Apomixis

Apomixis is the production of

an embryo that bypasses the
usual process of meiosis and
fertilization.

The genotype of the embryo

and resulting plant will be the
same as the seed parent.

This is clonal seed production !

 Apomixis

Apomixis occurs in over

300 species from at
least 35 plant families.

It is most common in the

Asteraceae
Graminaceae
Rosaceae
Rutaceae
Goat’s beard (Tragopogon)
 Apomixis

Only a few economically

important food crops exhibit
apomixis.

These include Citrus, Mango

(Mangifera), and Mangosteen
(Garcinia).

Several grass species and

cultivars are apomicts
including Kentucky blue grass.
Orange (Citrus)
 Apomixis

Types of apomixis:

Gametophytic
Diplospory

Apospory

Sporphytic
Adventive embryony

Apple (Malus)
 Apomixis
Gametophytic apomixis
Embryo derived from a non-
reduced gametophyte cell.
Diplospory
Apospory

Dandelion
(Taraxacum)
 Apomixis
Normal sexual development from a reduced gamete.
 Apomixis
Diplospory
Megaspore mother cell does not finish or initiate meiosis.
Egg sac organizes normally but cells are diploid.
 Apomixis
Diplospory
Embryo initiates development without being fertilized.

Endosperm develops either

with or without fertilization.

In some cases (Poa),

fertilization is required for
endosperm formation.

The egg does not get

fertilized because it is
already growing.

Common in grasses and

Asteraceae.
Eastern gamagrass
(Tripsacum dactyloides)
 Apomixis
Apospory
The megaspore mother cell undergoes normal meiosis, but
the resulting cells degrade before forming an embryo sac.
 Apomixis
Apospory
Additional cell(s) in the nucellus become densely
cytoplasmic and take on the role of apomictic initials.
These cells bypass meiosis to form their own embryo
sac within the same ovule.
 Apomixis
Apospory

Endosperm must be
fertilized (pseudogamy).

Aposporous apomicts are

found in the Rosaceae,
Asteraceae and in some
grasses.

Garden rose
 Apomixis
Adventive embryony

The megaspore
mother cell Normal
Meiosis Egg Sac
undergoes normal
Megaspore
meiosis and forms Mother Cell
a normal sexual
Nucellus
embryo sac.

These cells are

fertilized by male
sperm cells as in Adventive
normal embryony
embryogenesis.
 Apomixis
Adventive embryony

However, cells in
the nucellus become Normal
Meiosis Egg Sac
embryogenic and
form multiple Megaspore
Mother Cell
embryos in the
micropylar region Nucellus
of the ovule.

Adventive
embryony
 Apomixis
Adventive embryony

Cells in the nucellus These develop into

become embryogenic. somatic embryos.
 Apomixis
Adventive embryony

These asexual embryos do not

produce their own embryo sac
but grow into the embryo sac
of the sexual embryo.

Endosperm must be fertilized.

Common in tropical fruit trees

like citrus and mango.
 Apomixis

Adventive embryony

Multiple seedlings
(polyembryony) from a
single seed in Citrus.

One of the seedlings will

be sexual and the others Multiple
will be clones. embryos

Single seed
 Apomixis
Adventive embryony

Single seed
Pachira contains up to
5 seedlings per seed.

The large seedling is

sexual and the smaller
are nucellar derived.

Multiple
embryos
 Apomixis
Somatic embryogenesis

Somatic embryogenesis is also the formation of embryos from

vegetative tissue that does not involve gamete fusion.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development

Auxin

Cytokinin

Gibberellin

Ethylene

Abscisic acid
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development

Growth and differentiation of the

embryo.

Accumulation of food reserves.

Storage for use during germination.

Growth and development of fruit.

 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Auxin
Abundant in developing seeds.

Relatively high levels throughout

seed development before declining
during maturation drying.

Required for normal embryogenesis.

High during cell division activity

including the endosperm.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Auxin

Early in embryo sac Chalazal

development an auxin Low
gradient is established from
the micropylar to chalazal

Auxin gradient
regions of the embryo sac.

This is critical for orienting

the eight nuclei into their
proper positions.
High

Micropylar
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Auxin High

Auxin gradient
An auxin gradient is also
important for normal embryo
formation.

The gradient is from the

apical to basal portions of Low
the embryo and is required
for the appropriate bipolar
(shoot and root) symmetry
of the embryo.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Auxin

Auxin from seeds

can be the signal for
fruit to develop.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Cytokinins

Abundant in developing seeds.

The highest concentration of

cytokinins is found during the cell
division stages of embryo and
endosperm development.

Key role is in cell division.

 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Cytokinins

Endosperm
The major role for
cytokinins during seed
development is the control
of endosperm development.

Cytokinin determines the

number of cells in the
endosperm and the timing
for cellularization.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Gibberellins

Abundant in developing seeds.

Various forms high in Stages I and II.

GA mutants form normal embryos but

seed size is reduced.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Gibberellins
That gibberellins are important in the development of
cotyledons as storage reserve organs.

Cotyledons

Endosperm

Oak (Quercus)
 Seed Development
Parthenocarpy
Parthenocarpy is fruit production
without seed formation. Both auxins
and gibberellins can be important to
induce parthenocarpy.
 Seed Development
Parthenocarpy

Vegetative parthenocarpy -
does not require pollination.
Examples - fig and pear.

Stimulative parthenocarpy -
requires pollination.
Example – grapes.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Abscisic Acid

Abundant in developing seeds.

ABA high in Stage II.

Facilitates storage reserve

accumulation.

Prevents precocious germination.

 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Abscisic Acid

ABA induces
expression of genes
for storage proteins.

Redrawn from Finkelstein and Crouch, 1987

 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Abscisic Acid
 Seed Development
Precocious germination (Vivipary)

Seeds by-pass maturation

drying and there is premature
germination while seeds are
still on the mother plant.

Tomato
 Seed Development
Precocious germination (Vivipary)

Premature germination is
generally undesirable.

Genetic mutation in
response to ABA.

Rhipsalis
 Seed Development
Precocious germination
(Vivipary)
For a few species, vivipary is the
normal type of seedling development.
Mangrove species are important
plants that provide stabilization and
habitat along the edge of waterways.

Mangrove (Rhizophora)
 Seed Development
Precocious germination
(Vivipary)
In mangrove, the seed germinates
while still on the plant.

Black Mangrove
(Avicennia gerinans) Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)
 Seed Development
Precocious germination
(Vivipary)
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Ethylene

Ethylene is produced during

seed development.

Ethylene mutants produce

normal seeds.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
Ethylene
Appears to be important in de-greening prior to maturation drying.
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
There is an interesting interaction between ethylene, gibberellin and
ABA in controlling programmed cell death in endosperm in cereals.

Corn
Endosperm
 Seed Development
Plant Hormones and Seed Development
There must be a mechanism in place that programs endosperm cells to die,
while adjacent aleurone and embryo cells continue the maturation process.

Aleurone

Endosperm

Wheat