people watched the last world cup game. General: Millions of people watched the last world cup game.

Note that in task 1 it is better to be specific when you are describing data.
14
 Exercise
Fill in the blanks in the sentences below with the following prepositions.

between by in of until from for

1.___________ 1945 and 1995, there was almost no change in the frequency of laws being passed at a rate of 3 per month, but
from then on there has been a continuous and steady increase, reaching a peak of 10 pieces of legislation being enacted every
month in 1996.
2. ______ 2008 onwards, there was a significant increase in online complaints, regardless of age or gender.
3. In 2001, more than 40% of students said they were using the internet for entertainment purposes and this remained the
same____________ 2005, when it dropped to 33%.
4. Airline fees maintained their downward spiral right through 2006 and 2007, but ___________
2008, prices had recovered, lifting themselves up from an average of 590 dollars per ticket sold in June that year to 620 dollars in
December
5. Despite an initial rise in cost,_______ 2008 prices began to fall, so that in the following year packs were being sold for only $4.
6. This decreasing trend was maintained__________1994, when there was a sudden surge in recorded bankrupcies.
7. SUVs were the main sellers for most _________ the 1990s, and in 1997 more than 3 million of them were sold.
8. There were 18 typhoon warnings broadcasted in September, as compared to only 4 warnings issued__________ the rest of the
year.
9. _______________ the 2000s, there were more than 60 plays put on stage, although 2005 was the most productive with more
than half of the plays being performed in the year alone.
15
 ANSWERS
Fill in the blanks in the sentences below with the following prepositions.

between by in of until from

1.______Between_____ 1945 and 1995, there was almost no change in the frequency of laws being passed at a rate of 3 per
month, but from then on there has been a continuous and steady increase, reaching a peak of 10 pieces of legislation being
enacted every month in 1996.
2. ____From__ 2008 onwards, there was a significant increase in online complaints, regardless of age or gender.
3. In 2001, more than 40% of students said they were using the internet for entertainment purposes and this remained the
same________until____ 2005, when it dropped to 33%.
4. Airline fees maintained their downward spiral right through 2006 and 2007, but _____by______2008, prices had recovered,
lifting themselves up from an average of 590 dollars per ticket sold in June that year to 620 dollars in December
5. Despite an initial rise in cost,____in___ 2008 prices began to fall, so that in the following year packs were being sold for only $4.
6. This decreasing trend was maintained_____until_____1994, when there was a sudden surge in recorded bankrupcies.
7. SUVs were the main sellers for most _____of____ the 1990s, and in 1997 more than 3 million of them were sold.
8. There were 18 typhoon warnings broadcasted in September, as compared to only 4 warnings issued______in/for____ the rest
of the year.
9. _______In________ the 2000s, there were more than 60 plays put on stage, although 2005 was the most productive with more
than half of the plays being performed in the year alone.
16
 Exercise

Use the following prepositionss of time to fill in the blanks in the task
response below. There are some prepositions that are used more than twice.

The graph compares the sales of different music formats from 1994 to 2006.

17
 EXERCISE
Fill in the blanks using the given prepositions over until from between in

Task Response

The sales of three different music formats in the US, (1)_____________ 1994 and 2006, are
900 Music sales in the US, 1994 to compared in this line graph.
2006 (millions)
800

Overall, (2)______ the twelve-year period, sales of CDs and cassettes decreased dramatically,
700
while digital took over as the most preferred format for music.
600

500 In 1994, CDs were the most popular type of format with 450 million units sold, and they grew in
popularity in the next six years (3)________________ 2000, when sales hit 800 million. But then
400
purchases began to drop steadily, to the point that (4)___________ 2004, only 400 million units
300 were being sold, and as little as 300 million units were bought in 2006. Sales of cassettes
meanwhile were in severe decline over the whole period, dropping from 400 million units in 1994
200
to just 50 million in 2000, and were close to zero in 2006.
100

0 While sales of digital music were either at or close to zero between 1994 and 2000, they then
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
began a modest increase with approximately 20 million units sold in 2002. But (5)
Cassettes CDs Digital music _____________ that point onwards, we can see a skyrocketing of units being purchased, and by
2006, they had gone up as far as 750 million.
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 ANSWERS

Task Response

900 Music sales in the US, 1994 to The sales of three different music formats in the US, (1)_______between______ 1994 and 2006,
2006 (millions) are compared in this line graph.
800

700 Overall, (2)____over__ the twelve-year period, sales of CDs and cassettes decreased
600
dramatically, while digital took over as the most preferred format for music.

500
In 1994, CDs were the most popular type of format with 450 million units sold, and they grew in
400 popularity in the next six years (3)_________until_______ 2000, when sales hit 800 million. But
300
then purchases began to drop steadily, to the point that (4)_______in____ 2004, only 400 million
units were being sold, and as little as 300 million units were bought in 2006. Sales of cassettes
200 meanwhile were in severe decline over the whole period, dropping from 400 million units in 1994
100
to just 50 million in 2000, and were close to zero in 2006.

0
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 While sales of digital music were either at or close to zero between 1994 and 2000, they then
began a modest increase with approximately 20 million units sold in 2002. But (5)
Cassettes CDs Digital music
______from_______ that point onwards, we can see a skyrocketing of units being purchased,
and by 2006, they had gone up as far as 750 million.

19
Time connectors

20
21
1.First events

At the start/beginning, ____

At the beginning, the number of elderly people in country A stood at
around 1.5 million.

Originally/initially
The number of elderly people in country A originally stood at around
1.5 million.
Originally, the number of elderly people in country A stood at
around 1.5 million.

In the first ____ ,

In the first five years, the figure for country B increased from a little
under 5 million to about 6.5 million.

22
2.Middle events

. Next, ____
. Then, ____
. After this/that, ____
. Following this/that, ____
. Subsequently, ____

S + V. Next, S + V.

For example

S + V. Next, it decreased steadily for 25 years

to a low of exactly 2 million. (country B)
S + V. After that, it decreased steadily to a low
of exactly 2 million in 2005. (country B)
23
In the next/following ____ ,

In the next 25 years, it decreased steadily to a low of exactly 2 million in 2005. (country B)
It decreased steadily in the next 25 years to a low of exactly 2 million in 2005.
Next, it decreased steadily for 25 years to a low of exactly 2 million in 2005.

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S + V, after which S + V

In the first five years, the figure for country B increased from a little under 5 million to about 6.5 million,
after which it decreased steadily to a low of exactly 2 million in 2005.

25
After + V_ing/noun phrase, S + V

After reaching a peak of about 6.5 million in 1980, the figure for country B declined steadily over the next 25 years to the lowest point
of exactly 2 million.
After a period of wild fluctuations, sales levelled off.

S + V before + V_ing / noun phrase

S + V, (which is) followed by + noun phrase

The figure for country B reached a peak of about 6.5 million in 1980 before a steady decline over the next 25 years to its lowest point
of exactly 2 million.
The figure for country B reached a peak of about 6.5 million in 1980 before declining steadily over the next 25 years to its lowest
point of exactly 2 million.
At the beginning of the year sales remained relatively stable before rocketing up in May.
The figure for country B reached a peak of about 6.5 million in 1980, followed by a steady decline over the next 25 years to its lowest
point of exactly 2 million.

26
3. Final events

In the final/last ____,

In the last 10 years, the figure for country C grew rapidly to finish at almost
8 million in 2015.

At the end of the period

It reached a peak of just under 8 million at the end of the period.

Finally/ultimately/eventually

It eventually reached a peak of just under 8 million in 2015. (country A)

27
At the beginning, the number of elderly people in country D
stood at 8 million, reaching a peak of 9 million in 1980.
However, it decreased quickly in the next 25 years to a low of
exactly 3 million before rising again to almost 4 million in the
last year. The figures for country B followed a similar trend,
rising to their highest point at about 6.5 million in 1980,
followed by a sharp decline to only 2 million in 2015.

By contrast, the numbers of people aged 65 and over in

countries A and C started much lower, at a similar level of
around 1.5 million. However, while the latter experienced a
steady increase in the following 40 years, ending at a high of
just under 8 million, in the first 25 years, the older population
in country A showed an erratic pattern, fluctuating around
1.25 million before remaining stable at 1 million for the rest of
this period.

28
Exercise
in the first after next at the beginning
in the next before the whole period followed by

The bar chart illustrates the changes in the prices of 800 grams of four different types of
bread in a European country over a 5-year period from 2001 to 2005.

Overall, the figures for white bread showed a steady increase over this time period, while
the prices of the other types fluctuated over this time period. In addition, Rye bread was the
least expensive type over the same period.

____(1)____ , 800 grams of wholegrain bread cost €0.8 in this European country, which
was higher than the other three types. ____(2)____ , this figure showed a dramatic rise to a
peak of €1.8 in 2002 ____(3)____ falling steadily ____(4)____ three years to finish at the
initial figure. Meanwhile, rye bread remained the cheapest of the four categories over
____(5)____ , with the price per 800 grams ranging only from €0.5 to €0.7.

The price of 800 grams of white and brown bread stood at the same level of €0.6 in 2001,
with the former increasing steadily throughout the whole period, ending at its highest point
of around €1.3. Finally, the figure for brown bread more than doubled ____(6)____ two
years to about €1.5, reaching a high of €1.6 in the following year. ____(7)____ a marginal
decline, the price rose again to the 2003 figure at the end of this period.

29
Answers
in the first after next at the beginning
in the next before the whole period followed by

The bar chart illustrates the changes in the prices of 800 grams of four different types of
bread in a European country over a 5-year period from 2001 to 2005.

Overall, the figures for white bread showed a steady increase over this time period, while
the prices of the other types fluctuated over this time period. In addition, Rye bread was the
least expensive type over the same period.

____At the beginning____ , 800 grams of wholegrain bread cost €0.8 in this European
country, which was higher than the other three types. ____Next____ , this figure showed a
dramatic rise to a peak of €1.8 in 2002 ____before____ falling steadily ____in the
next____ three years to finish at the initial figure. Meanwhile, rye bread remained the
cheapest of the four categories over ____the whole period____ , with the price per 800
grams ranging only from €0.5 to €0.7.

The price of 800 grams of white and brown bread stood at the same level of €0.6 in 2001,
with the former increasing steadily throughout the whole period, ending at its highest point
of around €1.3. Finally, the figure for brown bread more than doubled ____in the first____
two years to about €1.5, reaching a high of €1.6 in the following year. ____After____ a
marginal decline, the price rose again to the 2003 figure at the end of this period.

30
 Note

- the former (n) the first of two people or things that you have just mentioned
- the latter (n) being the second of two people or things, or the last in a list just mentioned

31
V-ing Form

32
Formula 1: S + V, V-ing

Nếu có cùng một chủ từ, và xảy ra theo thứ tự trước sau:

From 2005 onwards, the figure for country C showed a sharp growth. It
reached a peak of just under 8 million in 2015.
=> From 2005 onwards, the figure for country C showed a sharp growth,
reaching a peak of just under 8 million in 2015.

The older population in country A had fallen to around 1 million by 2000.

It remained at that level from then onwards.
=> The older population in country A had fallen to around 1 million by
2000, remaining at that level from then onwards.

33
34
Trường hợp khác

The number of people aged 65 or more in country C showed an upward

trend. It grew steadily from only 1.5 million in 1975 to almost 8 million in
2015.
=> The number of people aged 65 or more in country C showed an
upward trend, growing steadily from only 1.5 million in 1975 to almost 8
million in 2015.

The figure for country A remained the lowest over the period and never
rose above 2 million.
=> The figure for country A remained the lowest over the period, never
rising above 2 million.

After 1980, the older population in country D decreased steadily. It

dropped to its lowest point of exactly 3 million in 2005.
=> After 1980, the older population in country D decreased steadily,
dropping to its lowest point of exactly 3 million in 2005.

35
At the beginning, the number of elderly people in country D stood
at 8 million, the highest of the four countries, reaching a peak of 9
million in 1980. However, it decreased quickly over the next 25
years to a low of exactly 3 million before rising again to almost 4
million in the last year. The figures for country B followed a similar
trend, rising to their highest point at about 6.5 million in 1980,
followed by a sharp decline to only 2 million in 2015.

By contrast, the numbers of people aged 65 and over in countries

A and C started much lower, at a similar level of around 1.5 million.
However, while the latter experienced a steady increase for the
following 40 years, ending at a high of just under 8 million, which
was higher than the other three countries; in the first 25 years, the
latter showed an erratic trend, fluctuating around 1.25 million
before remaining stable at 1 million for the rest of this period.

36
Formula 2: S + V, with + N + V-ing

Trong trường hợp hai chủ từ không giống nhau, nếu muốn nối hai
vế sử dụng dạng -ing => sử dụng giới từ “with”

Country A had the lowest number of people aged 65 or more

during the 40-year period. Figures never rose above 2 million.

=> Country A had the lowest number of people aged 65 or more

during the 40-year period, with figures never rising above 2 million.

37
 EXERCISE

Connect the following sentences using “-ing” forms

1. Expenditure on equipment remained the greatest throughout the whole period. It reached 60% of total spending in 1970 and
ended at 50% in 1990.
2. The profit had decreased to 50 thousand dollars by the third quarter, and it remained at that level for the next four years.
3. China and America were the most and second most polluted countries. Their ail pollution levels increased to 200 PPM and 150
PPM respectively.
4. This continues to rise over the rest of this period. It ultimately peaks at 100 thousand dollars.
5. From 2015 to 2016, there was a 15.24% increase in export revenue from textiles. Earnings rose from roughly $25 billion to over
$30 billion.
6. The accident rate showed an erratic trend. It fluctuated around 1.5% for much of this period.
7. The biggest downward change was in the use of local buses. Average miles per person fell from 429 to 274 over the 15-year
period.
8. Over the decade, the staff number showed a similar increase. It doubled from 10 to 20 (per 1,000 people).
9. In 2010, social studies was the most popular subject. It accounted for three quarters of enrolments.
10. Similarly, Janpan followed a similar trend. All the categories here were just under 20 ppm.
11. It is predicted that income will rise. People working in the commercial sector will earn 5% extra.
12. Iron production in New South Wales started much lower at around 3.5 million tonnes. Over the following two decades, it
increased slowly to only 5 million tonnes.
38
 Answers

1. Expenditure on equipment remained the greatest throughout the whole period, reaching 60% of total spending in 1970 and ended
at 50% in 1990.
2. The profit had decreased to 50 thousand dollars by the third quarter, remaining at that level for the next four years.
3. China and America were the most and second most polluted countries, with their ail pollution levels increasing to 200 PPM and
150 PPM respectively.
4. This continues to rise over the rest of this period, ultimately peaking at 100 thousand dollars.
5. From 2015 to 2016, there was a 15.24% increase in export revenue from textiles, with earnings rising from roughly $25 billion to
over $30 billion.
6. The accident rate showed an erratic trend, fluctuating around 1.5% for much of this period.
7. The biggest downward change was in the use of local buses, with average miles per person falling from 429 to 274 over the 15-
year period.
8. Over the decade, the staff number showed a similar increase, doubling from 10 to 20 (per 1,000 people).
9. In 2010, social studies was the most popular subject, accounting for three quarters of enrolments.
10. Similarly, Janpan followed a similar trend, with all the categories here being just under 20 ppm.
11. It is predicted that income will rise, with people working in the commercial sector earning 5% extra.
12. Iron production in New South Wales started much lower at around 3.5 million tonnes, increasing slowly to only 5 million tonnes
over the following two decades.

39