UNIT 1, LESSON 2 – CLASSICAL THEORIES OF LEARNING

A stimuli or stimulus - anything that can trigger a physical or behavioral change.

- It can be external or internal.

- External stimuli are changes or experiences that occur outside, it includes touch pain, vision,
smell, taste, balance and sound.
- Internal stimuli are changes, experiences, or feelings that occur within someone. Examples
include hunger, thirst, and emotional states.
BEHAVIORISM

- Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning, that occurs through interaction with the environment.
- Behaviorists believe that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli.

Uses in Education
Behaviorism can be used to help students learn, such as by influencing lesson design. For instance, some
teachers use consistent encouragement to help students learn (operant conditioning) while others focus
more on creating a stimulating environment to increase engagement (classical conditioning).
THEORY OF BEHAVIORISM

 known as behavioral psychology

 A theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
Beliefs of Behaviorist Approach

 It operates on the principle of “stimuli-response”

 Behavior is observable and measurable.
 It prefers actual behavior as an indicator of learning.

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY (IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV – 1057)

 Russian Physiologist, well known for “Classical Conditioning or Stimulus
Substitution”
 Classical means “in the established manner”
 Individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired
with an unconditioned stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a
conditioned response.
Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in which a neutral stimulus is
paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the same
response as the naturally occurring stimulus, even without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting
itself.
Simply put, strict behaviorists believe that all behaviors are the result of experience. Any person,
regardless of their background, can be trained to act in a particular manner given the right conditioning.
Features of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – automatically produces an emotional or physiological response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)– natural occurring emotional or physiological response.
Neutral Stimuli (NS)– stimuli that does not elicit a response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – evokes an emotional or physiological response after being conditioned.
Conditioned Response (CR)– learned response to a previously neutral condition.
Principles of Learning Through Association
The classical conditioning process works by developing an association between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
1. Acquisition - first part of the classical conditioning process, A process by which the conditioned
response is acquired from the experience of another person. (Period of Learning)
Three Factors:

 Stimulus Salience – Weigh or impact of a stimulus that can produce a conditioned response. (ex.
The loudness)
 Stimulus Order – You must present the neutral stimulus before the unconditioned stimulus in
order to acquire and learn the mapping between the NS and UCS.
 Time Gap – Having a longer time or larger time gap delay makes it difficult to establish the
relationship between the events, then there will be no acquisition between the NS and UCS,
which would result in no conditioning taking place.

2. Stimulus-Generalization - A process which the conditioned response is transferred to other

stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
 CR closely resembles to the original CS.

3. Stimulus- Discrimination - A process which a conditioned response is transferred to other

stimuli different from the original conditioned stimulus.
 If generalization is a reaction to similarities, discrimination is a reaction to differences.

4. Extinction - A process by which a conditioned response is lost.

 It is when conditioned stimulus is presented alone for a long duration without the presentation of
UCS. The CS returns back to its neutral stimulus.

5. Spontaneous Recovery - The appearance of a conditioned response after a rest of period of

lessened response.
 Rapid regain of CR.
 Extinction conditioning does not lead to unlearning the stimulus response, however the CR
elicited in the spontaneous recovery phase is lesser in extent compared to the acquisition phase.
JOHN WATSON

 First American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas.

 He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy
infants, he can make them into anything you want them to be, basically through making
stimulus-response connections through conditioning.
2. CONNECTIONISM (EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE)
 An influential psychologist who is often referred to as the Founder of Modern
Educational psychology.
 He gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology.
 Connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting.
  Connectionism puts more emphasis on the organism not limiting himself to the association
between the stimulus and the response.
- Thorndike’s theory on Connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed.
Principles of Learning in Connectionism
Learning Theory:
1. Multiple Responses
- This refers to a variety of responses that would lead to a conclusion or arrival of an answer.
- In any given situation, an individual might react in a variety of ways if the initial reaction does
not immediately lead to a satisfying result.
Example:
2. Set of Attitude
- This explains that prior instruction/experience affects given task.

Example:
Primary Laws of Learning
1. Law of Readiness (Law of Action Tendency)
- The learning takes place when one is ready to learn through preparatory adjustment, set, or
attitude.
- This law explains that interfering with oral directed behavior causes frustration. It further
explains that making someone to do something that he or she does not want to do is also
frustrating
- Thorndike believes that if one is not prepared to learn, then learning cannot be automatically
instilled in him.
Example 1: If you teach a grade 2 pupil an advance mathematics topic such as geometry, calculus, etc.
they will not learn because their level of readiness is not advance. As a teacher, you have to teach them
appropriate learnings relating to their level of readiness, teach them the basics first such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, etc. Some also uses diagnostic test to precisely know their students
understanding and capability.
Example 2: Games before discussions, to make their students ready for the discussion.
2. Law of Exercise
- Often Repeated
- Things that are most repeated are best remembered.
 Law of Use – learning is strengthened with repeated trial or practice.
 Law of Disuse – learning is weakened when practiced is discontinued.
Example: Typing in a computer- you’ll get faster at typing when you do it daily or repeatedly, but if you
discontinued doing it, your typing skills is going slow because it’s already weakened.
3. Law of Effect
- Learning is strengthened when it is accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling.

Example: You can add a positive reinforcement if a child did well at your class or test, so that they can
feel a satisfaction in order for them to repeat a desired behavior, in order for them to be motivated to do
well in school.
  Halo Effect - This law describes the “physical attractiveness stereotype” and the “what is
beautiful is good” principle. (First Impression)
- A overall perception of a person can be influenced by a single positive quality such as
physical appearance.
Example 1: Teachers might assume that a student who excels in one subject excels to all subjects and a
strong student overall when they actually struggle in other areas.
Example 2: We mistakenly assume that a charismatic leader who’s good at public speaking is a strong
leader overall even if they’re not yet proven themselves in other areas like policies and decision making.
Example 3 (Reverse): When one has a dirty clothes or bag, we assume that they are lazy, unorganized,
and filthy overall.

3. OPERANT CONDITIONING AND REINFORCEMENT (BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER)

 Skinner theorized that if a behavior is followed by reinforcement, that

behavior is more likely to be repeated, but if it is followed by punishment,
it is less likely to be repeated.
 Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning,
is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcement and
punishment.

Consequences Affect Learning

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner described operant conditioning as the process in which learning can occur
through reinforcement and punishment. More specifically: By forming an association between a certain
behavior and the consequences of that behavior, you learn.
Example: if a parent rewards their child with praise every time, they pick up their toys, the desired
behavior is consistently reinforced and the child will become more likely to clean up messes.
Reinforcers – any consequence that strengthen a behavior or desired response; a stimulus
Reinforcement - the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory; the effect of this stimulus/reinforcer.
Types of Reinforcers
1. Primary Reinforcer - A stimulus is related to both biological and physiological needs such as food,
clothing, shelter, warmth, human touch, etc. (Essential for Survival)
Example 1: When a baby is hungry, she cries. Her caretaker then feeds her to satisfy her hunger. This
response is a survival reflex that doesn’t require learning. In this case, hunger is the primary reinforcer
that reinforces the crying.
Example 2: A homeless child is promised of a food if he mown their lawn, the child will more likely
finish the work because he is intrinsically motivated than someone who working for a free toy.
2. Secondary Reinforcer - A stimulus that reinforces a behavior after being previously associated with a
primary reinforcer. It includes money, grades in schools, tokens, etc.
Example: Compromising with your mom that if you will get a high grade this semester, you will be
rewarded with money. You will more likely work hard for it because of the reward.
3. Positive Reinforcer - A stimulus is added to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior. (high five,
praise, hug or pat, clapping and cheering, giving extra privileges)
Example:
4. Negative Reinforcer - A stimulus is withdrawn to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.
Example 1: Applying sunscreen before heading to the beach to avoid getting sunburned.
Example 2: Going home early so that I can avoid my mom’s nagging.
Example 3: Leaving early from the house early to avoid traffic jams.

 Extinction or non-reinforcement – refers to when a reinforced behavior is extinguished entirely.

 Shaping of behavior – is a method of operant conditioning by which successive approximations
of a target behavior are reinforced.
 Behavioral Chaining – come about when a series of steps are needed to be learned.
 Reinforcement schedule - is a tool in operant conditioning that allows the trainer to control the
timing and frequency of reinforcement in order to elicit a target behavior.
Fixed Ratio (FR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant number of desired behaviors.
Fixed Interval (FI). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant amount of desired time.
Variable Ratio (VR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a varying number of trials.
Variable Interval (VI). This reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of time.
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
1. Verbal – praise, encouragement
2. Physical – touch, pats, hugs
(Human touch has been found to be an effective tool to increase the confidence of learners but must be
used with caution because of the issue of sexual harassment)
3. Nonverbal – smiles, winks, warm looks
4. Activity – games, enjoyments
5. Token – points, stars
6. Consumable – cookies. Candies
Punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced response.
Principles of Learning in Operant Conditioning
1. Principle of Contracts.
- The relevant behavior is identified, then the teacher and the learner decide on the terms of the contract.
2. Principle of Consequences.
- Consequences happen after the “target” behavior occurs.
It could be:

 positive and negative

 Expected and unexpected
 Immediate and long-term
 Extrinsic and intrinsic
 Material or symbolic
 Emotional/interpersonal
 Unconscious
3. Principle of Reinforcement.
- Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response that removes or prevents an adverse
condition.
4. Principle of Extinction.
- Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular response.
Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors.
5. Premack Principle or “Grandma Rule”.
- Less derived activities can be increased by looking at them to do more desired activities.
Implications of Operant Conditioning
1. Practice should take the form of questions (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise,
prizes and good grades.

4. SOCIAL LEARNING (ALBERT BANDURA)

 a Canadian-born American psychologist and originator of Social Cognitive
Theory who is probably best known for his modeling study on aggression,
referred to as the “Bobo Doll” experiment, which demonstrated that children
can learn behaviors through the observation of adults.
“Bobo Doll”

- we can easily learn violent behaviors just by watching others, in this study
children watched an adult attack a life size doll, then the children would mimic the adult and
attach the life size doll itself. Whereas the children who didn’t watch, didn’t do anything violent
toward the doll.

 This theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context.
 It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning,
imitation and modeling.
 Concentrate on the power of example.
Concepts in Social Learning Theory according to Bandura:
1. Vicarious Learning.
Learning is acquired from observing the consequences of other’s behavior.
2. Self-regulated Learning.
Learning occurs when learners observe, assess, and judge their own behavior against their own standards.
Subsequently, they reward themselves when successful or punish themselves when they fail.
Four Phases of Observational Learning
1. Attention. - This phase requires learners to initially pay attention to be able to observe fully the
distinctive features of the model’s behavior.
2. Retention. - This phase allows learners to retain or recall the observed behavior.
3. Motor Reproduction Process. - This phase entails physical skills and coordination because they are
needed for imitation of the learned behavior.
4. Motivational Process. - This phase causes learners to explicitly perform the modeled behavior to
receive favorable conditions.
“Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the
same behavior differently.”
Behaviors that can be learned through Modeling
 Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling.

 Aggression can be learned through models.

 Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling.

 This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through
modeling.

Classification of Models:
1. Real-life or Direct Modeling.
 It is a type of modeling where learners imitate the model’s behavior.
2. Symbolic Modeling.
 It is a type of modeling where learners imitate the behaviors displayed by characters in
books, plays, movies, or television.
3. Synthesized Modeling.
 It is a type of modeling where learners develop behaviors by combining portions of
observed acts.
4. Abstract Modeling.
 It is a type of modeling where learners infer a system of rules by observing examples
where rules are displayed.
Effects of Modeling on Behavior
1. Modeling teaches new behaviors

2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors

3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors

4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease
inappropriate ones.

3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for new behaviors.

Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for
teaching new behavior.

To promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist: attention,
retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate
behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important to break
down traditional stereotypes.