FSA 353 Lecture - Flow Through, Hapas, CC and SD

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi
Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources

Dept. of Fisheries and Watershed Management
FSA 353:
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF AQUACULTURE
G. Owusu-Boateng
Teaching Assistant
Frank Owusu
FLOW THROUGH RACEWAY/SYSTEMS
• A raceway is a system of rearing unit with water

constantly entering one end and leaving through the
other (flow through).
• Fish are continually exposed to new water.
• Relies on free-fall of water for the collection and

removal of metabolic wastes.
• The rearing units (tanks) are relatively shallow and

rely on a high water flow in proportion to their
volume in order to sustain aquatic life.
• Water passes through the systems once and then

are discharged rather than treating and recirculating.
• Designed in such a way that no water is stagnant at
any time in the fish pond.
• Oxygen is provided by the incoming water and is

removed by the fish as the water progresses down
the raceway.
• Dissolved oxygen is replenished by free-fall of

water into sequentially arranged tanks within the
raceway.
• Large numbers of fish are stocked of fish in small

volumes of water.
• Require that inflowing water attain temperature
within the range of tolerance by the species and
ideally at the optimal temperature for the target
species.
• Dissolved metabolites from animals are discharged

in effluent
• Requires complete diets since no natural foods are

available
• Water is usually diverted from streams, springs, or

wells by gravity. Water pumped from wells or other
sources is more expensive and is seldom used.
• Circular rearing units are more thoroughly mixed

TANKS
• Fiberglass
Pond water
• Supply of adequate water is required:
 No nutrients accumulate from source water.
 Continuous supply reduces temperature
o Preferred for trout production
o Undesirable for tilapia, catfish and carp (somehow). Why?
• Tilapia & catfish prefer high temps for speedy growth

• The water flushes pond (washing away fertilizer.
• The water may introduce silt, chemical residues from
pesticides and predators including snails into pond.
 To reduce this, inflow water is screened before entry
• Advantages of raceways systems
• Raceway higher production per unit of space is much.
• Raceways also offer much greater ability to observe

the fish.
 this can make feeding more efficient, and disease

problems are easier to detect and at earlier stages.
 If disease signs are observed, disease treatments

in raceways are easier to apply
• Raceways also allow closer monitoring of growth and

mortality and better inventory estimates than ponds.
• Harvesting is also easier

Disadvantages of raceways systems
• Need large quantity of water and at constant flow
• Require high-quality water.
 Requires high elevation of the water source and

suitable topography for the gravity flow between
raceways.
• Another limitation is the release of effluent. raceways

do not process wastes within the culture systems.
•
• Effluent releases from raceways are a larger
consideration than they are for ponds.
HAPAS
Hapas are enclosures (cages) usually made from fine
mesh and set up in shallow waters <1.6m with low water
flow rate and level fluctuation (e. g. pond, canal or ditch)
for holding fish for various purposes.
Made of fine mesh netting material.
The mesh size is such that the fry or fish inside cannot
escape.
They are fixed to poles pushed into the pond bottom
They are fixed to bamboo poles that provide flexibility in

high wind.
Advantages of hapa system
Reduce competition for aquaculture land
Easy to move or relocate
Production of uniform sized fry
Easy to observe and monitor species
They are cheap, durable and easy to set
Harvesting of fish is simple.
Easy to clean
Utilizes natural food
 E. g. phytoplankton can pass through the material)
 the material itself provides a surface for algal growth.
Grading, vaccination and handling of fish is easy.
Disadvantages of hapa system
• Hapas are not suitable for growing fish to market size
• Water exchange is insufficient to maintain very high

stocking densities.
• They are fouled quite easily.

• Require intensive management
• High labour cost
• Easily destroyed by strong wind
• Prone to incidence of theft cases
Some production systems
• Extensive aquaculture production systems
• Semi-intensive aquaculture production systems
• Intensive aquaculture production systems

Extensive Aquaculture
• Is a systems of culture in which no human intervention

is made with regards to feeding of the reaing species
• It involves the following characteristics:

 No deliberate feeding occurs
 Fish production in extensive systems is based on

the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.
 Low stocking density

 Low food safety
 Fish stocked feed on phytoplankton, zooplankton,

bottom-dwelling invertebrates
• Fertilization of ponds promotes the growth of simple
plants which form the base of the food chain.
• Animal health and welfare is not under control
• Amount of fish harvested depends climate and water

quality conditions
• Best used for integrated farming where animal

manure and agricultural by-products stimulate
primary production.
Semi intensive Aquaculture
Is the system the aims at increasing production of
fish from beyond the level that is supported by
naturally available food through supplementation
 Usually natural feed is not adequate
Fish is fed but there is organic matter- live food.
Stocking density is lower than extensive method
[DO] and hence fish welfare may be reduced by the

fertilization in the ponds
Food safety is medium level and customer preference

is high due to the general appearance of the fish
Intensive Aquaculture
A system of aquaculture which focuses on maximum
production from a minimum quantity of water through
high degree of technical and management skill.
• There is greater dependency on commercial feeds
• High stocking densities

CARRYING CAPACITY AND STOCKING RATE
Carrying capacity
• The maximum biomass that a water body can support
in the long term
• The characteristics of the system e. g. water quality

determine the carrying capacity
• It enables prediction of economic returns
• It may vary at areas with extreme variation in water

quantity and quality
• When CC is reached, no significant growth occurs in

culture species.
• Usually average mass remains unchanged for a month.

• Calculated by measuring the total biomass of fish at
this point.
• Is often directly related to daily feed input.
• It affects the decisions on stocking rate.
• It varies with management practices and pond
design, which influence water quality.
100
Total Biomass (kgs)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Month
Stocking rate/density
• The number and size of fish in cages or ponds needs

to be given considerable attention.
• Stocking density refers to the quantity of fry or

fingerlings stocked per unit of water area.
• For successful aquaculture, the appropriate stocking

rate needs to be set.
• It is high in intensive fish-farming systems such as

industrialized fish farming, fish farming in flowing
water, or fish culture in a net cage.
 is expressed as the number or weight of fish per

unit area (m2) or water volume (m3).
1
Stocking density α
marketable size
under the same conditions.
 so it should not be too high
 however, below the optimum level, production per-

unit area be low although grow of fish will be faster
 it should be reasonable
• Is affected by factors such as pond conditions, fish

sizes, feeds and operating techniques.
• its determination is guided by parameters observed in

previous cycle (sizes, yields, survival rate, marketing
rate, food-conversion rate, etc.)
If the fish grow well:
• The FCR is close to 1
• High percentage of species reach marketable size

at the end of production.
• The stocking density can be considered optimum.
• Otherwise it should be adjusted (reduced)

How can carrying capacity be increased?
• Improving feed quality to increase bioavailability,

which in turn reduces waste production and therefore
water pollution.
• Using species that can withstand poor quality water.
• Aerating the culturing system to about 10HP/hectare.
• Flushing or exchanging water at  25%/day.
• Undertaking monoculture in systems of poor water

quality.
Carrying capacity with nutritionally complete feed
and no aeration
Electric-powered paddlewheel
Tractor-powered paddlewheel
Carrying capacity with nutritionally complete feed
and no aeration
Clarias
18,000 kg/ha
Tilapia 8,000
Common 4,000
carp
As one moves from extensive system to intensive system:
Intensity
Stocking density
Supplementation
of feed
Contribution of
natural food
• Carrying capacity increases

• Stocking density increases
• Complexity of rearing the fish increases
• Risk of crop failure increases
• Cost of raising the fish increases mostly due to feed and
energy costs
• Total quantity of fish produced increases

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Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi

Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF AQUACULTURE

• A raceway is a system of rearing unit with water

• Fish are continually exposed to new water.

• Relies on free-fall of water for the collection and

• The rearing units (tanks) are relatively shallow and

• Water passes through the systems once and then

• Oxygen is provided by the incoming water and is

• Dissolved oxygen is replenished by free-fall of

• Large numbers of fish are stocked of fish in small

• Dissolved metabolites from animals are discharged

• Requires complete diets since no natural foods are

• Water is usually diverted from streams, springs, or

• Circular rearing units are more thoroughly mixed

o Preferred for trout production

o Undesirable for tilapia, catfish and carp (somehow). Why?

• Tilapia & catfish prefer high temps for speedy growth

• Raceway higher production per unit of space is much.

• Raceways also offer much greater ability to observe

 this can make feeding more efficient, and disease

 If disease signs are observed, disease treatments

• Raceways also allow closer monitoring of growth and

• Harvesting is also easier

• Require high-quality water.

 Requires high elevation of the water source and

• Another limitation is the release of effluent. raceways

Made of fine mesh netting material.

They are fixed to poles pushed into the pond bottom

They are fixed to bamboo poles that provide flexibility in

• Water exchange is insufficient to maintain very high

• They are fouled quite easily.

• Extensive aquaculture production systems

• Semi-intensive aquaculture production systems

• Intensive aquaculture production systems

• Is a systems of culture in which no human intervention

• It involves the following characteristics:

 Fish production in extensive systems is based on

 Low stocking density

 Fish stocked feed on phytoplankton, zooplankton,

• Animal health and welfare is not under control

• Amount of fish harvested depends climate and water

• Best used for integrated farming where animal

 Usually natural feed is not adequate

Fish is fed but there is organic matter- live food.

Stocking density is lower than extensive method

[DO] and hence fish welfare may be reduced by the

Food safety is medium level and customer preference

• There is greater dependency on commercial feeds

• High stocking densities

• The characteristics of the system e. g. water quality

• It enables prediction of economic returns

• It may vary at areas with extreme variation in water

• When CC is reached, no significant growth occurs in

• Usually average mass remains unchanged for a month.

• The number and size of fish in cages or ponds needs

• Stocking density refers to the quantity of fry or

• For successful aquaculture, the appropriate stocking

• It is high in intensive fish-farming systems such as

 is expressed as the number or weight of fish per