Unit 12
Unit 12
Unit 12
12-2 çLrkouk
12-2 lkaf[;dh dk vFkZ
12-2-1 cgqopu esa ç;qDr lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk
12-2-2 ,dopu esa ç;qDr lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk
12-3 fooj.kkRed rFkk fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh
12-4 lkaf[;dh ds dk;Z
12-5 lkaf[;dh dk egRo
12-6 lkaf[;dh dh ifjlhek,¡
12-7 lkaf[;dh ij vfo'okl
12-8 pjksa ds vk/kkj ij oxhZdj.k
12-9 lkjka'k
12-10 'kCnkoyh
12-11 cks/k ç'uksa ds mÙkj
12-12 Loij[k ç'u
5
fu.kZ; fy, tkrs gS] tks vkxs ykHk iznRkk dh vksj ys tkrs gSA izHkkoh fu.kZ; ysus ds
fy,] vkdM+s ,d /ofu vk/kkj iznku djrs gSA
lkaf[;dh (Statistics½ dksbZ ubZ fo/kk ugha gS] oju~ ;g bruh gh çkphu gS ftruh
ekuoh; fØ;k,¡A ijarq bl dh mi;ksfxrk dk {ks= yxkrkj c<+rk tk jgk gSA çkphu
le; esa bls Þ'kklu&dyk dk foKku^^ le>k tkrk Fkk rFkk jkT; dh ç'kklfud
fØ;k dk miksRikn le>k tkus ds dkj.k bl dk {ks= lhfer FkkA ml le; esa
ljdkj] ç'kklfud mís'; ls] tula[;k] tUe&e`R;q vkfn ds vfHkys[k j[krh FkhA
okLro esa vkaXy Hkk"kk ds 'kCn ^^LVsfVfLVDl^^ ¼Statistics½ dh mRifr ySfVu Hkk"kk ds
'kCn ^LVsVl^ (status½ ;k bVkyoh 'kCn ^^LVsfVLVk^^ ¼statista½ vFkok teZu 'kCn
ÞLVsfVfLVd^^ ¼Statistik½ ls gqbZ gS] ftu lHkh dk vFkZ Þjktuhfrd jkT;^^ ¼Political
State½ gSA vkt lkaf[;dh fof/k;ksa dk —f"k] vFkZ'kkL=] lekt'kkL=] O;olk;&çcU/k
vkfn fHkUu&fHkUu {ks=ksa esa O;kid :i ls ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl bdkbZ esa vki
lkaf[;dh dh ifjHkk"kk] fooj.kkRed rFkk fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh esa varj] lkaf[;dh
ds dk;ksaZ] lkaf[;dh ds egRo rFkk ifjlhekvksa rFkk lkaf[;dh ij vfo'okl dk
v/;;u djsaxAs
mijksDr lHkh dFku lkaf[;dh; fu’d’kZ gaSA ;s lkaf[;dh; dFku ikBdksa dks le>kusa
ds fy, cgqr lqfo/kktud izdkj ds lapkj (communication) gaS vkSj ml {ks= ls
lacaf/kr fof”k’V uhfr;ksa dks cukus esa Hkh enn djrs gSA
6
cgqopu esa ç;qDr lkaf[;dh dk vk”k; mu vkdM+kas ls gS tks fn, x, ifjfLFkfr
vFkok ?kVuk ls lacaf/kr gksA ;g xq.kkRed vFkok ifjek.kkRed gks ldrs gSaA
iii½ lkaf[;dh og foKku gS tks lkekftd O;oLFkk dks lEiw.kZ ekudj] mlds lHkh
:iksa dk ekiu djrk gSA
Ø‚DlVu rFkk d‚mMu ¼Croxton and Cowden½ us lkaf[;dh dh ljy rFkk laf{kIr
ifjHkk"kk nh gSA muds vuqlkj] Þlkaf[;dh dks la[;kRed leadksa ds ladyu]
çLrqrhdj.k] fo'ys"k.k rFkk fuoZpu ds :i esa ifjHkkf"kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA^^
lsfyxesu ¼Seligman½ }kjk nh xbZ-ifjHkk"kk Hkh bruh gh ljy ijarq O;kid gSA
muds vuqlkj] ^^lkaf[;dh og foKku gS ftldk laca/k leadksa ds ladyu] oxhZdj.k]
9
çLrqrhdj.k] rqyuk rFkk fuoZpu dh jhfr;ksa ls gS ftudks fdlh vuqla/kku&{ks= ij
dqN çdk'k Mkyus ds fy, ,df=r fd;k x;k gks^^A
mijksDr fiNyh nksuksa ifjHkk"kk,¡ dkQh lkjxfeZr rFkk O;kid gSa rFkk lkaf[;dh
fof/k;ksa ds {ks= dks Li"V djrh gSA lkaf[;dh foKku gesa ¼1½ leadksa ds ladyu] ¼2½
leadksa ds oxhZdj.k rFkk lkj.kh;u] ¼3½ leadksa ds çLrqrhdj.k] ¼4½ leadksa ds
fo'ys"k.k rFkk ¼5½ leadksa ds fuoZpu dh fof/k;ksa rFkk rduhdksa dh f'k{kk nsrk gSA
vki us lkaf[;dh ds vFkZ rFkk ifjHkk"kk dk v/;;u fd;k gSA vki us fooj.kkRed
rFkk fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh ds varj dks Hkh le>k gSA vkb,] vc ge lkaf[;dh ds
dqN egRoiw.kZ dk;ksaZ dh ifjppkZ djsaA
1- lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ lkekU; dFkuksa dks
laf{kIr rFkk fuf'pr :i esa çLrqr djrh gSaA mnkgj.kkFkZ] vki dg ldrs gSa
fd Hkkjr esa dikl dh vkSlr iSnkokj 180 fdyksxzke çfr gsDVs;j gSA ;g
dFku vf/kd laf{kIr rFkk çR;k;d gS ctk; ;g dgus ds fd Hkkjr esa dikl
dh vkSlr mit cgqr de gSA
2- lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ o`gr rFkk
tfVy leadksa dks cks/kxE; cukus ds fy, mUgsa ljy cukrh gSaA vifj"—r
lead çk;% nq:g rFkk vcks/kxE; gksrs gSaA tc rd mUgsa fdlh lkekU; y{k.kksa
ds vk/kkj ij oxhZ—r u fd;k tk; rc rd muds y{k.kksa dks le>uk eqf'dy
gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] vkidks ,d dkj[kkus esa dke djus okys 1000 Jfedksa dh
lkIrkfgd etnwjh nh xbZ gSA vki ds fy, mu leadksa ls dksbZ fu"d"kZ
fudkyuk rc rd vlEHko gksxk tc rd mUgsa oxhZ—r dj laf{kIr :i esa
fuEu çdkj çLrqr u fd;k tk,% -
11
lkIrkfgd etnwjh ¼#½ Jfedksa dh la[;k
600 ls de 100
600&700 200
700&800 400
800&900 200
900 ls vf/kd 100
=
çkphu dky esa lkaf[;dh dsoy 'kklu & dyk ds foKku ds :i esa gh ç;ksx dh
tkrh FkhA ç'kklkusd dk;ksaZ ds fy, jkT; }kjk tula[;k] thou ,oa e`R;q vkfn
fofo/k dk;ksaZ laca/kh vk¡dM+s ,df=r fd, tkrs Fks A rFkkfi] gky ds o"kksaZ esa]
lkaf[;dh dk {ks= c<+ x;k gS rFkk lkekftd rFkk vkfFkZd leL;k,¡ Hkh bl ds
dk;Z{ks= esa 'kkfey gks xbZ gSaA lkaf[;dh; rduhdksa esa gq, fodkl us Hkh blds {ks=
dks foLr`r dj fn;k gS A lkaf[;dh vc jkT;&ç'kklu dk vax ek= gh u gksdj
vkt yxHkx lHkh foKkuksa tSls&lkekftd] HkkSfrd rFkk çk—frd dks ifjosf"Vr
djrh gS A okLro esa vkt lkaf[;dh dk ç;ksx % fofHkUu {ks=ksa] tSls&—f"k] O;olk;
,oa m|ksx] lekt'kkL=] vFkZ'kkL=] thokafddh ¼biometry½ vkfæ esa fd;k tkrk gSA
vr% vktdy lkaf[;dh dk mi;ksx ekuoh; fØ;k ds çR;sd {ks= esa fd;k tkrk gSA
çkphu dky esa jkT;&ç'kklu dk dk;Z dsoy dkuwu vkSj O;oLFkk cuk;s j[kus rd
lhfer FkkA jkT; ¼lSfud rFkk jktLo uhfr fuekZ.k ds mís'; ls½ ekuo'kfDr]
vijk/kksa] vk; rFkk /ku vkfn laca/kh vk¡dM+s ,df=r djrs FksA ijarq dY;k.kdkjh
jkT; dh ifjdYiuk ds çknqHkkZo ds lkFk jkT; dh Hkwfedk esa Hkh foLrkj gqvk gS A
vr% leLr fo'o esa vkfFkZd rFkk vU; uhfr;k¡ cukus ds fy, ljdkjksa }kjk ewY;ksa]
mRiknu] miHkksx] vk; ,oa O;; vkfn laca/kh lkaf[;dh; vkadM+ksa dk ç;ksx i;kZIr
ek=k esa fd;k tkrk gSA viuh turk dk thou&Lrj Å¡pk djus ds fy,] Hkkjr
tSls fodkl'khy ns'k fu;ksftr vkfFkZd
fodkl dh uhfr viuk jgs gSaA bl mís'; ds fy, jkT; dks vius fu.kZ;ksa ds fy,
lkaf[;dh; vk¡dM+ksa ds lgh rFkk fo'oluh; fo'ys"k.k dks vk/kkj cukuk pkfg, A
mnkgj.kkFkZ] iapo"khZ; ;kstukvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs le; fofHkUu uhfr;ksa dk fu/kkZj.k
djus ds fy, ljdkj dks ns'k esa dPps eky] iw¡thxr oLrqvksa rFkk foÙkh; lk/kuksa
dh miyC/krk rFkk vk;q] fyax] vk; vkfn ds xq.kksa ds vk/kkj ij tula[;k ds
forj.k dk Kku gksuk pkfg,A
fofHkUu vkfFkZd leL;kvksa tSls] mRiknu] miHkksx] forj.k vkfn ds lek/kku esa
lkaf[;dh; fo'ys"k.k vR;f/kd mi;ksxh gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] miHkksx laca/kh leadksa ds
fo'ys"k.k ls lekt ds fofHkUu oxksaZ }kjk fofHkUu oLrqvksa ds miHkksx ds çk:i dk
Kku gks ldrk gSA fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds fu/kkZj.k ds fy, ewY;] etnwjh]
miHkksx] cpr rFkk fofu;ksx] vkfn laca/kh lead egRoiw.kZ gS A blh çdkj] vk; dh
fo"kerk de djus laca/kh uhfr cukus ds fy, jk"Vªh; vk; ,oa lEifÙk ij vk¡dM+s
mi;ksxh gSaA vFkZ'kkL= esa lkaf[;dh ds mi;ksx ds ifj.kke Lo:i vusd vkfFkZd
fl)kar] tSls ,safty dk miHkksx dk fu;e] vk;&forj.k dk fu;e vkfn cus gSa A
vkfFkZd fu;kstu esa lwpdkad] le; lkj.kh fo'ys"k.k] -
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çfrxeu fo'ys"k.k vkfn lkaf[;dh; rduhdsa egRoiw.kZ gSa A mnkgj.kkFkZ] etnwjksa dks
egxkbZ&HkÙkk ;k cksul nsus ds fy, miHkksDrk ewY; funsZ'kkad dk mi;ksx fd;k
tkrk gS A le; lkfj.kh fo'ys"k.k }kjk ek¡x dk iwokZuqeku fd;k tk ldrk gSA
vusd vkfFkZd ifjdYiukvksa ds lR;kiu ds fy, lkaf[;dh; A leadksa dk
vf/kdkf/kd mi;ksx fd;k tkus yxk gSA
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lkaf[;dh
la[;kvksa esa O;Dr rF;ksa ls laca/k j[krh gSA vr% os rF; rFkk leL;k,¡ tks
la[;kvksa esa O;Dr ugha dh tk ldrh] lkaf[;dh ds {ks= esa ugha vkrhaA
lqUnjrk] vk¡[kksa dk jax] cqf) vkfn xq.kkRed y{k.k gSa] vr% çR;{k :i esa
budk v/;;u ugha fd;k tk ldrk A bu y{k.kksa dk v/;;u dsoy ijks{k
:i ls] fof'k"V vad fu/kkZfjr djus ds i'pkr~ bUgsa la[;kvksa esa O;Dr djds gh
fd;k tk ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] ,d O;fDr lewg ds ckSf)d Lrj dk v/;;u
^^ckSf)d&Lrj&HkkxQy^^ ¼Intelligence Quotients-IQs) dk ç;ksx djds gh
fd;k tk ldrk gSA
2- lkaf[;dh dk laca/k
rF;ksa ds lewg ls gksus ds dkj.k] ,d vdsyh rFkk i`Fkd la[;k lkaf[;dh ugha
le>h tk ldrhA mnkgj.kkFkZ] lkaf[;dh ds –f"Vdks.k ls ,d O;fDr dk dn
egRoiw.kZ ugha] ijarq ,d O;fDr&lewg dk vkSlr dn egRoiw.kZ gSA bl lanHkZ
esa vki lsfØLV }kjk nh xbZ ifjHkk"kk iqu% Lej.k dj ldrs gSaA
4- lkaf[;dh;
fof/k;k¡ fdlh rF; rFkk leL;k dk vkSlr vkpj.k gh Li"V djrh gSaA vr%
,d dEiuh ds deZpkfj;ksa dh vkSlr vk; fdlh O;fDr fo'ks"k dh vk; dks
Li"V ugha djsxhA vr% lkaf[;dh; ifj.kke fdlh leL;k ;k - rF; ds lkekU;
ewY;kadu dk v/;;u djus esa gh mi;ksxh gSaA lkaf[;dh; fof/k fdlh leL;k
ds v/;;u dh fofHkUu fof/k;ksa esa ls ,d gSA ,d leL;k dk v/;;u vusd
fof/k;ksa }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Distrust of Statistics
lkaf[;dh foKku dh mi;ksfxrk rFkk egRo gksus ds ckotwn bls vfo'okl dh utj
ls ns[kk tkrk gSA çk;% bls ,sls O;fDr;ksa }kjk cnuke fd;k tkrk gS tks blds
okLrfod mís'; vkSj ifjlhekvksa dks ugha ---tkurs gSaA çk;% gesa fuEu çdkj ds
dFku lquus dks feyrs gSa] Þ>wB dh rhu Jsf.k;k¡ gksrh gSa & >wB] % lQsn >wB rFkk
lkaf[;dhA^^] ^^lkaf[;dh dqN Hkh fl) dj ldrh gSA^^] ^^lkaf[;dh dqN Hkh fl)
ugha dj ldrh^^A ^^lkaf[;dh lcls çFke Js.kh dk >wB gS^^ A ;s dFku lkaf[;dh esa
vfo'okl dh vfHkO;fDr gSaA lkaf[;dh esa vfo'okl ls gekjk rkRi;Z lkaf[;dh
leadksa] lkaf[;dh; fof/k;ksa rFkk Kkr fd, x;s fu"d"kksaZ esa gekjs fo'okl dh deh ls
gSA vki ;g ç'u iwN ldrs gSa fd lkaf[;dh esa vfo'okl D;ksa gksrk gS\ lkaf[;dh
esa vfo'okl ds dqN egRoiw.kZ dkj.k fuEufyf[kr gSa%
1- la[;kvksa ij vk/kkfjr rdZ vf/kd fo'oklksRiknd gksrs gSaA ijarq O;fDr fo'ks"k
dh bPNkuqlkj la[;kvksa esa gsj&Qsj fd;k tk ldrk gSA fdlh fo'ks"k –f"Vdks.k
dks fl) djus ds fy,] dHkh&dHkh rdksa dh xyr vk¡dM+ksa }kjk iqf"V dh tkrh
gSA
2- Hkys gh lgh la[;kvksa dk ç;ksx fd;k x;k gks] os v/kwjh gks ldrh gSa rFkk mUgsa
ikBd dks Hkzfer djus ds mís'; ls ,d fo'ks"k çdkj ls çLrqr fd;k tk
ldrk gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ] lkQ ekSle ds fnuksa dh vis{kk dksgjs ds ekSle ds
fnuksa esa ;krk;kr nq?kZVuk,¡ de ikbZ tkrh gSaA blls ;g fu"d"kZ yxk;k tk
ldrk gS fd dksgjs ds ekSle esa okgu pykuk vf/kd lqjf{kr gSA ;g fu"d"kZ
xyr gSA lgh fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pus ds fy, gesa nksuksa çdkj ds ekSle esa
;krk;kr dh rhozrk ds] vUrj dks /;ku esa j[kuk gksxkA
3- lkaf[;dh; vk¡dM+ksa dks ns[kdj mldh xq.k dksfV dk irk ugha yxk ldrsA
dHkh&dHkh vutkus esa Hkh v/kwjs ;k v'kq) vk¡dM+ksa dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS
ftlls xyr fu"d"kZ çkIr gksrs gSaA
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,d mnkgj.k ysdj ge bl fo"k; dk milagkj dj ldrs gSaA ekuk fd ,d cPpk
pkdw ls viuk gkFk dkV ysrk gSA ml cPps ds laj{kd pkdw dks nks"k nsuk çkjaHk
djrs gSa A ;gk¡ nks"k pkdw dk ugha gS cfYd cPps dk gS tks pkdw dk nq#i;ksx
djrk gSA ;g /;ku nsus ;ksX; ckr gS fd lkaf[;dh u rks dqN fl) djrh gS vkSj
u gh fdlh ckr dks vlR; çekf.kr djrh gSA lkaf[;dh rks dsoy ek= ,d lk/ku
¼vFkkZr~ fu"d"kZ ij igq¡pus dh fof/k½ gS] ftldk lko/kkuhiwoZd ç;ksx fd;k tkuk
pkfg, rFkk dsoy mUgha O;fDr;ksa }kjk fd;k tkuk pkfg, ftUgsa bl fo"k; dk Kku
gksA
Classification
According to Variables
vkadM+ksa dh mu vuqekU; fo'ks"krkvksa dks] ftUgsa la[;kRed :i esa çdV fd;k tk
lds] pj dgrs gSaA etnwjh] vk;q] Å¡pkbZ] Hkkj] vad] nwjh vkfn] pjksa ds mnkgj.k gSaA
tSlk fd vki tkurs gSa ;s lc pj ifjek.kkRed :i esa O;ä fd;s tk ldrs gSaA
oxhZdj.k ds bl :i esa] vkadM+kas dks vko`fÙk caVu ds :i esa fn[kk;k tkrk gSA
vko`fÙk caVu ,d ,slk lkjf.kd çLrqrhdj.k gS tks lkekU;r% vkadM+ksa dks oxksaZ esa
O;ofLFkr djrk gS rFkk bu oxksaZ esa ls çR;sd esa vkus okys çs{k.kksa dh la[;k
¼vko`fÙk½ dks fn[kkrk gSA vuqç;qä pjksa dh la[;k ds vk/kkj ij vko`fÙk caVu ds
rhu oxZ gksrs gSa % ¼1½ ,dpj ¼uni-variate½ vko`fÙk caVu] ¼2½ f}pj ¼bi-variate½
vko`fÙk caVu] rFkk ¼3½ cgqpj ¼multi-variate½ vko`fÙk caVuA
2- nks pjksa okys vko`fÙk caVu dks f}pj vko`fÙk caVu dgrs
gaSA ;fn ,d vko`fÙk caVu nks pjksa] tSls] lakf[;dh eas izkIr vad rFkk vk;q dks
n”kkZrk gS rks mls f}pj vko`fÙk caVu dgrs gSaA
lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk mi;ksx ;k rks cgqopu ds vfHkçk; esa fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj
;k ,dopu ds vfHkçk; esa A cgqopu esa lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk vFkZ rF;ksa ds
la[;kRed fooj.k ;k vk¡dM+ksa ;k leadksa ls gSA lkaf[;dh dgykus ds fy,
la[;kRed leadksa esa fuEufyf[kr y{k.k gksus pkfg,% ¼1½ ;s rF;ksa ds lewg gksus
pkfg,] ¼2½ ;s la[;kRed rF; lewg ;k vk¡dM+s vusd dkj.kksa }kjk çHkkfor gksus
pkfg,] ¼3½ ;s la[;kvksa esa O;Dr fd, tkus pkfg,] ¼4½ mudk vkx.ku ;k vkdyu
mfpr&Lrj dh ifj'kq)rk dks /;ku esa j[kdj fd;k tkuk pkfg,] ¼5½ leadksa dks
iwoZfu/kkZfjr mís'; ds fy, mfpr <ax ls ,df=r fd;k tkuk pkfg, rFkk ¼6½
vk¡dM+ksa dks ijLij lacaf/kr :i esa çLrqr fd;k tkuk pkfg, A ,dopu esa tc
lkaf[;dh 'kCn dk ç;ksx fd;k tkrk gS rks bl dk rkRi;Z ml Kku&lewg ls gS
ftlesa ¼1½ laeadksa ds ladyu] ¼2½ leadksa ds oxhZdj.k rFkk lkj.kh;u] ¼3½ leadksa
ds çLrqrhdj.k] ¼4½ leadksa ds fo'ys"k.k] rFkk ¼5½ leadksa ds fuoZpu djus laca/kh
fuf/k;k¡ rFkk rduhdsa le>kbZ tkrh gSaA
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lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ ¼1½ fooj.kkRed lkaf[;dh] rFkk ¼2½ fu"d"kkZRed lkaf[;dh esa
foHkkftr dh tk ldrh gSaA lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ ¼1½rF;ksa dks lgh :i esa çLrqr
djus] ¼2½ tfVy rFkk nq%lk/; leadksa dks ljy cukus½] ¼3½ rqyuk djus gsrq
rduhd çnku djus] ¼4½ fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa uhfr&fu/kkZj.k djus] ¼5½ fofHkUu rF;ksa ds
ijLij laca/k dks Kkr djus] ¼6½ Hkfo"; dk iwokZuqeku yxkus] ¼7½ ?kVuk dh
vfuf'prrk dks ekius] ¼8½ lkaf[;dh; ifjdYiuk dk lR;kiu djus] rFkk ¼9½
çkekf.kd fu"d"kZ Kkr djus esa lgk;d gksrh gSaA
lkaf[;dh; fof/k;k¡ fofHkUu {ks=ksa tSls & jkT; ç'kklu] çcU/k vFkZ'kkL=] O;olk;
çcU/k vkfn esa mi;ksxh gksrh gSaA vkt ds O;olk; ds çcU/k djus dh tfVyrkvksa esa
mÙkjksÙkj o`f) ds ifj.kkeLo#i fu.kZ; ysus dh çfØ;k esa lkaf[;dh fof/k;k¡ cgqr
mi;ksxh rFkk lqfo/kktud lkfcr gks jgh gSaA fQj Hkh lkaf[;dh; çlk/kuksa ;k
fof/k;ksa ds ç;ksx dh dqN ifjlhek,¡ gSa A lkaf[;dh u rks xq.kkRed rF;ksa dk
v/;;u djrh gS vkSj u gh O;fDrxr bdkb;ksa dk A lkaf[;dh; fu;e ;FkkrF;
ugha gksrs vkSj mudk nq#i;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS] fo'ks"k :i ls tks lkaf[;dh;
fof/k;ksa ls vufHkK gS]a ds }kjk muds va/kk/kqa/k ç;ksx ds ifj.kkeLo#i yksxksa dk bl
ij ls fo'okl mB x;k gSA
bu ç'uksa }kjk vkidks bl bdkbZ dh iBu lkexzh dks le>us esa lgk;rk
feysxhA bu ç'uksa ds mÙkjksa dks ewY;kadu ds fy, fo'ofo|ky; Hkstus dh
vko';drk ugha gS D;ksafd ;s dsoy vkids vH;kl ,oa iqujko`fÙk ds fy, fn,
x, gSAa
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