Original Article

Marketing audits: The forgotten side of

management?
Received (in revised form): 17th September 2012

António Pimenta da Gama

is a professor and program coordinator at IADE. He holds a PhD in Marketing and has published articles in Marketing Intelligence and Planning,
Measuring Business Excellence, Revista Portuguesa de Marketing and Revista Portuguesa de Management. Author of the books Marketing Audits and
Company Performance, da Gama is also a member of the Editorial Review Board of the International Journal of Business Research and Development.

ABSTRACT One of the most profound changes in the business landscape over the last two
decades has been the new emphasis on evaluating and managing performance. The urgency of
financial performances has been accompanied by growing awareness that these are not sustainable
unless the pillars on which they are based – marketing included – are properly assessed. On the
other hand, many organizations and professionals still consider marketing as a highly qualitative
and creative discipline where almost everything fits and few things are measured. Recent evidence
shows that this is not the case. This article seeks to highlight the importance of audits as a means
of revising and improving marketing practice, arguing that the concept, while well developed, will
need to address some new realities emerging from the changing marketing landscape. This is
necessary if marketing audits want to maintain their viability as an important management tool in
the future.
Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing (2012) 20, 212–222. doi:10.1057/jt.2012.17;
published online 29 October 2012

Keywords: marketing; performance assessment; audits; Delphi method

INTRODUCTION appropriateness of marketing activities has

Organizations intending to improve their received limited attention in the literature.
performance as a condition of survival and The rapidly changing marketplace and
future development need to analyze their main the pressure put on marketers to justify their
functions periodically, through operational existence have highlighted the need for the
methods that allow the evaluation of their current refinement of methods aimed to increase
performance and function as management guides. marketing performance. Once marketing as
It is an inescapable reality that marketing is a discipline has historically focused more on
undergoing a crisis in its ‘toolbox’.1–6 In fact, the results than on the processes and systems
and despite the proliferation of financial and that allow it,9,10 this study intends to stimulate
non-financial isolated performance measures,7,8 further research on marketing audits.
the necessary instrumentation to assess the To that end, the present work begins by
reviewing the relevant literature on the
subject. Second, the views of a Delphi panel
Correspondence: António Pimenta daGama concerning issues relevant to marketing practice
Marketing, IADE – Instituto de Arte, Design e Empresa (Universitario), Ave-
nida D. Carlos I, 4, Lisboa 1200-649, Portugal
are reported. Finally, a concluding note is
E-mail: [email protected] presented.

© 2012 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 0967-3237 Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing Vol. 20, 3/4, 212–222
www.palgrave-journals.com/jt/
 Marketing audits

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND marketing audit concept (mainly from an

effectiveness perspective) have dominated the
Marketing as an organizational approaches to marketing performance
process assessment.15
The word ‘marketing’ is commonly used to The introduction of the audit concept in the
delineate very different things. On the one hand, marketing literature dates from the late 1950s,
it is considered as a management philosophy that through a report produced by the American
seeks to express why and how a company should Management Association entitled Analysing and
adapt to and influence its market. On the other Improving Marketing Performance: Marketing Audits
hand, it embodies the corporate subsystem, often in Theory and Practice. The report defined for the
called department, which develops a set of tasks first time the domain of marketing audits and
regarding marketing implementation. In both some associated elements – concept, objectives,
definitions, although with differing emphasis, it is issues, types and content.16
possible to identify three dimensions underlying the According to Kotler et al,17 ‘a marketing audit
concept: an action dimension, an analysis dimension is a comprehensive, systematic, independent,
and a culture dimension.11 Probably the most and periodic examination of a company’s – or
visible trend in practice is the one that considers business unit’s – marketing environment,
marketing to the action dimension, at the expense objectives, strategies, and activities with a view
of other analytical and behavioral components. to determining problem areas and opportunities
Marketing audits help to bridge the gap between and recommending a plan of action to improve
the activity orientation of the discipline and the company’s marketing performance’ (p. 50).
parameters that lend themselves to measurement. According to Mokwa18, the marketing audit
Moreover, the practice of marketing has can be viewed as ‘a policy innovation used first
focused its attention mainly on substance – what, to increase awareness and comprehension and
but an equally important aspect, though relatively then to implement and evaluate marketing
neglected, is the marketing process12 – how methods and performance’ (p. 88), being
marketers develop their tasks. The process is as simultaneously an educational process, an action
important as the substance because it determines framework, an instrument for intervention and
the nature and quality of decisions. an agent for change.
Unfortunately, studying processes is considerably In summary, marketing audits provide a
more difficult than studying substance.13 mechanism for implementing quality initiatives
Whether viewed as a function, a business within the area and for considering ways in
philosophy or a set of specific activities, which current marketing processes could be
marketing scholars have long held that the re-engineered to deliver greater value to
core objective of marketing is to attract and consumers and business alike. Far from being
retain customers. But to achieve this goal, the a complete answer or infallible solution to
organization must design and execute many existing marketing problems, audits nevertheless
work practices, most commonly referred to as provide a valid mechanism for approaching
marketing processes. When marketing begins them in a structured manner. Yet, they require
with consumers (identifying needs) and ends with skilled professionals who combine technical,
consumers (satisfying needs) then all activities analytical and interpersonal relationship skills.19
capable of influencing them should be considered Their more enthusiastic supporters maintain that
within its scope and properly assessed.14 they are the ‘better way to analyse, evaluate, and
improve the marketing function’ (p. 232),20 or
Concept and value of marketing the ‘discipline’s most complete strategic control
audits mechanism’ (p. 2).21 More recently, in one of
Traditionally, marketing productivity analysis the few empirical studies on the subject, evidence
(mainly from an efficiency perspective) and the was revealed that justifies periodic performance

© 2012 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 0967-3237 Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing Vol. 20, 3/4, 212–222 213
 da Gama

of marketing audits as a prerequisite for successful redirection, but may also need supplements
market strategies.22 or deletions in order to serve both the auditor’s
needs and the company’s aspirations. In a word,
Checklist approach to marketing they need to be adapted, as they are only a
audits means to achieve certain objectives, and not
A common approach to marketing audit an end in themselves.
consists in using a diagnosis questions checklist. We present in Table 1, by author(s) name and
The answer to these questions will provide in chronological sequence, the main checklists
information on the organization’s marketing identified in the literature, along with a brief
‘health’. This information can then be compared characterization.
with a pre-defined set of benchmarks,
expectations or goals. Regardless of the approach THE STUDY
that has been used to establish these benchmarks,
the auditors should have a clear view on the Method
reason that leads them to ask certain questions In order to assess the value of audits as a tool
and on the interpretation they will give to to evaluate marketing practice and to identify
answers. Implicit in each question is the evaluative dimensions allowing its refinement,
expectation that answers will mean good or a Delphi study was conducted among a seasoned
bad marketing practice. Therefore, in most group of marketing executives. This method has
cases the questions will involve a preconceived been shown to be superior to some other
idea of what should be the content of good methods of group judgment techniques.30,31
marketing practice for the organization, taking An intentional sample was drawn from the
into account the industry it belongs to.19 This Portuguese Stock Index to serve on the Delphi
model can be derived from existing literature, panel. This group of professionals was selected
empirical studies, management intentions, external due to their knowledge and experience in the
practices or market experts. field, as crucial to a successful Delphi is the
The logic of checklists translates to devising choice of experts.
a comprehensive set of questions or statements All potential panelists were contacted
covering all marketing activities; relevant items personally, by telephone or through e-mail.
can be selected and, hopefully, from answers The initiative aimed to explain the purpose of
given and respective relationships will emerge the study and the tasks involved, and to validate
guidelines for improvement. In this context, their participation. After this procedure, in
the more complete a particular instrument is, which some executives claimed unavailability
the easier it will be for users to choose the most to participate, we came to a Delphi panel
relevant aspects for each particular situation. composed of 13 experts belonging to the
However, it is important to bear in mind financial, manufacturing, utilities and retail
that it seems difficult to design a checklist to industries. The identity of each panelist was not
serve as a universal model. Furthermore, disclosed to the other panel members, ensuring
‘checklists can inhibit creative thinking and anonymity of responses.
produce an ill-considered acceptance of what The study comprised two phases. The
is revealed’ (p. 1),23 in the sense that when modification of the Delphi process used here,
blindly used, unexpected ideas that may arise which considers prior information through
during the process will hardly be taken into a series of interviews before beginning the
account . Checklists will only then be considered Delphi, is called SEER – System for Event
as the starting point, that is, the rational, logical Evaluation and Review.32
and technically grounded annotation of marketing In the first phase, all the Delphi panelists
aspects that impact company performance. To be were personally interviewed and asked to
fully effective, they require not only filtering or respond to a questionnaire consisting of five

214 © 2012 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 0967-3237 Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing Vol. 20, 3/4, 212–222
 Marketing audits

Table 1: Most representative checklists

Author(s) Main features
24
Kotler Focus on marketing effectiveness, which is proposed to be a function of five features: (1) customer philosophy,
(2) integrated marketing organization, (3) adequate marketing information, (4) strategic orientation and
(5) operational efficiency. Each of these features is evaluated through a more detailed checklist of three
close-ended questions, relative to which a possible score of 0, 1 or 2 is attributed, according to pre-defined
benchmarks. This procedure results in a numerical marketing effectiveness score, ranging from 0 (inexistent)
to 30 (superior)
McConnel25 Complete methodology to evaluate marketing and sales. Questions, totaling 482, are grouped in 15 categories:
(1) department mission, (2) department organization, (3) planning, (4) department personnel, (5) control, (6) sales
management, (7) sales force qualification, (8) sales force training, (9) sales force compensation, (10) distribution
channels, (11) advertising and sales promotions, (12) price policies, (13) credit policies, (14) market research
(15) product service policies.
Most of the questions are answered in Yes/No form. Evaluating questions supposes a comparison between
answers given and answers previously developed (benchmarks), to which corresponds a defined score. Scores
vary between 1 and 9. At the end, punctuation for each category is compared with maximum punctuation for
each category, and through this process an evaluation of effectiveness is obtained
McDonald26 Self-assessment method similar to McConnel. The instrument is divided into seven sections, which in turn
are composed of a variable number of chapters, 24 on aggregate. Sections are as follows: (1) marketing
management, (2) marketing innovation, (3) market research, (4) communication, (5) distribution, (6) sales force and
(7) service to consumers. Each chapter is submitted to nine different checklists in terms of number of questions
and respective phrasing, although the base format is the same. Scores for each question are made according to
pre-defined benchmarks. In the end, an effective percentage in each checklist is obtained
Kotler et al17 Set of 75 open-ended questions divided into six components: (1) market environment, (2) marketing strategy,
(3) marketing organization, (4) marketing systems, (5) marketing productivity and (6) marketing functions
Berry et al27 Checklist accommodating the unique characteristics of services and at the same time having the versatility
to be applied in a variety of service contexts. The ISME-Index of Services Marketing Excellence instrument
is composed of 76 items accompanied by a seven-point, strongly disagree–strongly agree, scale, along six
dimensions: (1) marketing orientation, (2) marketing organization, (3) new customer marketing, (4) existing
customer marketing, (5) internal marketing and (6) service quality
Brownlie28 Instrument composed of 52 non-structured items. Questions are evaluated on a five-point, strongly
disagree–strongly agree, scale. The scores obtained provide the base for evaluating marketing effectiveness
Parkinson Model for evaluating marketing excellence (marketing benchmark matrix), containing a series of performance
and Zairi29 measures that allow the establishment of how well critical marketing processes are being developed. The
instrument reflects seven processes (89 indicators in total) contributing decisively to customer acquisition and
satisfaction: (1) marketing strategy, (2) quality strategy, (3) product innovation, (4) customer development and
management, (5) branding, (6) supply-chain management and (7) relationship between marketing and operations.
Each indicator states typical situations associated with good or bad marketing practices, and each corresponds
to a pre-determined score (from 0 to 5)
Wilson23 Extensive self-assessment checklist spanning around 1500 open-ended questions included in 28 evaluative
dimensions (lists in author’s terminology)

Source: From the author.

questions (4 open-ended; 1 closed-ended) aiming The second phase (March–June) consisted in

to understand the approaches to marketing capturing the marketing topics that, according to
performance measurement in general and the the panel, would be relevant to the effectiveness
importance of marketing audits in particular of marketing practice in the near future.
(Table 2). After each interview, a summary of the On the basis of the general literature on
transcript was made available to the interviewees, marketing management33,34 and on specific works
for reliability and validity assessment purposes. about the future of marketing,35–41 an initial list
The fieldwork and analysis involved in this of topics, which in the author’s opinion were not
phase lasted approximately 3 months, from properly covered in the main existing checklists,
November 2011 to February 2012. In late was developed and presented to the panel.
February, an e-mail containing the results was The questionnaire (Table 3), asking the panelists
sent to panel members. to rate the importance of the topics presented and

© 2012 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 0967-3237 Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing Vol. 20, 3/4, 212–222 215
 da Gama

Table 2: First phase questionnaire

1. What type of marketing measures does your company use to assess overall marketing performance? (O)
2. How satisfied are you with the measurement of marketing performance in your company? (C:1-very dissatisfied; 5-very satisfied)
3. On evaluating marketing performance, how do you see the relevance of process metrics? (O)
4. Please explain the importance of marketing audits as a method to evaluate the appropriateness of the activities and assets a
company uses in its marketing. (O)
5. Does your company regularly engage in marketing audits? (O)

O (open-ended); C (close-ended).

Table 3: Second phase questionnaire Intermediate and financial output measures

On a scale of 1 (unimportant) to 5 (very important), please were the most cited by marketing executives
indicate the relevance of the following topics to the when assessing overall marketing performance.
effectiveness of marketing practice in your organization
within the next 5 years:
Metrics such as sales revenue, margins, trial,
1. Customer relationship management penetration, brand awareness, relative price,
2. Ethics and social responsibility market share and customer satisfaction were
3. Financial accountability
4. Marketing innovation referred at least once by all panel members.
5. Marketing integration with other functions As to importance, financial output metrics came
6. Online marketing
7. Other topics you may consider important (please list and at the top. All interviewees, using different
also assign a value between 1 and 5) phrasing, converged on the degree of importance
they attributed to assessing marketing
performance. As one panelist stated:
eventually to suggest additional ones, was It is impossible to manage what isn’t being
pre-tested and subsequently administered by measured … . In spite of the imperfections of our
mail. A 3-week deadline was allowed for performance evaluation system, I prefer to see at
responses. Two members did not respond after candlelight than being on the darkness.
two e-mail reminders, and thus they were
dropped from the panel in the first round. Another panelist declared:
The study continued with the remaining
Nowadays, the value of measuring marketing
11 participants.
occurs not only by an obvious reason: allowing
The results of the rounds were summarized
better performances. It also improves credibility
and the group mean and standard deviation fed
of the function among its peers and top
back to respondents, who were given the
management and facilitates resource allocation.
opportunity to revise their earlier opinions and
estimates. Theory posits that this iterative process Question 2: How satisfied are you with the
continues until a consensus is reached. Little measurement of marketing performance in your
agreement, however, exists on what exactly company?
constitutes a consensus.42 One of the most
common rules of thumb is stability in responses,43 The responses indicated moderate levels
and this criterion was used here. In this study, of satisfaction with existing measures of marketing
three rounds were conducted in order to achieve performance: approximately 41 per cent
response stability among panel members. of the members stated that they were satisfied
or very satisfied, 32 per cent assumed a neutral
Results (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied) position
regarding the adequacy and effectiveness
Phase I results of measures used and 27 per cent reported
Question 1: What type of marketing measures dissatisfaction. This evidence contrasts with
does your company use to assess overall lower levels of satisfaction detected in a study
marketing performance? on Ireland.44 Nevertheless, it must be borne in

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 Marketing audits

mind that the sample is exclusively composed of Another professional emphasized:

companies allegedly sophisticated in terms of
Methods allowing to assess the adequacy of
marketing practice and management.
activities and the accuracy by which the work is
Question 3: On evaluating marketing done, with a view to improvement, are extremely
performance, how do you see the relevance of important. … Access to those methods would
process metrics? (O) probably constitute a big step in the search for the
wholly grail of marketing performance.
On a consensus base, panel members agreed However, some challenges and difficulties in
on the relevance of process metrics and expressed implementing the method emerged from the
the desire to see their work recognized in other answers. One panelist recognized the difficulty
ways beyond traditional results metrics. They of unequivocally translating into managerial terms
sometimes feel frustrated by being evaluated what constitutes ‘good marketing practice’, due
almost exclusively by measures that do not to the inherent complexity of processes and
totally capture their efforts and skills. Some the large number of constituencies involved.
transcripts of the rich insights provided A second member questioned the way
corroborate the views expressed: cause-and-effect relationships with result metrics,
… marketing is a fundamental process in any namely, financial ones could be established.
organization, but to achieve goals, it must design
Question 5: Does your company regularly
and execute many tasks … execution of those
engage in marketing audits?
tasks requires knowledge. Methods and metrics
aimed to increase that knowledge are welcomed. This question was intentionally kept
… I think process metrics would help to judge open-ended in order to reveal possible reasons
marketing not only in terms of more fully clarify for the adoption or non-adoption of marketing
its role within organizations but also to evaluate it audits. Surprisingly, only four members
in terms of a value-adding activity. (31 per cent) declared that their company
… … Of course outputs and results metrics are regularly (annually) performed audits. Some
necessary and indispensable. … But what about justifications, on interviewees’ words, were
the way we do marketing around here? presented:
Question 4: Please explain the importance of
marketing audits as a method to evaluate the • lack of measurement and accountability culture;
appropriateness of the activities and assets a • information availability;
company uses in its marketing. • difficulty in defining benchmarks; and
• necessary skills and capabilities.
Again, the opinion of the members allowed
confirmation of the importance and utility of Nevertheless, all members coincided in the
methods to evaluate marketing practice. As one sense that SWOT analysis, customer satisfaction
member commented: surveys, marketing mix variables analysis and
… No professional in the area doubts the value
product/client/market profitability analysis were
of diagnosing marketing activity, identifying
developed at least at the beginning of each
strengths and weaknesses. …
planning cycle. These types of analysis are
normally considered an integral part of the
Another member noted: existing checklists.
… . I consider of the utmost importance for
marketing management and I think all companies Phase II results
should contemplate processes of such nature and In the second phase, respondents were asked to
objectives on a routine basis. detail on a five-point scale the issues that, in

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 da Gama

Table 4: Topics of relevance to marketing practice

Topic Round 1 Round 2 Round 3

I SD I SD I SD
Marketing innovation 4.7 1.8 4.8 1.6 4.7 1.2
Customer relationship management 4.5 1.4 4.3 0.9 4.6 1.1
Online marketing 4.4 2.1 4.5 2.4 4.3 1.8
Ethics and social responsibility 4.1 1.7 3.8 1.6 4.0 1.3
Financial accountability 3.9 2.3 3.7 1.9 3.7 1.6
Marketing capabilities — — 3.4 1.5 3.5 1.7
Marketing integration with other functions 2.6 1.9 2.9 1.8 2.7 1.4
Integrated marketing communication — — 2.7 2.2 2.4 1.7

I=Importance; SD=Standard Deviation.

their opinion, would be relevant to the A marketing innovation is ‘the implementation

effectiveness of marketing practice in the near of a new marketing method involving significant
future. Two topics not included in the initial list changes in product design or packaging, product
were suggested by some panelists in round 1: placement, product, promotion or pricing’
Marketing Capabilities and Integrated Marketing (p. 49).45 This implies that there must be more
Communication (IMC). Consequently, these to the role of marketing innovations than just
were added to subsequent rounds. that of an auxiliary activity for technological
The study ultimately yielded a ranking of innovations.46–48
eight topics perceived to be important in the The CRM (customer relationship management)
marketing arena. Table 4 shows the results on concept focuses on how management can make
a ranking basis. concerted efforts in attracting, maintaining and
enhancing customer relationships.49 CRM has
DISCUSSION generally been assumed to create a competitive
This work had a double objective: on the one edge for an organization, as well as to have
hand to try to understand the importance a positive impact on organizational performance.50
of audits in the broader context of assessing Yet, there is still much debate over what exactly
marketing performance, and on the other to constitutes CRM.51,52 As it is no longer sufficient
grasp the topics relevant to the effectiveness to advise practitioners or researchers that one
of marketing practice, so that they can be of the keys to successful marketing is through
incorporated in future checklists development. CRM, it will be important to address the design,
As to the first objective, despite the low implementation and monitoring issues associated
adoption level of the method and some with sound CRM practice.
perceived difficulties in its implementation, Embracing the marketing concept is one thing;
the answers given suggest the value and implementing it is another. How do marketers
usefulness of auditing as a way to evaluate and know what consumers’ needs and wants are, so
improve marketing practice. that they can develop a strategy to reach them
With regard to the second objective, the effectively and efficiently? Through research,
results reinforced our conviction that there naturally. But traditional research takes time
are important evaluative dimensions – each and money, and therefore many companies are
one including fundamental issues and best turning to online marketing to get continuous,
practices situations able to be adopted in the timely and innovative information from
context of auditing – insufficiently addressed customers.53,54 However, in order to activate
or not addressed at all in the most representative information, marketing is forced to adapt to
checklists. Based in literature, we discuss the new conditions in the virtual world.
hereafter the evidence found. Marketers therefore need to demonstrate that

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 Marketing audits

they are experts in respect of marketing know-how’. Marketing capabilities are therefore
information, and as a consequence they must core to the way in which marketing works,67 and
come to terms with information technology and according to Day,68,69 organizations can be more
be able to exploit its potential. This calls for new market oriented when they develop specific
evaluation methods insufficiently captured by the capabilities of market sensing, market relating and
traditional ones.55 strategic thinking.
The idea that firms do not operate in a The ability of marketers to influence
vacuum and that firms’ activities may have marketplace performance will be increasingly
negative consequences is nothing new. Marketers dependent on the extent to which core
are thus being called upon to take greater business processes are infused with a marketing
responsibility for the moral standards of their perspective and shaped by marketing-generated
behaviors and decisions and also for the social data. Unless other functions appreciate the
and environmental impact of their actions. value of what marketers have to offer, little
As corporate ethics and social responsibility have progress can be expected in terms of businesses
become hot topics for almost every business, embracing marketing concepts.12 On the other
forward-looking companies view ethically and hand, marketing tasks do not exist in isolation;
socially responsible actions as an opportunity to they are sub-processes within broader business
do well by doing good.56,57 Accordingly, it is vital processes. Marketing theory and practice must
for marketers to incorporate ethical and social therefore incorporate these processes explicitly
considerations in their work,58,59 as there is as an input to decisions that affect both
increasing evidence of a link between social marketplace and financial performance. In
responsibility, stakeholders and marketing short, there is the need for marketing integration
performance.60 with other functions.
Historically, there has been a deficit of financial Lastly, IMC can be defined as the notion and
accountability in marketing. Marketing practice has the practice of aligning symbols, messages,
frequently been labeled as thriftless and short of procedures and behaviors in order for an
adequate assessment measures, namely, in terms of organization to communicate with consistency,
the connection between actions and results.2,5,61,62 coherence, clarity and continuity within and
Marketers therefore feel they need to come to across formal organizational boundaries.70
terms with finance. They need to be able to The majority of the literature on integrated
argue effectively with the accountancy profession communication presents IMC as a revolution
and to develop ways to measure marketing expected to have wide-ranging consequences for
in terms meaningful to CEOs, CFOs and the way in which we think about and practice
investors. Knowing the value of the customer, management and marketing communication.71,72
understanding the financial impact of different Although the ideal of integration in connection
resource allocation or marketing actions, and with marketing communication is not new, the
being able to estimate returns on investments, scope of integrated communication has been
marketers will move from ‘hopes and dreams’ broadened to include virtually everything an
to facts and financial values. organization says and does and everyone who
Capabilities are skills in utilizing company is affected by the organization’s existence and
assets and allowing market demands to be activities.73
met successfully.63 Specifically, a marketing
capability is developed when the firm’s marketing
employees repeatedly apply their knowledge and CONCLUDING NOTE
skills to transforming marketing inputs to outputs Marketing is confronted with a transformation
(p. 4).64 In line with other authors,65,66 we like nothing before. This calls for adapting
understand marketing capabilities as a surrogate for or creating concepts, theory and methodologies
‘competence-based marketing’ or ‘marketing to address new phenomena as they emerge.

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 da Gama

The technique of marketing auditing, despite technical refinements and increased adoption
its weaknesses, has a long and distinguished of marketing audits.
heritage as a diagnostic device in marketing
management, providing information about
activities, actions and performances. Indeed,
the marketing audit should, in theory, be the
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