AN

Final Control Element

N

EL EC R

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AK TR J S IC AD HIT AL A a VP nd EN KO G UR AM LK INE UN ITA AT ER IV V A, IN ER A C IN G SI HA D DE TY T IA P TE AR R JE TM E EN T

controller output

EL

EC

Control Valve variable

JA

Actuator input signal

AN

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Final Control Element

Final Control Element El t v

manipulated variable (actuating signal) v

displacement

Actuator

or position 'x'

Control valve

p provides an output p p position p p proportional to the adjusts the value of the manipulated

AN

JA

EL

EC

The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and in and, response, moves the valve to a fully-open or fully-closed position, or a more open or a more closed position (depending on whether 'on/off' ' ti ' / ff' or 'continuous' control action is used). ' t l ti i d)

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Final Control Element

m controller output Final Control Element v

manipulated variable (actuating signal) v

displacement

Actuator

or position 'x' x

Control valve

Actuators

AN

EL

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Actuators

Pneumatic actuators

spring diaphragm piston motor

Electro-pneumatic Electro pneumatic actuators Electric actuators

Motorizedrotary or linear Solenoid operated

JA

Hydraulic y actuators

Spring Diaphragm type Actuators

input pressure m (3-15 psi) spring

backing plate

AN

Diaphragm actuators have compressed air applied to a flexible membrane called the diaphragm.

EL

EC

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Pneumatic Actuators

diaphragm

output position x

JA

stem

constant thrust force

Spring Diaphragm type Actuators

input pressure m (3-15 psi) spring

backing plate

stem

EL

EC

Note: The actual value of x (stroke length) is limited within and 3 d d depending on th size of th actuator. di the i f the t t

AN

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Pneumatic Actuators

At equilibrium, (assuming no change in thrust force on the stem): mA = Kx

diaphragm

output position x

constant thrust force

m = the change in input pressure A = the effective area of the diaphragm, ff i f i K = the spring constant (including diaphragm), x = the change in output position (stem)

JA

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Spring Diaphragm type A t t t Actuators Another Variation:

AN EL EC R JA N

Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting Pneumatic Spring-Diaphragm Actuators

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Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting Pneumatic Spring-Diaphragm Actuators

Direct-acting Actuator: (spring-to-retract) Reverse-acting Actuator: (spring-to-extend)

EL

This actuator is designed with the spring below the diaphragm, having air supplied to the space above the diaphragm. The result, with increasing air pressure, is spindle movement in the th opposite di ti t the it direction to th reverse acting actuator.

AN

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AK TR J S IC AD HIT AL A a VP nd EN KO G UR AM LK INE UN ITA AT ER IV V A, IN ER A C IN G SI HA D DE TY T IA P TE AR R JE TM E EN T

The diaphragm is pushed upwards, pulling the spindle up, and if the spindle is connected to a direct ti di t acting valve, the plug is l th l i opened. With a specific change of air pressure, the spindle will move sufficiently to move the valve through its complete stroke.

JA

Positioners

Why Positioners are provided with Actuators ? y p

To overcome high static friction forces in the actuators. To improve response time. To improve linearity and to reduce hysteresis. To reduce loading on controller output output.
In I case of using actuators, we have non-linearities due to diaphragm f i t t h li iti d t di h area and the spring constant. So the change in position due to change in controller output is non-linear. With the use of positioners we can decrease the effect of non-linearity. non linearity

AN

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Pneumatic Actuators

JA

Positioners Features

A positioner ensures that there is a linear relationship between the signal input pressure from the control system and the position of the control valve. A positioner may be used as a signal amplifier or booster. Some positioners incorporate an electropneumatic converter so that an electrical input (typically 4 - 20 mA) can be used to control a pneumatic valve. Some positioners can also act as basic controllers, accepting input from sensors.

AN

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Pneumatic Actuators

JA

Spring Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner

n gain = 1

restriction

Air supply Bellow Bellows (Ps)

m input pressure p p

nozzle back pressure

AN

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Pneumatic Actuators

Relay

spring

Kb m

c c

n y

Feedback lever

b x a

JA

K m b x y = b 2 a2

stem

Spring Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner

n gain = 1 Relay restriction n

Air supply Bellow (Ps) Bellows

Kbm

c m input pressure i c

nozzle back pressure

AN

JA

The change in output pressure is related to the back pressure as: Kx = nA, K is the spring constant and A is the effective area of diaphragm. nA b K n Kx Kb m Kx = x + y= = = n= 2 Kn Kn A Kn A 2a K n A A

Now,

EL

K K n A >> K , 0, and y 0. Kn A

EC

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Pneumatic Actuators

spring

n y

Feedback lever

b x a

y=

Kbm b x 2 a2

stem

At equilibrium, Baffle-Nozzle separation is: p bx K m y = + b 2 a2 Kb is the bellows stiffness factor Nozzle back pressure: n = Kn. y Kn is the nozzle gain g

b Kb m x a

Spring Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner

n gain = 1 n Relay restriction

Conclusion:

AN

Thus, Thus change in output position is related to change in input pressure with only feedback lever ratio and the bellows stiffness factor, and it is not dependent (if KnA >> K) on the spring-diaphragm non-linearities.

EL

As a >> b, large position change is obtained with a small change in bellows position, thus ensuring linear characteristic of the bellows.

EC

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Pneumatic Actuators

spring

Air supply Bellow (Ps) Bellows

Kbm

c c

m input pressure

n y

Feedback lever

nozzle back pressure

b x a

y=

Kbm b x 2 a2

stem

JA

AN

They are generally used where the stroke of a diaphragm actuator would be too short or the thrust is too small.

They are used for long strokes.

EL

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Pneumatic Actuators
m

Piston type Pneumatic Actuator

piston

spring

JA

AN

EL

They are used for large thrust forces. Large torques are generated from motor-gear arrangements to balance large thrusts.

EC

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Pneumatic Actuators

Motor type Pneumatic Actuator

m

Air Motor

spring

JA

Electro-pneumatic Actuators
When the controller output is electrical and a suitable air supply is available, using an electro-pneumatic actuator, a large output power may be obtained from a l power control signal. low t l i l

Realization

AN

EL

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cascading an electro-pneumatic converter and a pneumatic actuator t d ti t t

JA

an electro-pneumatic actuator electro pneumatic

Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Electro pneumatic Converter

i 'i' electrical signal input (current ) 4-20mA)

AN

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Electropneumatic Converter

pneumatic output 'm' (3-15 psi)

JA

Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Electro pneumatic Converter
former (support system) input current

Voice Coil Motor

AN

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S Nozzle m N Restriction a S balance beam m b Feedback bellows

pneumatic output (m) air supply pp y (Ps)

voice coil motor - linear motor

JA

Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Electro pneumatic Converter
pneumatic output (m) input current i former (support system) S Voice Coil Motor Nozzle m N a S

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voice coil used in loud speakers S
Restriction air supply pp y (Ps)

Force

balance beam b

voice coil motor - linear motor

Feedback bellows

force = BlNi

Effective force experienced by the p y former is a linear one.

B l N

flux density mean length / turn no. of turns

JA

force

AN

EL

EC

Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Electro pneumatic Converter
pneumatic p ( ) output (m) input current i former (support system) S Voice Coil Motor

Nozzle m N a S

balance beam bl b b

AN

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Restriction air supply (Ps)

At equilibrium, for a change in input current i, the change in output pressure m is: i m

a .B ln i = b(mAb )

voice coil motor - li linear motor t

Ab = the active area of the bellows assuming a small Baffle-Nozzle separation.

Feedback bellows

aBlN m= i bAb

JA

Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Electro pneumatic Actuator
Relay gain = 1

Air supply (Ps)

input i current

AN

EC

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Restriction m spring Voice V i coil motor S N Nozzle a S 0 c b Feedback lever x output position balance b l beam d Feedback spring (Ks)

diaphragm

JA

Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Electro pneumatic Actuator
gain = 1 diaphragm

Air supply (Ps) input i current

Restriction

Voice coil motor

balance beam d

AN

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Relay

At equilibrium,

spring

b c(B ln i ) = d . x.K s a
Ks = spring constant of the feedback spring (for a small Baffle-Nozzle Baffle Nozzle separation)

Nozzle

Feedback lever

t t x output position

Feedback spring (Ks)

JA

Conclusion: output x is independent of the characteristics of di h h t i ti f diaphragm and spring. d i

input

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Electric Actuators

Motorized Rotary Actuator

Error amplifier

Position sensor

output position

Low inertia servo motor

gear train to increase torque

low inertia servo motor - fast response

JA

AN JA N
+ Servo Motor Rack and pinion

EL EC R

Electric Actuators

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Motorized Linear Actuator
output position p p

Solenoid Actuator (for On/Off Operation)

Armature

AN

A spring return type electric solenoid is used to actuate an iron cored armature. A shading band type armature is used with AC supply to create unidirectional pull.

EL

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Electric Actuators

AC or DC

Coil C il

JA

Spring

Output position

They Th use i incompressible fl id (oil). These are ibl fluid ( il) Th used for high power and high speed applications.

AN

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Hydraulic Actuators

JA

A control valve in a pipeline acts as a variable restriction. An actuator controls the lift of a control valve to alter restriction. All control valves have an inherent flow characteristic that defines the relationship between valve opening and flowrate under constant pressure conditions. The three main t Th th i types of control valves available are: f t l l il bl quick/fast opening

AN

JA

linear

equal percentage

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Control Valves

The physical shape of the plug and seat arrangement, sometimes referred to i f i f as the valve 'trim', causes the difference in valve opening between these valves.

AN

Typical trim shapes for spindle operated globe valves

EL

EC

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Control Valves

JA

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

% flow = v 100 vmax

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Position x (or lift) Control Valve

Manipulated variable v (or flow)

JA

From laws of fluid dynamics, v = Kh x K overall coefficient h difference in head across valve

% lift = x 100 xmax

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Quick/Fast Opening Control Valve

Here, the valve sensitivity dx at any flow decreases with increasing flow. The fast opening characteristic valve plug will give a large change in flow rate for a small valve lift from the closed position. Fast opening valves tend to be electrically or pneumatically actuated and used for 'on / off' control.

AN

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( dv )

JA

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Linear Control Valve

The linear characteristic valve plug is shaped so that the flow rate is directly proportional to the valve lift, at a constant differential pressure. Here the valve sensitivity is (approximately) constant.

AN

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JA

Flow-lift characteristic Fl lift h t i ti for a linear valve

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Equal Percentage Valve

These valves have a valve plug shaped so that each increment in valve lift increases the flow rate by a certain percentage of the previous flow. The relationship between valve lift and orifice size (and therefore flow rate) is not linear but logarithmic. g

AN

EL

EC

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JA

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Equal Percentage Valve
For these valves, sensitivity increases with flow. As the valve sensitivity at any given flow rate is a constant percentage of the given flow rate, the term i fl i f h i fl h equal percentage is used. dv Valve sensitivity sensitivity,

i.e. sensitivity expressed as percentage of flow (= 100K %) is constant.

AN

EC

EL

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dv = Kv dx
( dv dx )
where K is a constant. Or constant Or,

dx = K v

JA

0 vmin working range

v vmax

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves Rangeability of a Control Valve

maximum controllable flow ( v max ) R= minimum controllable flow ( v min )

AN

The minimum controllable flow of a control valve depends on its construction. The range of R is usually between 20 and 50 under constant pressure drop across the valve (equal to constant head). It is typically 50 for a globe type control valve.

EL

EC

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JA

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation between % fl R l ti b t flow, % lift and rangeability under d bilit d constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

Linear Valve Li V l
v vmax vmin 0

EL

v 1 x = 1 + ( R 1) vmax R xmax

AN

EC

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vmax vmin v = vmin + x xmax
v vmin vmax vmin = + vmax vmax
xmax x

vmax
v

x xmax

JA

vmax

1 1 x 1 x + 1 = 1 + ( R 1) R R xmax R xmax

dv R 1 vmax = dx R xmax

Valve Sensitivity constant

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation between % fl R l ti b t flow, % lift and rangeability under d bilit d constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

Equal Percentage V l E lP t Valve

v vmax
x 1 xmax

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Differentiating, 1 dv

=R

= R vmax dx

x 1 xmax

.ln R.

1 xmax

AN

JA

dv ln dx = l R , v xmax

Equal Percentage characteristic

vmax

.ln R.

xmax

EL

Valve Sensitivity is proportional to v

dv l R d ln = v, dx xmax

EC

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation between % fl R l ti b t flow, % lift and rangeability under d bilit d constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

Equal Percentage V l E lP t Valve

& = e Vmax & V R

AN

EL

EC

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x = (ln R )H ,
R = valve rangeability,

& V = volumetric flow through the valve at lift H,

JA

& Vmax

H = valve lift (0 = closed, 1 = fully open),

= maximum volumetric flow through the valve.

Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation between % fl R l ti b t flow, % lift and rangeability under d bilit d constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

Equal Percentage V l E lP t Valve

Therefore,
x & e & V = Vmax R

According to our previous notation:

(ln R ) x x max e v= R
or

v max

JA

v ln v max

x = (ln R ) ln R x max

or

EL

EC

v ln v max

= ln(R )

AN

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& V =v

and

H=

x max

can be written as,

or

(ln R ) x x max v e = v max R

or

(ln R ) x x max v e ln v = ln R max

or

v ln v max

x = (ln R ) 1 x max

x 1 x max

or

v max

= (R )

x 1 x max

Classification of Control Valves Control Valves

Sliding Stem Valves

AN

Single -Seat Plug Valves

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Double-Seat Plug Valves Lifting Gate Valves

Rotating Shaft Valves

JA

Single-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Stem Packing gland x open

v (fluid flow)

EL

Here, Here depending on the plug shape flow lift characteristic will shape, flow-lift vary.

AN

EC

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position v plug

close

JA

Single-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Stem Packing gland x open position close

v (fluid flow)

plug

plug

AN

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EC

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Plug Types

V-port

equal percentage characteristic

Parabolic

linear characteristic

JA

Poppet

quick opening characteristic

Single-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Another variation
( A P ) +

F = Closing force required (kN)

EL

EC

p P = Differential pressure (kPa)

AN

JA

A= Valve seating area (m2)

Friction allowance = F

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Single-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Stem Packing gland x open position close

v (fluid flow)

plug

Can be shut off completely to provide zero flow an advantage. Requires large thrust force, thus a powerful actuator is necessary a disadvantage.

AN

JA

Solution ?
N

EL

To overcome the disadvantage, double-seat arrangements are used, which require a small thrust force to operate.

EC

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Features

AN
v

EL EC R

JA N

x position

Double-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

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v

Another variation

AN EL EC R JA N

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Double-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Double-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

x position

It cannot be shut off completely because of the differential p y temperature expansion of plug and body (when hot fluid is flowing). If plug expands more than body, it may cause breakage. If body expand more, there will be significant leakage or offset in the system.

AN

EL

Double-seat valves are used where it becomes impractical to provide sufficient force to close a conventional single seat valve.

EC

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Disadvantages

JA

Lifting-Gate Control Valves

'x' position open close

These are used to control flow of fluids containing solid matters (e.g. (e g paper pulp) pulp). Here no change in direction of fluid flow takes place, due to the control action.

AN

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gate v

R JA N

Single-seat Lifti G t Valve Si l t Lifting-Gate V l

Rotating-Shaft Control Valves

Rotating - shaft control valves

Rotary plug

used to control liquid flow (e.g. oil to burner)

EL

EC

Rotary type valves, often called quarter-turn valves, include plug valves, ball valves, butterfly valves etc. All require a rotary motion to open and close, and can easily be fitt d with actuators. d l d il b fitted ith t t

AN

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Butterfly used to control air,gas and liquid at low pressure difference

Louver

use to control air flow at low pressure (draft control)

JA

Rotary plug type Control Valves

rotation x stem

EL

EC

When the pipe opening and plug opening completely align, complete flow takes place. If they do not align at all, no flow takes place.

AN

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v plug plug (shown open)

(circular opening)

JA

Rotary plug type Control Valves

rotation x stem

plug (shown open) l (h )

plug opening (or part)

EL

Here 100% rotation corresponds to an angular rotation or H i d l i movement of 90o for x.

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% fl flow 100
(circular opening) v plug

rectangular opening

0 0

100

x 100 % rotation = xmax

Circular

V-shaped

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Rectangular

for different flow-rotation characteristics

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Ball Valves

Features F t

It consists of a spherical ball located between two sealing rings in a simple body form. Rotating the ball through 90 g g opens and closes the flow passage.

Ball valves are an economic means of providing control with tight shut-off for many fluids. g y

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% flow 100

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Butterfly Valves
vane rotation x v x Vane
Circular vane 100 % rotation

circular vane

Circular Rectangular

Here, 100% rotation corresponds to an angular rotation of 90o .

JA

Another variation

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Butterfly Valves

EL

Louvers cannot provide tight shut off due to long length of seating surfaces. Hence considerable leakage takes place.

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Louver Valves
rectangular vane v x x rectangular duct

linkage

JA

v x

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v x

JA N
rectangular duct rectangular vane

EC

linkage

100

Louver Valves

% flow

0 100 % rotation

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Three-port Valves

Three-port valves can be used for either mixing or diverting service depending upon the plug and seat arrangement inside the valve.

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Series throttling

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Methods of Fluid Control
Methods of fluid control Bypass

Variable delivery (variable source)

requires no separate q p control valve

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inflow

EL

For fluctuating or intermittent inflow, closed-loop control is necessary to maintain constant outflow. Th closed loop control will generate necessary i t i t t tfl The l d l t l ill t command for the control valve to maintain constant outflow.

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Methods of Fluid Control
Series Throttling
Head tank Command head control valve

outflow to process

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head

By pass is not economical, as a considerable portion of fluid is wasted.

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Bypass is required when we cannot shut down the source, then the extra water is bypassed. the control valve employed will have inverse gain.

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Methods of Fluid Control
Bypass
Head tank Process restriction by pass Control valve command

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Storage tank t k

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Variable Delivery from a Variable Speed Pump

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Methods of Fluid Control
Variable Delivery
Speed command

Process

Variable speed pump