INTRODUCTION:

This piece of work is meant to include; North directional lines, map orientation and map lay out.
North directional lines comprise a map showing a simple compass rose or a north point
somewhere in the boarder. Nearly all pointed maps are arranged with the north at the top of the
sheet. In most medieval Europe many maps were arranged in reference to the east of Jerusalem
such that as a result map orientating was established and map arranged such that the directions
are correct with reference to the north.

Magnetic north allows for the direction of the compass needle due to the earth’s magnetic field.

Map orientation, which is defined as the arrangement of features on the map to ensure that they
are on the same direction as they are on the ground. This will include the purpose of orientation,
methods and importance of orientating a map.

Map lay out will include the components of a standard map such as a topographic map, which
will comprise the sheet title, scale, reference elements, among them.

NORTH DIRECTIONAL LINES:

True north (geodetic north);

True North is the direction along the earth’s surface towards the geographic North Pole or true
North is the direction along the earth’s surface towards the geographic North Pole/ it is the
direction of a meridian/longitude which converges on the North Pole.

 The horizontal angular difference between the magnetic north and the true north is called
the magnetic meridian/declination.

More it refers to the error in the compass reading induced by nearby metallic object, such as a
ship or air craft.

Magnetic north;
This is the direction the compass points towards the magnetic north pole or the direction in
which the north ends of a compass needle points, corresponding to the direction of the earth’s
magnetic field lines.

Isogonic lines are lines are lines on the earth’s surface along which the magnetic variation has a
constant value.

Agonic lines along which the declination is zero

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Grid north;
Grid north is a navigational term referring to the direction northwards along the grid lines of a
map projection. The grid lines point to a grid north, varying slightly from the true north. This
variation is smallest along the central meridian (north-south line) of the map and greatest at the
map edges.

The difference between grid north and true north is very small and can be ignored for most
navigation purposes. The difference exists because the correspondence between a flat map and
the round earth is necessarily imperfect.

Illustration:

GN
TN MN

MAP ORIENTATION:
Map orientation refers to the arrangement of features on the map to ensure that they are on the
same direction as they are on the ground.

It also refers to the cardinal directions in relationship to the topography in such a manner that a
person can follow the map and effectively get to another location.

Map orientation is also defined as the relationship between the direction on the map and the
corresponding features on the map.

A map represents the real world. By orienting a map you are positioning it so its north is actually
pointing north. When you orient a map and know where you are on the map, you can look in a
certain direction and see a land mark and find it on the map.

Purpose of Orienting a Map;

 For easy identification of geographical features on a map
 It guides the map users in specific locations

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  To effectively represent spatial information on the map as they are on the ground

Methods of Map Orientation;

 Using a compass
 Topographic orientation

How to Orientate a Map in Open Air

 Lay down a compass on a flat surface, making sure there are no metal objects nearby that
may upset the needle.
 Let the needle settle.
 A align, the magnetic north point on the map parallel with the needle of the compass (if
only true north is shown on the map, use this).
 Find your own position on the map.
 You can now read magnetic bearings to other places directly from this map.

How to Plot a Compass Traverse:

Select the starting point; draw a perpendicular line which serves as the magnetic north line. Let
the centre of the protractor be exactly on top of the starting point and 0 o and 180o coincide with
the magnetic line; then read the bearing in a clockwise direction, mark it on the edge of the
protractor, draw a line from the first station to the bearing mark, scale off the distance and plot
the second station. Draw a line parallel to the first magnetic north line through the mark of the
second station and repeat the same process until the work is completed.

N From A the bearing and distance A

B
can be measured. Hence if A is
plotted on a plane then B may be
plotted relative to A.

N
B
From B the bearing and distance
BC can be measured. Hence C can
be plotted relative to B.
A C
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MARGINAL INFORMATION:

Sheet title;
Sheet title is basically the title of the map on a paper sheet.

Scales:
A scale is the proportion or ratio of the distance between points on a map and the horizontal
distance between the same two points on the ground.

Scales can be represented in three ways. i.e.

 By a written statement e.g “4 inches to the mile”. The advantage of this method is that we
can estimate fairly accurately in inches and tell a distance on a map approximately in
rules.
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 By a representative fraction, e.g, 1:10000 or10,000 . From this representative fraction we
can construct a scale bar or find how many miles equal one inch on the map.
 By using a drawn scale or scale bar. This is a straight line divided into primary and
secondary divisions. This can be in any units, for example in feet, yards, miles or metres
and kilometers. The advantage of this method is that any distance you require to know
can be taken from the map on a pair of dividers or by making the distance on a strip of
paper and applying this distance to the scale bar, the actual distance on the ground
represented can then be read off without calculations. It also has the advantage that if the
map shrinks or stretches, the scale bar will do the same should still give the correct
distances.

Construction of a scale bar:

Before commencing to construct a scale bar it is necessary to know;

 The scale at which it is required

 The particular unit to be used
 The overall length of the scale bar

The normal length of the scale bar is 6 inches (12cm for metric measures) but it might be
necessary to make it a little larger or shorter.

For example,

At 1:60, construct a graphical scale of not more than 5.2cm.

Step 1. Map distance has to be converted to ground distance.

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 MD
=
Scale GD

1 5. 2
=
60 GD

60 χ 5 .2 cm
=3. 12 m≃3 m
GD =100 cm

Step 2. We use the obtained ground distance to get the map distance.

1 MD 300
= = =5 cm
60 60 60

Step 3. We now draw a line 5cm long

5cm

Step 4. We now measure the given length; 5cm and divide it into three equal parts
cartographically, and below is the procedure for doing this;

 A straight line is drawn horizontally and another line drawn at any angle to the horizontal
line

5cm

 Get the compass with the pencil and fix it firmly. Get any convenient distance on the
compass and then carefully fix your needle at the point of intersection and mark three (3)
equal divisions on the slanting line.

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 d3

d2
d1

5cm

 Now we bring our set squares and join d3 mark with the end mark (5cm).
 After dividing the 3 markings, we make sure that they are equal. We also check the
horizontal markings just to make sure they are equal as well.

d3

d2

d1
5cm

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Other types of scales:

Diagonal scales;
This is a devise for breaking down primary measurements into smaller measurements with
greater accuracy than could normally be obtained by plotting directly from an ordinary divided
rule or scale; the relevant section of this instrument is embodied on some of the steel scales and it
is also shown on the attached diagram. In this particular example the primary unit of measure is
one inch. Inspection will show that an actual diagonal scale is merely a square inch divided along
each of the four sides into 10 parts being 0.1’’.

Horizontal lines parallel to the top and bottom of the square join the divisions on the left and
right hand sides. Vertical lines join the divisions on the left and right hand sides. Vertical lines
join the divisions along the top and bottom division joined one and the left of its opposite
number along the top edge.

To obtain a measurement of 2.175cm from the diagonal scale. Scale off the 2’’from the main part
of the scale. To obtain 0.175 portion proceed as follows. From zero, move along the bottom line
to the first division on the left. This gives the 0.1’’portion. Then along the next diagonal line
move up until the horizontal line labeled 7 is reached. This gives 0.17. To obtain the remaining
0.005’’portion it is necessary to move down the diagonal a little.

A movement as far as the next 8 th horizontal line would give 0.18’’and that would be too much.
It is necessary to estimate a position on this diagonal which is 5/10 th of the distance from 7th to 8th
line. From this point to the perpendicular zero line will be 0.175’’ and if 2’’ from the right of the
zero is added to this total of 2.175 will be obtained.

Vernier scale;
The vernier scale is a device attached to the main scale to enable accurate secondary divisions of
the primary divisions of the scale. Vernier scales are attached to instruments such as planimeter,
pantograph and some proportional dividers. The direct reading vernier is 9/10 of small division
on the main scale.

To read the vernier scale, read the whole number and the first second decimal places from the
main scale which coincides with another line on the main scale. The vernier reading gives their
decimal place.

Methods of reduction and enlargements:

These may be carried out graphically, for example by coping the detail shown inside a figure
such as a triangle or square, onto a similar figure of the same dimensions but of the required
scale. Reduction for example can be done based on the principle of similar triangles and by

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 constructing a grid over the original and then another grid constructed which is of the same
dimensions but at a required reduced scale.

A point “X” is selected near the centre of the

figure and rays are drawn from “X” to all points
on the boundary of the figure where there is a
change of direction. The distance from “X” to
each point is measured and in this example when
the reduction is 2:1, a ½ of the total distance is
X plotted from “X”; join up all the plotted positions
and it will be seen that 2:1 reduction of the figure
has been made.

Reduced figure

The same principle above applies in

this figure only that great care has
been taken to draw rays to all changes
X of direction so as to maintain the
shape

However, a pantograph may be used.

A pantograph provides a mechanical method of reducing or enlarging the scale of drawings.

When correctly set the metal bars of the instrument form a parallelogram. All pantographs work
on this principle but may differ in their construction.

The illustration below shows the pole or anchor, tracing point and pencil of the off precision
pantograph “100”, which is normally at the department of survey. The sleeve holding the pencil
is movable along its bar, also the pencil bar can be moved along arms passing through sleeves at
each end. The positioning of the pencil and the pencil bar control the ratio of reduction or
enlargement. When set for working the pole, pencil and tracing point must fall in a straight line.

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This is achieved by calculation of a value which is set on the instrument. Three bars on the figure
has got small graduation marks, the smallest of which is a millimeter long.

Case 1; pole at end.

The pole is positioned on the pantograph as illustrated below

Pole
To calculate the settings, X, the following formula is used for
both reductions and enlargements,

m.L
χ=
M
B
Where, M =denominator of smaller ratio

m = denominator of larger ratio

A L = length of pantograph bars = 100 cm

For example, it is required to reduce a 1/50000 map to 1/250000,

50000 χ 100
χ= =20 cm
Then 250000

In this case, the 1/50000 map will be positioned under tracing point, A, and the reduction under
the pencil, B.

The tracing point and pencil are interchangeable, depending on whether a reduction or
enlargement is required.

Case 2; pole at centre

The pole is removed from the position it occupied in case 1 and positioned at B. in this position
the instrument is used for ratios between 2/3 to 1/1 to 3/2, with the tracing point always at A. the
pencil occupies the case 1 pole position.

The calculation of the settings, X, in this case use the following formula;

m.M
χ=
For reductions, M +m

M .L
χ=
For enlargements, M +m

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For example, a reduction of a 1/4000 scale drawing by 4/5ths is required, i.e. to a scale of 1/5000
(smaller ratio)

400 χ 100
χ=
Then 5000+4000

Reference elements;
It is often necessary to indicate a location, a line or an area on a map. Parallels and meridians are
seldom suitable for this purpose especially on small scale maps where the graticule often
becomes transformed in ways which make the map difficult to comprehend. It may often be
much easier to deal with gridiron pattern where letters and numerals designate the two directions.

Thematic maps often require another type of reference system. When analyzing the geographic
pattern of a special purpose map, one will often stand infront of the map and use a pointer or a
pen to indicate various points, lines or patterns which are subsequently analyzed and placed in a
context. It is quite unusual to find explicit pointers with corresponding functions on pointed
maps. One of the few maps of this type in which the “fertile crescent” is accentuated by use of
shadowing a technique, in the colour supplement.

Many maps emphasize particular features in more undirect, integrated way: the graphic
accentuation of features making the stand out from the map as a whole.

More explicit kinds of pointers can sometimes be seen on TV screens where arrows, circles or
shadows help make context and patterns comprehensible by accentuality first one element then
another. The increasing use of the computer screen, video technology and electronic image
formation in cartographic design offers tremendous opportunities for the development of
thematic cartography.

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REFERENCES:
1. Cartographic manual, commissioner for lands, Uganda
2. Map reading for East Africa, D.N.Master, MA, PhD (1962 and 1978)
3. Wikipedia free encyclopedia
4. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/truenorth

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