Unit 12

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12-0 mís';

12-2 çLrkouk
12-2 lkaf[;dh dk vFkZ
12-2-1 cgqopu esa ç;qDr lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk
12-2-2 ,dopu esa ç;qDr lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk
12-3 fooj.kkRed rFkk fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh
12-4 lkaf[;dh ds dk;Z
12-5 lkaf[;dh dk egRo
12-6 lkaf[;dh dh ifjlhek,¡
12-7 lkaf[;dh ij vfo'okl
12-8 pjksa ds vk/kkj ij oxhZdj.k
12-9 lkjka'k
12-10 'kCnkoyh
12-11 cks/k ç'uksa ds mÙkj
12-12 Loij[k ç'u

bl bdkbZ dks i<+dj vki bl ;ksX; gks ldsaxs fd%


• lkaf[;dh 'kCn dh ifjHkk"kk crk ldsa(
• fooj.kkRed rFkk fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh esa varj dj ldsa(
• lkaf[;dh ds fofHkUu dk;ksaZ dk o.kZu dj lds(a
• fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa dk egRo Li"V dj ldsa(
• lkaf[;dh fof/k;ksa dh ifjlhekvksa dks le> lds(a
• lkaf[;dh esa vfo'okl ds dkj.kksa dks Li"V dj lds(a
• O;olk; esa lkaf[;dh ds mi;ksx vkSj egRo dks Li’V dj ldsaA

vc rd geus [kaM 1] 2 vkSj 3 esa O;olkf;d xf.kr ij ppkZ dh gS] tks ,d


okf.kfT;d laxBu esa ys[kkdau fcfØ iwokZuqeku] foÙkh; fo”ys’k.k] foi.ku bR;kfn esa
cgqr mi;ksxh gS] laxBu ds mfpr dkedkt ds fy, izR;sd izca/kdh; Lrj ij

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fu.kZ; fy, tkrs gS] tks vkxs ykHk iznRkk dh vksj ys tkrs gSA izHkkoh fu.kZ; ysus ds
fy,] vkdM+s ,d /ofu vk/kkj iznku djrs gSA
lkaf[;dh (Statistics½ dksbZ ubZ fo/kk ugha gS] oju~ ;g bruh gh çkphu gS ftruh
ekuoh; fØ;k,¡A ijarq bl dh mi;ksfxrk dk {ks= yxkrkj c<+rk tk jgk gSA çkphu
le; esa bls Þ'kklu&dyk dk foKku^^ le>k tkrk Fkk rFkk jkT; dh ç'kklfud
fØ;k dk miksRikn le>k tkus ds dkj.k bl dk {ks= lhfer FkkA ml le; esa
ljdkj] ç'kklfud mís'; ls] tula[;k] tUe&e`R;q vkfn ds vfHkys[k j[krh FkhA
okLro esa vkaXy Hkk"kk ds 'kCn ^^LVsfVfLVDl^^ ¼Statistics½ dh mRifr ySfVu Hkk"kk ds
'kCn ^LVsVl^ (status½ ;k bVkyoh 'kCn ^^LVsfVLVk^^ ¼statista½ vFkok teZu 'kCn
ÞLVsfVfLVd^^ ¼Statistik½ ls gqbZ gS] ftu lHkh dk vFkZ Þjktuhfrd jkT;^^ ¼Political
State½ gSA vkt lkaf[;dh fof/k;ksa dk —f"k] vFkZ'kkL=] lekt'kkL=] O;olk;&çcU/k
vkfn fHkUu&fHkUu {ks=ksa esa O;kid :i ls ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl bdkbZ esa vki
lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk] fooj.kkRed rFkk fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh esa varj] lkaf[;dh
ds dk;ksaZ] lkaf[;dh ds egRo rFkk ifjlhekvksa rFkk lkaf[;dh ij vfo'okl dk
v/;;u djsaxAs

ge gj le; lkaf[;dh dh ckr djrs gS] mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij(


• fiNys lky ls eqnzkLQhfr dh nj 20% c<+ xbZ gSA
• fiNys o’kZ dh rqyuk esa vijk/k nj essa 5% deh vkbZ gSA

mijksDr lHkh dFku lkaf[;dh; fu’d’kZ gaSA ;s lkaf[;dh; dFku ikBdksa dks le>kusa
ds fy, cgqr lqfo/kktud izdkj ds lapkj (communication) gaS vkSj ml {ks= ls
lacaf/kr fof”k’V uhfr;ksa dks cukus esa Hkh enn djrs gSA

Þlkaf[;dh^^ 'kCn dk ç;ksx fofHkUu çdkj ls fd;k tkrk gS A ;nk&dnk rF;ksa ds


la[;k laca/kh fooj.kksa ;k vk¡dM+ksa ¼data½ dk mYys[k djus ds fy, cgqopu ds :i
esa bldk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA nwljh vksj bl 'kCn dk ç;ksx ,dopu esa xf.kr]
vFkZ'kkL= vkfn tSls fo"k; ds v/;;u ds :i esa Hkh ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
mnkgj.kkFkZ] tc ge ;g dgrs gSa fd gekjs ns'k ls lacaf/kr dqN Þlkaf[;dh^^ bl
çdkj gSa & Hkkjr esa çfr 1]000 iq#"kksa ds fy, fL=;ksa dh tula[;k 940 (census
2011)gS] vFkok lkef;d ewY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr çfr O;fDr jk"Vªh; mRikn 1950&51 esa
246 #å ls c<+dj 1985&86 esa 2]596 #å gks x;k gS&rc ge lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk
mi;ksx cgqopu vFkZ esa ¼vFkkZr~ leadksa ;k vk¡dM+kas ds vFkZ esa½ djrs gSaA mDr
la[;kvksa esa O;Dr fooj.k dks rS;kj djus ds fy, gekjs fy, mu fof/k;ksa rFkk
rduhdksa dh tkudkjh gksuk vko';d gS tks v‚dM+ksa ds ladyu] la?kVu]
çLrqfrdj.k] fo'ys"k.k rFkk vFkZfu.kZ; esa ç;ksx dh tkrh gSaA bu fof/k;ksa rFkk
rduhdksa dk v/;;u lkaf[;dh foKku dgykrk gSA bl lanHkZ esa lkaf[;dh 'kCn
dk ç;ksx ,dopu esa gSA bl vfHkçk; esa lkaf[;dh dk vFkZ gS lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡
;k lkaf[;dh&foKkuA vkb,] bu nksuksa vFkksaZ dk foLrkj ls v/;;u fd;k tk,A

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cgqopu esa ç;qDr lkaf[;dh dk vk”k; mu vkdM+kas ls gS tks fn, x, ifjfLFkfr
vFkok ?kVuk ls lacaf/kr gksA ;g xq.kkRed vFkok ifjek.kkRed gks ldrs gSaA

va[kfMr pj ls lacaf/kr la[;kRed voyksduksa dks n”kkZrs gSA


va[kfMr pj og gksrs gS tks js[kka [kaM ds fdlh nks fcUnqvksa ds chp ds ewY; dks
xzg.k dj ysrs gSA lHkh fo”ks’krk,¡ tSls fd otu yEckbZ] mpk¡bZ ?kuRo] osx rkieku
vkSj tSls lHkh va[kfMr pj gSA nwljh vksj] [kafMr vkWdM+s mu ewY;ksa dks n”kkZrs gS
tks [kafMr pj }kjk xzg.k fd, tkrs gSA [kafMr pj fu/kkZfjr ewY;ksa vkerkSj ij
iw.kkZdksa (integers) tSLks 1] 2] 3 }kjk n”kkZ, tkrs gSA ;g fxurh ds vk¡dM+s gksrs gS
tks fd fdlh fo”ks’krk dks /kkj.k ;k u /kkj.k djus okys enksa dh fxurh djds
,df=r fd, tkrs gSA mnkgj.k ds fy,] fdlh gokbZ vM~Ms ij vkus okyh mM+kuksa
dh la[;k] ;k fcØh ds fy, izkIr fd, x, eky esa [kjkc oLrqvksa dh la[;kA

ukeek= ;k jSad fd, gks ldrs gSaA ukeek= vk¡dM+s dqN


enksa dh la[;k dks fdlh xq.k fo”ks’krk ds vk/kkj ij nks ;k nks ls vf/kd Js.kh esa
oxhZd`r djus ls mRiUu gksrs gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, Nk=ksa dks fyax ds vk/kkj ij
oxhZdj.k ¼iq#’k] rFkk L=h½ ;k f”k{kk ds Lrj ij oxhZdj.k ¼eSVªhD;wyVs ] vaMjxzstq,V
rFkk iksLVxzstq,V½A ;g vkWdM+s Hkh fxurh ds vkWdM+s gksrs gSA nwljh vkSj] jSad fd,
gq, vkWdM+s] fdlh izfr;ksxh ijh{kk] izfr;ksfxrk ;k baVjO;w esa izn”kZu ds Lrj ij jSad
iznku djus dk ifj.kke gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy, baVjO;w esa vkus okys izR;kf”k;ksa dks
muds izn”kZu ds vk/kkj ij iw.kkZdksa esa ¼1 ls n rd½ jSad iznku fd;k tk ldrk
gSA fn, x, jSadks dks fdlh pj ds va[kfMr ewY;ksa dh rjg ns[kk tk ldrk gSA tks
fd voyksdu ds vUrZxr dksbZ Hkh xq.k fo”ks’krk gks ldrh gA

vyx&vyx ys[kdksa us lkaf[;dh dks vyx&vyx çdkj ls ifjHkkf"kr fd;k gSA


oscLVj ¼webster½ ds vuqlkj Þlead fdlh jkT; esa jgus okys O;fDr;ksa dh fLFkfr
ls lacfa /kr oxhZ—r rF; gSa & fo'ks"k :i ls os rF; ftudks vadksa ds :i esa vFkok
fdlh Hkh lkfj.kh ;k ofxZr i)fr }kjk çLrqr fd;k x;k gksA^^ ckmys ¼Bowlay½ ds
vuqlkj] ^^fdlh vuqla/kku ls lacaf/kr vadksa esa O;Dr fd;s x;s mu rRoks-a ds- fooj.k
dks lead ;k vk¡dM+s dgrs gSa ftUgsa ,d&nwljs dh rqyuk esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA^^
;wy rFkk ds.Mky^ ¼Yule and Kendall½ ds vuqlkj] Þleadksa ls rkRi;Z mu
la[;kRed rF;ksa ls gS tks i;kZIr lhek rd vusd çdkj ds dkj.kksa ls çHkkfor gksrs
gSaA^^ mDr ifjHkk"kk,¡ cgqr ladh.kZ gSa D;ksafd ;s lkaf[;dh ds {ks= dks mUgha rF;ksa
rFkk la[;kvksa rd lhfer djrh gSa tks jkT; esa jgus okys O;fDr;ksa dh n'kkvksa ls
lacaf/kr gksa vkSj ;k fQj leadksa dh dqN fof'k"V fo'ks"krk,¡ gksaA

lkaf[;dks dh vf/kd O;kid ifjHkk"kk gksjsl lsfØLV ¼Horace Sacrist½ us nh FkhA


muds vuqlkj lkaf[;dh ls rkRi;Z ÞrF;ksa ds ml lewg ls gS tks vusd dkj.kksa ls
i;kZIr ek=k esa çHkkfor gksrs gSa] ftUgsa vadksa esa O;Dr fd;k tkrk gS] ftudh x.kuk
;k vuqeku ifj'kq)rk ds ,d mfpr Lrj ds vuqlkj dh tkrh gS] ftUgsa iwoZfuf'pr
mís'; ds fy, ,d O;ofLFkr <ax ls laxzg fd;k tkrk gS] rFkk ftUgsa ,d&nwljs ds
rqyukRed :i esa j[kk tkrk gSA^^ ;g ifjHkk"kk O;kid gS rFkk mu leLr
fo'ks"krkvksa dk mYys[k djrh gS tks la[;kRed rF;ksa ¼lead½ esa gksuh pkfg, rkfd
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os lkaf[;dh dgyk ldsa A vkb,] vc ge bu fo'ks"krkvksa dh ,d&,d djds
foospuk djsaA
d½ vdsyh rFkk vlacaf/kr la[;k,¡ vk¡dM+s
ugha gksrhaA mUgsa fdlh fo'ks"k vuqla/kku {ks= ls lacaf/kr rF;ksa ds lewg dk
Hkkx gksuk vko';d gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] jke dh ekfld vk; 2]000 #å gSA ;g
,d lkaf[;dh; fooj.k ;k lead ugha gS A rFkkfi] ;g dFku fd jke] eksgu
rFkk lksgu dh ekfld vk; Øe'k% 2]000 #å] 2]500 #å rFkk 3]000 #å gS]
lkaf[;dh; lead gSaA
[k½ fdlh leL;k@rF;ksa ij
vusd dkj.kksa dk çHkko iM+rkgSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] fdlh oLrq ij fd;k tkus okyk
?kjsyw O;; vusd dkj.kksa tSls] vk;] :fp] f'k{kk vkfn }kjk çHkkfor gksrk gSA
blh çdkj] xsgw¡ dh mRiknu ek=k feêh] cht] o"kkZ] rkieku vkfn vusd
dkj.kksa ij fuHkZj djrh gSA bu rF;ksa ls lacaf/kr vk¡dM+As lead dgykrs gSa A
ijarq ;fn ge ,d ls nl rd vad rFkk muds oxZ ,d dkxt ij fy[k nsa
rks] ,d ls vf/kd la[;k,¡ gksus ij Hkh mUgsa lead ugha dgk tk ldrkA ;s
la[;k,¡ vusd dkj.kksa }kjk çHkkfor ugha gksrhA
x½ dsoy la[;kvksa esa O;Dr
rF;&fooj.k gh lead dgykrs gSa A y{k.kksa dk xq.kkRed o.kZu tSls]
lqUnjrk] vk¡[kksa dk jax vkfn çR;{k :i ls ekis ughatk ldrsA blfy,
lkekU;r;k] os lead ugha dgykrs A bu y{k.kksa dks la[;kRed :i nsdj gh
lead cuk;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ,d fo|ky; esa ge dkys] uhys ;k
Hkwjs jax dh vk¡[k okyhyM+fd;ksa dh la[;k fxu ldrs gSaA
?k½
leadksa dk çx.ku ;k rks vkx.ku }kjk fd;k
tkrk gS ;k vuqeku }kjk A ijarq ;Fkksfpr 'kq)rk dk ekun.M cuk, j[kuk
vfuok;Z gSA 'kq)rk dk Lrj vuqla/kku dh ç—fr rFkk ml ds mís'; ij
fuHkZj djrk gS A dYiuk djsa fd vki ,d fo|ky; ds ç/kkukpk;Z ds ukrs
ch-dke- esa ços'k ikus okys Nk=ksa ds ifj.kke fu"iknu ds vkSlr Lrj dks
tkuuk pkgrs gSaA blds fy, vki dks mu fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds mPpek/;fed Lrj
ij çkIr fd, x;s vad vo'; ladfyr djus pkfg,A ;g nks çdkj ls fd;k
tk ldrk gSA igys] vki fo|kfFkZ;ksa }kjk çkIr vadksa dh lwph rS;kj dj ml
dh vkSlr Kkr dj ldrs gSaA vU;Fkk] ;fn fdlh dkj.k iw.kZ lax.kuk laHko
ugha gS rks vki çfrn'kZ (Sample½ dk pquko dj ldrs gSaA çfrn'kZ ds vk/kkj
ij vki ckn esa lHkh fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds ifj.kke fu"iknuvkSlr Lrj dk vuqeku
yxk ldrs gSaA bl çdkj] lead lax.kuk }kjk vFkok vuqeku }kjk çkIr
fd, tk ldrs gSaA vkb,] ,d vU; mnkgj.k }kjk ;Fkksfpr@ifj'kq)rk ds
ekun.M ds vfHkçk; dks le>saA ;fn vki Hkkjr ds dqy [kk|kUu mRiknu
dk vuqeku] yk[k Vuksa esa] yxk jgs gSa] rks vki dh mfpr bdkbZ ¼;k
ifj'kq)rk dk Lrj½ yk[k Vuksa esa gksxhA ijarq] ;fn vki Lo.kZ dk dqy
mRiknu cryk jgs gSa rks vkidh mfpr bdkbZ fdyksxzke gks ldrh gSA bl
çdkj ifj'kq)rk dk Lrj vuqla/kku dh ç—fr rFkk mlds mís'; ij fuHkZj
djrk gSA
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M-½
leadksa dk - laxzg O;ofLFkr <ax ls gksuk pkfg, A vO;ofLFkr
<ax ls laxzghr leadksa ls mís'; fl) ugha gksxkA leadksa ds laxzg.k dk
mís'; iwoZfu/kkZfjr rFkk Li"V o fuf'pr gksuk pkfg,A vuqla/kku dk mís';
Li"V u gksus ij ;k rks ge cgqr ls vuko';d lead dj ysaxs vFkok
vko';d vk¡dMsa NksM+ nsaxsA
p½ lead dgs
tkus ds fy, la[;kvksa esa O;Dr rF; rqyuk ds ;ksX; gksus pkfg,A
mnkgj.kkFkZ] fdlh fo'ks"k o"kZ esa fdlh oLrq ds mRiknu rFkk fu;kZr laca/kh
vk¡dM+s ijLij lacaf/kr gSa A lkFk&lkFk fy[ks tkus ij gh os lead gSaA ijarq
;fn vkids ikl rhu la[;k,¡ gSa] tSls & ¼1½1986 esa Hkkjr esa pkoy dk
mRiknu] ¼2½ 1987 esa la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk esa tUes cPpksa dh la[;k rFkk
¼3½1988 esa baXyS.M esa iath—r xkfM+;ksa dh la[;k A rc mDr la[;k,¡ rF;
Hkys gh gksa] ijarq bdëk j[kus ij Hkh os lead ugha dgh tk ldrh D;ksafd
bu la[;kvksa dk ijLij dksbZ laca/k ugha gSA

foosdiw.kZ fu.kZ; ds fy, la[;kRed lwpukvksa dks ladfyr] laxfBr] çLrqr]


fo'ysf"kr rFkk fuoZfpr fd;k tkuk pkfg,A ,slk djus ds fy, gesa ,slh fof/k;ksa dh
vko';drk gksrh gS tks bl dk;Z esa gekjh lgk;rk dj ldsaA vr% ,dopu esa
ç;qDr lkaf[;dh 'kCn ls rkRi;Z% fof/k;ksa ds ml lewg ls gS ftls leadksa ds
laxzg.k] fo'ys"k.k rFkk fuoZ/ku ;k vFkZfu.kZ; ds fy, ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl
lanHkZ esa Hkh vyx&vyx ys[kdksa us lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk vyx&vyx dh gSA
vkb,] vc ge bu esa ls dqN ifjHkk"kkvksa dk o.kZu djsaA
mnkgj.kkFkZ] ckmys us dbZ ifjHkk"kk,¡ nh gSa A ijUrq mu esa ls dksbZ ifjHkk"kk Hkh
O;kid ugha dgh tk ldrhA okLro esa bu ifjHkk"kkvksa ls gesa lkaf[;dh foKku dh
çxfr dk vkHkkl gksrk gSA ckmys dh dqN ifjHkk"kk,¡ bl çdkj gS%
i½ lkaf[;dh dks x.kuk dk foKku dgk tk ldrk gSA
ii½ lkaf[;dh dks vuqikrksa dk foKku dgk tk ldrk gSA

iii½ lkaf[;dh og foKku gS tks lkekftd O;oLFkk dks lEiw.kZ ekudj] mlds lHkh
:iksa dk ekiu djrk gSA
Ø‚DlVu rFkk d‚mMu ¼Croxton and Cowden½ us lkaf[;dh dh ljy rFkk laf{kIr
ifjHkk"kk nh gSA muds vuqlkj] Þlkaf[;dh dks la[;kRed leadksa ds ladyu]
çLrqrhdj.k] fo'ys"k.k rFkk fuoZpu ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA^^

lsfyxesu ¼Seligman½ }kjk nh xbZ-ifjHkk"kk Hkh bruh gh ljy ijarq O;kid gSA
muds vuqlkj] ^^lkaf[;dh og foKku gS ftldk laca/k leadksa ds ladyu] oxhZdj.k]
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çLrqrhdj.k] rqyuk rFkk fuoZpu dh jhfr;ksa ls gS ftudks fdlh vuqla/kku&{ks= ij
dqN çdk'k Mkyus ds fy, ,df=r fd;k x;k gks^^A

mijksDr fiNyh nksuksa ifjHkk"kk,¡ dkQh lkjxfeZr rFkk O;kid gSa rFkk lkaf[;dh
fof/k;ksa ds {ks= dks Li"V djrh gSA lkaf[;dh foKku gesa ¼1½ leadksa ds ladyu] ¼2½
leadksa ds oxhZdj.k rFkk lkj.kh;u] ¼3½ leadksa ds çLrqrhdj.k] ¼4½ leadksa ds
fo'ys"k.k rFkk ¼5½ leadksa ds fuoZpu dh fof/k;ksa rFkk rduhdksa dh f'k{kk nsrk gSA

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics


,d fo’k; ds :Ik esa lkaf[;dh cgqr O;kid gSA blesa fofHkUu izdkj dh leL;k dh
fLFkfr esa cM+s iSekus ij vk¡dM+ks dks lHkkayus ds rjhds “kkfey gSA vkidks fofnr gS]
,dopu esa ç;ksx gksus ij] lkaf[;dh 'kCn ls rkRi;Z mu fof/k;ksa rFkk fl)karksa ls gS
tks fdlh vuqla/kku&{ks= ls lacaf/kr leadksa ds ladyu] çLrqrhdj.k] fo'ys"k.k rFkk
fuoZpu esa ç;ksx fd, tkrs gSaA ;s fof/k;k¡ rFkk rduhdsa bruh fofo/k gSa fd
lkaf[;dhfon~ çk;% bUgsa nks oxksaZ esa ckaVrs gSa% ¼1½ fooj.kkRed lkaf[;dh rFkk ¼2½
fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dhA

Descriptive Statistics ls rkRi;Z mu fofHkUu ekiksa ls


gS tks leadksa dh fo'ks"krkvksa ds fooj.k çLrqr djus ds fy, ç;ksx fd, tkrs gSaA
bu ekiksa esa dsUæh; ç—fr ds eki] fopyu ds eki vkfn 'kkfey gSaA js[kkfp=ksa]
lkjf.k;ksa rFkk fp=ksa }kjk leadksa dk fu:i.k Hkh fooj.kkRed lkaf[;dh esa lfEefyr
gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ;fn ch-dke- ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa dh la[;k 100 gS vkSj vki bu
fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds vkSlr vad Kkr djrs gSa] rks vki ;gk¡ fooj.kkRed lkaf[;dh dk
ç;ksx dj jgs - gSaA blh çdkj] tc vki mlh d{kk ls çfrn'kZ (Sample½ }kjk pqus
25 fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds vkSlr vad Kkr dj jgs gSa ijarq vki lEiw.kZ d{kk ds fy, dksbZ
lkekU;hdj.k djus dk ç;kl ugha dj jgs] rks Hkh - vki fooj.kkRed lkaf[;dh dk
ç;ksx dj jgs gSaA

Inferential Statistics ls rkRi;Z fun'kZ leadksa ds


y{k.kksa ds vk/kkj ij lexz leadksa ¼population data½ ds laca/k esa çkekf.kd fu"d"kZ
fudkyus dh lkaf[;dh; çfØ;k ls gSA lkaf[;dh esa lexz ¼population½ 'kCn ls
rkRi;Z tux.kuk ls u gks dj fdlh v/;;u {ks= ls lacaf/kr lHkh bdkb;ksa ls gSA
mijksDr mnkgj.k esa ;fn çk/;kid çfrn'kZ vkSlr vadksa ds vk/kkj ij & d{kk ds
lHkh fo|kfFkZ;ksa ds vkSlr vadksa dk vuqeku yxkus dk fu.kZ; ys rks ge dgsaxs fd
og fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh dk ç;ksx dj jgs gSaA ;g ckr /;ku nsus ;ksX; gS fd ge
vf/kdrj fun'kZ leadksa ds vk/kkj ij gh lexz leadksa ds y{k.kksa dks le>us dk
ç;kl djrs gSaA fun'kZ fu"d"kksaZ ds vk/kkj ij lexz ds laca/k esa Kkr fu"d"kksaZ esa dqN
10
foHkze vFkok vlaxfr gksuk LokHkkfod gS A lEHkkO;rk fl)kar ¼probability theory½
ds vk/kkj ij ,sls foHkze dk ifjek.k Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA -

1- D;k fuEufyf[kr oDrO; lkaf[;dh lead gSa\


i½ ,d QSDVªh ds 100 Jfedksa dh lkIrkfgd etnwjhA
ii½ jke dk dn 6 QqV gSA
iii½ eksgu dk otu 70 fdyksxkz e gS] lksgu dk dn 6-2 QqV gS rFkk jke dh
ekfld vk; 1]500 gSA
iv½ xr 10 o"kksaZ esa daiuh dh fcØh A

2 fuEufyf[kr oDrO;ksa ij ,d iafDr esa fVIi.kh fyf[k,A


i½ oslVj rFkk lsfØLV us fooj.kkRed lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk nh gSA
ii½ ;wy ,oa ds.Mky }kjk nh xbZ ifjHkk"kk lsfØLV }kjk nh xbZ ifjHkk"kk esa
fufgr gSaA
iii½ lkaf[;dh ds varxZr xq.kkRed leadksa dk v/;;u ugha fd;k tkrkA
iv½ lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ dsoy leadksa ds ladyu rFkk fo'ys"k.k ls lacaf/kr
gSaA

vki us lkaf[;dh ds vFkZ rFkk ifjHkk"kk dk v/;;u fd;k gSA vki us fooj.kkRed
rFkk fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh ds varj dks Hkh le>k gSA vkb,] vc ge lkaf[;dh ds
dqN egRoiw.kZ dk;ksaZ dh ifjppkZ djsaA
1- lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ lkekU; dFkuksa dks
laf{kIr rFkk fuf'pr :i esa çLrqr djrh gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ] vki dg ldrs gSa
fd Hkkjr esa dikl dh vkSlr iSnkokj 180 fdyksxzke çfr gsDVs;j gSA ;g
dFku vf/kd laf{kIr rFkk çR;k;d gS ctk; ;g dgus ds fd Hkkjr esa dikl
dh vkSlr mit cgqr de gSA
2- lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ o`gr rFkk
tfVy leadksa dks cks/kxE; cukus ds fy, mUgsa ljy cukrh gSaA vifj"—r
lead çk;% nq:g rFkk vcks/kxE; gksrs gSaA tc rd mUgsa fdlh lkekU; y{k.kksa
ds vk/kkj ij oxhZ—r u fd;k tk; rc rd muds y{k.kksa dks le>uk eqf'dy
gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] vkidks ,d dkj[kkus esa dke djus okys 1000 Jfedksa dh
lkIrkfgd etnwjh nh xbZ gSA vki ds fy, mu leadksa ls dksbZ fu"d"kZ
fudkyuk rc rd vlEHko gksxk tc rd mUgsa oxhZ—r dj laf{kIr :i esa
fuEu çdkj çLrqr u fd;k tk,% -

11
lkIrkfgd etnwjh ¼#½ Jfedksa dh la[;k
600 ls de 100
600&700 200
700&800 400
800&900 200
900 ls vf/kd 100
=

3- lkaf[;dh dk çkFkfed mís'; le;


vFkok vUrjky esa uofeÙk leL;kvksa ds rqyukRed v/;;u dks lEHko cukuk
gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] jk"Vªh; vk; dk vkx.ku fu:ís'; ugha fd;k tkrk] ijarq ;g
tkuus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gS fd ,d le;&varjky esa turk dk thou&Lrj
lq/kj jgk gS vFkok ugha A mnkgj.kkFkZ] 2017 dh rqyuk esa 2018 esa Hkkjr esa
çfr&O;fDr vk; 10% c<+h gSA bl lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij ge 2019 esa ,d
Hkkjrh; ds thou&Lrj ij dqN çdk'k Mky ldrs gSa A
4- lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ lkekftd] vkfFkZd rFkk
O;kolkf;d {ks=ksa esa uhfr&fu/kkZj.k esa lgk;d gksrh gSa A mnkgj.kkFkZ]
tUe&ej.k ds lkaf[;dh; leadksa ds vk/kkj ij jkT; ljdkj ifjokj fu;kstu
dk;ZØe pykus esa lQy gksrh gSA blh çdkj] miHkksDrk&ewY;&lwpdkadksa ds
vk/kkj ij jkT; ljdkj vius deZpkfj;ksa dks egaxkbZ&HkÙkk çnku djrh gSA
5- lkaf[;dh; eki tSls fd
lg&laca/k rFkk çrhixeu fofHkUu pyksa esa ijLij laca/k Kkr djus ds fy,
ç;ksx fd, tkrs gSa A fu"d"kZ rFkk fu.kZ; ij igq¡pus ds fy, bl çdkj ds
ijLij laca/k egRoiw.kZ gSa A mnkgj.kkFkZ] vki fdlh oLrq dh ek¡x rFkk mlds
ewY;ksa esa ijLij laca/k ikrs gSa A lkekU;r% ;fn fdlh oLrq dk ewY; c<+rk gS]
rks ml oLrq dh ek¡x ?kVus dh lEHkkouk jgrh gSA
6- dqN lkaf[;dh fof/k;ksa dk mi;ksx
py ds Hkfo"; ds ewY;ksa dk iwokZuqeku djus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA fiNys nl
o"kksaZ ds foØ; vk¡dM+ksa ds vk/kkj ij ,d foi.ku&çcU/kd vius mRikn dh
vxys o"kZ dh lEHkkfor ek¡x dk vuqeku yxk ldrk gSA-
7- lEHkkfor fu;e dh lgk;rk ls vki fdlh ?kVuk ds
?kVus dh lEHkkouk dk irk yxk ldrs gSa A fu.kZ; ysus esa lEHkkfor
vo/kkj.kk,¡ dkQh mi;ksxh gksrh gSa A mnkgj.kkFkZ] ;fn vki ch-dke- ijh{kk esa
vius mÙkh.kZ gksus dh laHkkouk tkuus ds bPNqd gSa rks vki fiNys nl o"kksaZ ds
mÙkh.kZ&çfr'kr dk v/;;u djds bldk vuqeku yxk ldrs gSaA
8- hypothesis çkDdYiuk dh
lR;rk dh tk¡p djus rFkk u;s fl)karksa ds çfriknu esa lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡
vR;f/kd mi;ksxh gksrh gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ,d dEiuh eysfj;k fu;a=.k ds fy,
fufeZr ,d ubZ nokbZ dh çHkkodkfjrk dks tkuuk pkgrh gSA og ,d
lkaf[;dh; rduhd dk mi;ksx dj bls Kkr dj ldrh gS ftldks oxZ
ijh{kk ¼Chic- Square Test½ dgrs gSaA
12
9- voyksfdr rF;ksa rFkk çfrn'kZ lead ds vk/kkj
ij lexz dhA fo'ks"krkvksa ds laca/k esa vuqeku yxkus ds fy, Hkh lkaf[;dh;
fof/k;k¡ mi;ksxh gksrh gSaA

çkphu dky esa lkaf[;dh dsoy 'kklu & dyk ds foKku ds :i esa gh ç;ksx dh
tkrh FkhA ç'kklkusd dk;ksaZ ds fy, jkT; }kjk tula[;k] thou ,oa e`R;q vkfn
fofo/k dk;ksaZ laca/kh vk¡dM+s ,df=r fd, tkrs Fks A rFkkfi] gky ds o"kksaZ esa]
lkaf[;dh dk {ks= c<+ x;k gS rFkk lkekftd rFkk vkfFkZd leL;k,¡ Hkh bl ds
dk;Z{ks= esa 'kkfey gks xbZ gSaA lkaf[;dh; rduhdksa esa gq, fodkl us Hkh blds {ks=
dks foLr`r dj fn;k gS A lkaf[;dh vc jkT;&ç'kklu dk vax ek= gh u gksdj
vkt yxHkx lHkh foKkuksa tSls&lkekftd] HkkSfrd rFkk çk—frd dks ifjosf"Vr
djrh gS A okLro esa vkt lkaf[;dh dk ç;ksx % fofHkUu {ks=ksa] tSls&—f"k] O;olk;
,oa m|ksx] lekt'kkL=] vFkZ'kkL=] thokafddh ¼biometry½ vkfæ esa fd;k tkrk gSA
vr% vktdy lkaf[;dh dk mi;ksx ekuoh; fØ;k ds çR;sd {ks= esa fd;k tkrk gSA

çkphu dky esa jkT;&ç'kklu dk dk;Z dsoy dkuwu vkSj O;oLFkk cuk;s j[kus rd
lhfer FkkA jkT; ¼lSfud rFkk jktLo uhfr fuekZ.k ds mís'; ls½ ekuo'kfDr]
vijk/kksa] vk; rFkk /ku vkfn laca/kh vk¡dM+s ,df=r djrs FksA ijarq dY;k.kdkjh
jkT; dh ifjdYiuk ds çknqHkkZo ds lkFk jkT; dh Hkwfedk esa Hkh foLrkj gqvk gS A
vr% leLr fo'o esa vkfFkZd rFkk vU; uhfr;k¡ cukus ds fy, ljdkjksa }kjk ewY;ksa]
mRiknu] miHkksx] vk; ,oa O;; vkfn laca/kh lkaf[;dh; vkadM+ksa dk ç;ksx i;kZIr
ek=k esa fd;k tkrk gSA viuh turk dk thou&Lrj Å¡pk djus ds fy,] Hkkjr
tSls fodkl'khy ns'k fu;ksftr vkfFkZd
fodkl dh uhfr viuk jgs gSaA bl mís'; ds fy, jkT; dks vius fu.kZ;ksa ds fy,
lkaf[;dh; vk¡dM+ksa ds lgh rFkk fo'oluh; fo'ys"k.k dks vk/kkj cukuk pkfg, A
mnkgj.kkFkZ] iapo"khZ; ;kstukvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs le; fofHkUu uhfr;ksa dk fu/kkZj.k
djus ds fy, ljdkj dks ns'k esa dPps eky] iw¡thxr oLrqvksa rFkk foÙkh; lk/kuksa
dh miyC/krk rFkk vk;q] fyax] vk; vkfn ds xq.kksa ds vk/kkj ij tula[;k ds
forj.k dk Kku gksuk pkfg,A

fofHkUu vkfFkZd leL;kvksa tSls] mRiknu] miHkksx] forj.k vkfn ds lek/kku esa
lkaf[;dh; fo'ys"k.k vR;f/kd mi;ksxh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] miHkksx laca/kh leadksa ds
fo'ys"k.k ls lekt ds fofHkUu oxksaZ }kjk fofHkUu oLrqvksa ds miHkksx ds çk:i dk
Kku gks ldrk gSA fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds fu/kkZj.k ds fy, ewY;] etnwjh]
miHkksx] cpr rFkk fofu;ksx] vkfn laca/kh lead egRoiw.kZ gS A blh çdkj] vk; dh
fo"kerk de djus laca/kh uhfr cukus ds fy, jk"Vªh; vk; ,oa lEifÙk ij vk¡dM+s
mi;ksxh gSaA vFkZ'kkL= esa lkaf[;dh ds mi;ksx ds ifj.kke Lo:i vusd vkfFkZd
fl)kar] tSls ,safty dk miHkksx dk fu;e] vk;&forj.k dk fu;e vkfn cus gSa A
vkfFkZd fu;kstu esa lwpdkad] le; lkj.kh fo'ys"k.k] -
13
çfrxeu fo'ys"k.k vkfn lkaf[;dh; rduhdsa egRoiw.kZ gSa A mnkgj.kkFkZ] etnwjksa dks
egxkbZ&HkÙkk ;k cksul nsus ds fy, miHkksDrk ewY; funsZ'kkad dk mi;ksx fd;k
tkrk gS A le; lkfj.kh fo'ys"k.k }kjk ek¡x dk iwokZuqeku fd;k tk ldrk gSA
vusd vkfFkZd ifjdYiukvksa ds lR;kiu ds fy, lkaf[;dh; A leadksa dk
vf/kdkf/kd mi;ksx fd;k tkus yxk gSA

vkdkj foLrkj rFkk c<+rh gqbZ çfr;ksfxrk ds ifj.kkeLo:i vk/kqfud O;kolkf;d


m|e dh fØ;k,¡ vf/kd tfVy rFkk vfHk;kpu djus okyh gksrh tk jgh gSaA
fo'kky m|eksa esa LokfeRo rFkk çcU/k ds i`FDdj.k ds ifj.kkeLo:i is'ksoj çcU/k
dk mn~Hko gqvk gSA çca/kdh; fu.kZ; ysus dh lQyrk cgqr dqN lgh rFkk lkef;d
lwpukvksa ij fuHkZj djrh gS tks lkaf[;dh; leadksa ls çkIr gksrh gS A vr% O;olk;
rFkk m|ksx dh fofHkUu fØ;kvksa tSls] foØ;] Ø;] mRiknu] foi.ku] foÙk vkfn esa
lkaf[;dh; eeadksa dk mi;ksx fnu&çfrfnu c<+rk tk jgk gSA lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡
vc foif.k [kkst] mRikn vuqla/kku] fofu;kstu uhfr;ksa] fufeZr oLrqvksa dh xq.koÙkk]
vfFkZd iwokZuqeku] vads{k.k rFkk vusd nwljs {ks=ksa esa vf/kdkf/kd viuk;h tk jgh gSA
çcU/kdksa ds le{k lHkh leL;kvksa esa ,d ckr leku jgrh gS fd mUgsa
vfuf'prrkvksa dh n'kk esa fu.kZ; ysus iM+rs gSa A bl çdkj dh ifjfLFkfr;ksa ls
fuiVus ds fy, lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ rduhdsa çnku djrh gSaA vr% okfyl rFkk
j‚cVZl~ dk dFku] fd vfuf'prrk dh n'kk esa foosdiw.kZ fu.kZ; ysus ds fy, mi;ksx
fd;s tkus okys fof/k&lewg dks lkaf[;dh dgrs gSa^^] vk'p;Ztud ugha gSA -

1- lkaf[;dh ds dk;Z crkb,A


2- fuEufyf[kr oDrO;ksa ij ,d iafDr esa laf{kIr fVIi.kh fyf[k,A
i½ lkaf[;dh dsoy tfVyrkvksa dks ljyrk çnku djus dk dk;Z djrh gSA
ii½ lkaf[;dh vU; foKkuksa ds fu;eksa ds lR;kiu esa lgk;rk çnku djrh
gSA
iii½ Hkfo"; esa ?kVukØe dh vfuf'prrk ds dkj.k] muds v/;;u esa
lkaf[;dh eqf'dy ls gh lgk;rk çnku dj ldrh gSA
iv½ lkaf[;dh ds vHkko esa fu;kstu dh dYiuk ugha dh tk ldrhA
v½ ,d cM+s laLFkku esa ,d dkfeZd vf/kdkjh lkaf[;dh ds Kku ds fcuk ,d
O;kogkfjd dkfeZd ;kstuk rS;kj dj ldrk gSA

geus lkaf[;dh ds egRo rFkk dk;ksaZ dk foospu fd;k gSA vc ge lkaf[;dh dh


ifjlhekvksa ds fo"k; esa ifjppkZ djsaxsA lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa dh fuEufyf[kr dqN
ifjlhek,¡ gSa ftudks bu fof/k;ksa dk mi;ksx djrs le; /;ku esa j[kuk pkfg,A

14
lkaf[;dh
la[;kvksa esa O;Dr rF;ksa ls laca/k j[krh gSA vr% os rF; rFkk leL;k,¡ tks
la[;kvksa esa O;Dr ugha dh tk ldrh] lkaf[;dh ds {ks= esa ugha vkrhaA
lqUnjrk] vk¡[kksa dk jax] cqf) vkfn xq.kkRed y{k.k gSa] vr% çR;{k :i esa
budk v/;;u ugha fd;k tk ldrk A bu y{k.kksa dk v/;;u dsoy ijks{k
:i ls] fof'k"V vad fu/kkZfjr djus ds i'pkr~ bUgsa la[;kvksa esa O;Dr djds gh
fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ,d O;fDr lewg ds ckSf)d Lrj dk v/;;u
^^ckSf)d&Lrj&HkkxQy^^ ¼Intelligence Quotients-IQs) dk ç;ksx djds gh
fd;k tk ldrk gSA

2- lkaf[;dh dk laca/k
rF;ksa ds lewg ls gksus ds dkj.k] ,d vdsyh rFkk i`Fkd la[;k lkaf[;dh ugha
le>h tk ldrhA mnkgj.kkFkZ] lkaf[;dh ds –f"Vdks.k ls ,d O;fDr dk dn
egRoiw.kZ ugha] ijarq ,d O;fDr&lewg dk vkSlr dn egRoiw.kZ gSA bl lanHkZ
esa vki lsfØLV }kjk nh xbZ ifjHkk"kk iqu% Lej.k dj ldrs gSaA

3- lkaf[;dh ds fu;e çk—frd foKku


ds fu;eksa ds leku ;FkkrF; ugha gksrsA os dqN ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa gh lR; gksrs gSa
rFkk mu ds lR; gksus ds fy, ges'kk dksbZ vkdfLed dkj.k tqM+k jgrk gSA
vr% mu ij vk/kkfjr fu"d"kZ dsoy yxHkx lehiorhZ jgrs A gSa rFkk ,dne
lgh ,oa ;FkkrF; ugha gksrsA mudk lkoZHkkSfed mi;ksx ugha fd;k tk ldrkA
HkkSfrdh rFkk jlk;u'kkL= tSls 'kq) foKkuksa ds fu;e ç;ksx esa lkoZHkkSfed gksrs
gSaA -

4- lkaf[;dh;
fof/k;k¡ fdlh rF; rFkk leL;k dk vkSlr vkpj.k gh Li"V djrh gSaA vr%
,d dEiuh ds deZpkfj;ksa dh vkSlr vk; fdlh O;fDr fo'ks"k dh vk; dks
Li"V ugha djsxhA vr% lkaf[;dh; ifj.kke fdlh leL;k ;k - rF; ds lkekU;
ewY;kadu dk v/;;u djus esa gh mi;ksxh gSaA lkaf[;dh; fof/k fdlh leL;k
ds v/;;u dh fofHkUu fof/k;ksa esa ls ,d gSA ,d leL;k dk v/;;u vusd
fof/k;ksa }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gSA

5- lHkh ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa


lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ loksZÙke lek/kku ;k mÙkj çnku ugha djrha A çk;% ;g
vko';d gksrk gS fd ,d leL;k dk v/;;u mlds lkekftd ifjos'k] tSls &
laL—fr] /keZ vkfn ds lanHkZ esa fd;k tkrk gSA vr% lkaf[;dh; fu"d"kksaZ dks
vU; çek.kksa }kjk vuqiwfjr djus dh vko';drk iM+rh gSA

6- fofHkUu lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa dh


viuh ifjlhek,¡ gksrh gSaA ;fn mudk lko/kkuh ls ç;ksx u fd;k tk, rks
muls xyr ifj.kke fudy ldrs gSaA vr% lkaf[;dh dh ifjlhekvksa esa ls ,d
;g gS fd xyr gkFkksa esa bldk nq#i;ksx gks ldrk gSA ;g nq#i;ksx
vkdfLed ,oe~ ,sfPNd nksuksa gh gks ldrk gSA vusd ljdkjh ,tsafl;k¡ rFkk
'kks/k laLFkku vius –f"Vdks.k dks fl) djus ds fy, lkaf[;dh; vk¡dM+ksa ds
feF;k :i çLrqr djus ds fy, ykykf;r gks tkrs gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ;fn
15
vkidks ;g crk;k tk, fd ,d fo'ks"k o"kZ esa L=h pkydksa }kjk 'kgj esa dkj
nq?kZVukvksa dh la[;k 10 Fkh] rFkk iq:"k pkydksa }kjk ;g la[;k 40 Fkh rc
bl lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij vki bl fu"d"kZ ij igq¡p ldrs gSa fd fL=;k¡ lqjf{kr
okgu pkyd gSaA ;fn vki ;g fu"d"kZ fudkyrs gSa] rks vki bl lwpuk dk
xyr vFkZ yxk jgs gSaA lgh fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pus ds fy, vkids fy, nksuksa
çdkj ds okgu pkydksa dh dqy la[;k dk Kku gksuk vko';d gSA

Distrust of Statistics
lkaf[;dh foKku dh mi;ksfxrk rFkk egRo gksus ds ckotwn bls vfo'okl dh utj
ls ns[kk tkrk gSA çk;% bls ,sls O;fDr;ksa }kjk cnuke fd;k tkrk gS tks blds
okLrfod mís'; vkSj ifjlhekvksa dks ugha ---tkurs gSaA çk;% gesa fuEu çdkj ds
dFku lquus dks feyrs gSa] Þ>wB dh rhu Jsf.k;k¡ gksrh gSa & >wB] % lQsn >wB rFkk
lkaf[;dhA^^] ^^lkaf[;dh dqN Hkh fl) dj ldrh gSA^^] ^^lkaf[;dh dqN Hkh fl)
ugha dj ldrh^^A ^^lkaf[;dh lcls çFke Js.kh dk >wB gS^^ A ;s dFku lkaf[;dh esa
vfo'okl dh vfHkO;fDr gSaA lkaf[;dh esa vfo'okl ls gekjk rkRi;Z lkaf[;dh
leadksa] lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa rFkk Kkr fd, x;s fu"d"kksaZ esa gekjs fo'okl dh deh ls
gSA vki ;g ç'u iwN ldrs gSa fd lkaf[;dh esa vfo'okl D;ksa gksrk gS\ lkaf[;dh
esa vfo'okl ds dqN egRoiw.kZ dkj.k fuEufyf[kr gSa%

1- la[;kvksa ij vk/kkfjr rdZ vf/kd fo'oklksRiknd gksrs gSaA ijarq O;fDr fo'ks"k
dh bPNkuqlkj la[;kvksa esa gsj&Qsj fd;k tk ldrk gSA fdlh fo'ks"k –f"Vdks.k
dks fl) djus ds fy,] dHkh&dHkh rdksa dh xyr vk¡dM+ksa }kjk iqf"V dh tkrh
gSA

2- Hkys gh lgh la[;kvksa dk ç;ksx fd;k x;k gks] os v/kwjh gks ldrh gSa rFkk mUgsa
ikBd dks Hkzfer djus ds mís'; ls ,d fo'ks"k çdkj ls çLrqr fd;k tk
ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] lkQ ekSle ds fnuksa dh vis{kk dksgjs ds ekSle ds
fnuksa esa ;krk;kr nq?kZVuk,¡ de ikbZ tkrh gSaA blls ;g fu"d"kZ yxk;k tk
ldrk gS fd dksgjs ds ekSle esa okgu pykuk vf/kd lqjf{kr gSA ;g fu"d"kZ
xyr gSA lgh fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pus ds fy, gesa nksuksa çdkj ds ekSle esa
;krk;kr dh rhozrk ds] vUrj dks /;ku esa j[kuk gksxkA

3- lkaf[;dh; vk¡dM+ksa dks ns[kdj mldh xq.k dksfV dk irk ugha yxk ldrsA
dHkh&dHkh vutkus esa Hkh v/kwjs ;k v'kq) vk¡dM+ksa dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS
ftlls xyr fu"d"kZ çkIr gksrs gSaA

4- lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa dh viuh vyx ifjlhek,¡ gSaA vr% vuqla/kkudrkZ dks


mudk lko/kkuh ls ç;ksx djuk pkfg,A ijarq dHkh&dHkh lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡
mu O;fDr;ksa ds }kjk ç;ksx dh tkrh gSa ftUgsa mudk dksbZ Hkh Kku ugha gksrk
;k fQj cgqr de Kku gksrk gS A ifj.kkeLo:i] lgh rFkk iw.kZ lead gksus ij
Hkh xyr fof/k;k¡ viukus ds dkj.k xyr fu"d"kZ fudkys tk ldrs gSaA ;g
lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa dk nks"k ugha gS] ijarq mu O;fDr;ksa dk gS tks budk
mi;ksx djrs gSaA

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,d mnkgj.k ysdj ge bl fo"k; dk milagkj dj ldrs gSaA ekuk fd ,d cPpk
pkdw ls viuk gkFk dkV ysrk gSA ml cPps ds laj{kd pkdw dks nks"k nsuk çkjaHk
djrs gSa A ;gk¡ nks"k pkdw dk ugha gS cfYd cPps dk gS tks pkdw dk nq#i;ksx
djrk gSA ;g /;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr gS fd lkaf[;dh u rks dqN fl) djrh gS vkSj
u gh fdlh ckr dks vlR; çekf.kr djrh gSA lkaf[;dh rks dsoy ek= ,d lk/ku
¼vFkkZr~ fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pus dh fof/k½ gS] ftldk lko/kkuhiwoZd ç;ksx fd;k tkuk
pkfg, rFkk dsoy mUgha O;fDr;ksa }kjk fd;k tkuk pkfg, ftUgsa bl fo"k; dk Kku
gksA

Classification
According to Variables
vkadM+ksa dh mu vuqekU; fo'ks"krkvksa dks] ftUgsa la[;kRed :i esa çdV fd;k tk
lds] pj dgrs gSaA etnwjh] vk;q] Å¡pkbZ] Hkkj] vad] nwjh vkfn] pjksa ds mnkgj.k gSaA
tSlk fd vki tkurs gSa ;s lc pj ifjek.kkRed :i esa O;ä fd;s tk ldrs gSaA
oxhZdj.k ds bl :i esa] vkadM+kas dks vko`fÙk caVu ds :i esa fn[kk;k tkrk gSA
vko`fÙk caVu ,d ,slk lkjf.kd çLrqrhdj.k gS tks lkekU;r% vkadM+ksa dks oxksaZ esa
O;ofLFkr djrk gS rFkk bu oxksaZ esa ls çR;sd esa vkus okys çs{k.kksa dh la[;k
¼vko`fÙk½ dks fn[kkrk gSA vuqç;qä pjksa dh la[;k ds vk/kkj ij vko`fÙk caVu ds
rhu oxZ gksrs gSa % ¼1½ ,dpj ¼uni-variate½ vko`fÙk caVu] ¼2½ f}pj ¼bi-variate½
vko`fÙk caVu] rFkk ¼3½ cgqpj ¼multi-variate½ vko`fÙk caVuA

,dpj okys vko`fÙk caVu dks ,dpj vko`fÙk caVu dgk


tkrk gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, ,d d{kk ds fo|kfFkZ;ksa dks muds }kjk çkIr vadksa
ds vk/kkj ij oxhZ—r fd;k tk ldrk gSA

2- nks pjksa okys vko`fÙk caVu dks f}pj vko`fÙk caVu dgrs
gaSA ;fn ,d vko`fÙk caVu nks pjksa] tSls] lakf[;dh eas izkIr vad rFkk vk;q dks
n”kkZrk gS rks mls f}pj vko`fÙk caVu dgrs gSaA

lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk mi;ksx ;k rks cgqopu ds vfHkçk; esa fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj
;k ,dopu ds vfHkçk; esa A cgqopu esa lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk vFkZ rF;ksa ds
la[;kRed fooj.k ;k vk¡dM+ksa ;k leadksa ls gSA lkaf[;dh dgykus ds fy,
la[;kRed leadksa esa fuEufyf[kr y{k.k gksus pkfg,% ¼1½ ;s rF;ksa ds lewg gksus
pkfg,] ¼2½ ;s la[;kRed rF; lewg ;k vk¡dM+s vusd dkj.kksa }kjk çHkkfor gksus
pkfg,] ¼3½ ;s la[;kvksa esa O;Dr fd, tkus pkfg,] ¼4½ mudk vkx.ku ;k vkdyu
mfpr&Lrj dh ifj'kq)rk dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;k tkuk pkfg,] ¼5½ leadksa dks
iwoZfu/kkZfjr mís'; ds fy, mfpr <ax ls ,df=r fd;k tkuk pkfg, rFkk ¼6½
vk¡dM+ksa dks ijLij lacaf/kr :i esa çLrqr fd;k tkuk pkfg, A ,dopu esa tc
lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS rks bl dk rkRi;Z ml Kku&lewg ls gS
ftlesa ¼1½ laeadksa ds ladyu] ¼2½ leadksa ds oxhZdj.k rFkk lkj.kh;u] ¼3½ leadksa
ds çLrqrhdj.k] ¼4½ leadksa ds fo'ys"k.k] rFkk ¼5½ leadksa ds fuoZpu djus laca/kh
fuf/k;k¡ rFkk rduhdsa le>kbZ tkrh gSaA
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lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ ¼1½ fooj.kkRed lkaf[;dh] rFkk ¼2½ fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh esa
foHkkftr dh tk ldrh gSaA lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ ¼1½rF;ksa dks lgh :i esa çLrqr
djus] ¼2½ tfVy rFkk nq%lk/; leadksa dks ljy cukus½] ¼3½ rqyuk djus gsrq
rduhd çnku djus] ¼4½ fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa uhfr&fu/kkZj.k djus] ¼5½ fofHkUu rF;ksa ds
ijLij laca/k dks Kkr djus] ¼6½ Hkfo"; dk iwokZuqeku yxkus] ¼7½ ?kVuk dh
vfuf'prrk dks ekius] ¼8½ lkaf[;dh; ifjdYiuk dk lR;kiu djus] rFkk ¼9½
çkekf.kd fu"d"kZ Kkr djus esa lgk;d gksrh gSaA
lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ fofHkUu {ks=ksa tSls & jkT; ç'kklu] çcU/k vFkZ'kkL=] O;olk;
çcU/k vkfn esa mi;ksxh gksrh gSaA vkt ds O;olk; ds çcU/k djus dh tfVyrkvksa esa
mÙkjksÙkj o`f) ds ifj.kkeLo#i fu.kZ; ysus dh çfØ;k esa lkaf[;dh fof/k;k¡ cgqr
mi;ksxh rFkk lqfo/kktud lkfcr gks jgh gSaA fQj Hkh lkaf[;dh; çlk/kuksa ;k
fof/k;ksa ds ç;ksx dh dqN ifjlhek,¡ gSa A lkaf[;dh u rks xq.kkRed rF;ksa dk
v/;;u djrh gS vkSj u gh O;fDrxr bdkb;ksa dk A lkaf[;dh; fu;e ;FkkrF;
ugha gksrs vkSj mudk nq#i;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS] fo'ks"k :i ls tks lkaf[;dh;
fof/k;ksa ls vufHkK gS]a ds }kjk muds va/kk/kqa/k ç;ksx ds ifj.kkeLo#i yksxksa dk bl
ij ls fo'okl mB x;k gSA

,d ;k vf/kd pjksa ds ekiksa dk ldayuA


vk¡dM+ksa ds y{k.kksa ds laf{kIrhdj.k rFkk o.kZu djus dh
fof/k rFkk rduhdA
,slh fof/k;k¡ tks voyksfdr lead lewg ¼Observed data½
vFkkZr~ fun'kZu ds vk/kkj ij o`gr lead lewg ;k lexz ¼Unobserved data or
population) ds y{k.kksa ds laca/k esa fu"d"kZ Kkr djus esa lgk;d gksrh gSaA

la[;kRed ;k ek=kRed :i esa çLrqr lwpuk dks


lkaf[;dh; lead ;k vk¡dM+k dgk tkrk gSA rF;ksa ds lHkh la[;kRed fooj.k
lkaf[;dh ugha gSa ijarq lHkh lkaf[;dh; lead rF;ksa ds la[;kRed fooj.k gSa A
lead dgs tkus ds fy, la[;kRed fooj.kksa esa dqN y{k.k gksus vko';d gSA
fof/k;ksa rFkk fl)karksa dk ,d ,slk lewg tks la[;kRed
laeadksa ds-ladyu] laf{kIrhdj.k] o.kZu] fo'ys"k.k rFkk foospu esa lgk;d gksrk gSA
cgqopu esa ç;ksx fd, tkus ij bl 'kCn dk rkRi;Z rF;ksa ;k leadksa ds
la[;kRed fooj.k ls gSA ,dopu esa ç;ksx fd, tkus ij bldk rkRi;Z fof/k;ksa ds
ml lewg ls gS tks leadksa dk ladyu] fo'ys"k.k rFkk foospu djus ds lk/ku
çnku djrh gSaA -

1- i½ gk¡ ii½ ugha iii½ ugha iv½ gk¡


2- i½ ughaA mudh ifjHkk"kk vk¡dM+ksa ls lacaf/kr gSA
ii½ gk¡
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iii½ gk¡A çR;{k :i ls ugha] muds ifjek.ku ds i'pkr~ A
iv½ ugha A dqN vU; igy Hkh gSaA
v½ gk¡
vi½ ugha A os fun'kZu ls çkIr fu"d"kksaZ ls lexz laca/kh ifj.kke Kkr
djus dh fof/k;k¡ gSaA
2- i½ ugha A dqN vU; dk;Z Hkh gSaA
ii½½ gk¡ A lac) lead ¼vk¡dM+s½ ladfyr djdsA
iii½ ughaA lEHkkfork fl)kar rFkk iwokZuqeku dh fof/k;k¡ lgk;d gksrh
gSaA
iv½ gk¡A cgqr ls leadksa ¼vk¡dM+ksa½ dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
v½ ughaA lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa dk mi;ksx fd;k tk,xkA

1- lkaf[;dh dk Kku gksuk D;ksa vko”;d gS ?


2- ^^lkaf[;dh rF;ksa dk la[;kRed fooj.k gS] ijarq la[;kvksa esa O;Dr lHkh rF;
lkaf[;dh ugha dgykrs^^] foospuk dhft,A
3- lkaf[;dh ls vki D;k le>rs gS ? bldk vFkZ”kkL= rFkk O;olk; esa D;k
egRo gS ?
4- lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk dhft, rFkk lkaf[;dh ds fofHkUu dk;ksaZ dh foospuk
dhft,A
5- lkaf[;dh ds egRo dh foospuk dhft, rFkk lkaf[;dh dh ifjlhekvksa dks
Li"V dhft,A
6- lkaf[;dh ds vfo'okl ls vki D;k le>rs gSa\ D;k lkaf[;dh foKku blds
fy, ftEesnkj gS\

bu ç'uksa }kjk vkidks bl bdkbZ dh iBu lkexzh dks le>us esa lgk;rk
feysxhA bu ç'uksa ds mÙkjksa dks ewY;kadu ds fy, fo'ofo|ky; Hkstus dh
vko';drk ugha gS D;ksafd ;s dsoy vkids vH;kl ,oa iqujko`fÙk ds fy, fn,
x, gSAa

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