MOBILE RADIO PROPAGATION:

LARGE-SCALE PATH LOSS

ASST. PROF. DR. NEYRE TEKBIYIK ERSOY
 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
• The mobile radio channel places fundamental limitations on the
performance of wireless communication systems

• Mobile radio path is severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and

foliage,……………….

• Radio channels are extremely random and do not offer easy analysis

• The speed of motion impacts how rapidly the signal level fades as a
mobile terminals moves in the space

• Modeling radio channel is one of the most difficult part and typically
done in a statistical manner based on measurements
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms
 The physical mechanisms that govern radio propagation are complex and diverse,
but generally attributed to the following three factors:
RADİO PROPAGATİON MECHANİSMS
 Reflection
 Occurs when waves impinges upon an obstruction that is much larger in size
compared to the wavelength of the signal
 Example: reflections from earth and buildings
 These reflections may interfere with the original signal constructively or destructively
 Diffraction
 Occurs when the radio path between sender and receiver is obstructed by an
impenetrable body and by a surface with sharp irregularities (edges)
 Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments without a LOS path
 Scattering
 When the radio channel contains objects whose sizes are on the order of the
wavelength of the propagating wave & also when the # of obstacles are quite large.
 They are produced by small objects, rough surfaces and other irregularities on the
channel
 Follows same principles with diffraction
 Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many directions
 Lamp posts and street signs may cause scattering
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms
RADİO PROPAGATİON MECHANİSMS

transmitter R
Street
S
D
D

R: Reflection receiver
Building Blocks
D: Diffraction
S: Scattering
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms
 As a mobile moves through a coverage area, these 3 mechanisms have an impact
RADİO
on the PROPAGATİON
instantaneous MECHANİSMS
received signal strength.
 If a mobile does have a clear line of sight path to the base-station, than
diffraction and scattering will not dominate the propagation.
 If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction and scattering
will probably dominate the propagation.
 As the mobile moves over small distances, the instantaneous received signal will
fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale fading
RADİO PROPAGATİON MODELS
 The reason is that the signal is the sum of many contributors coming from
different directions and since the phases of these signals are random, the sum
behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading).
 In small scale fading, the received signal power may change as much as 3 or 4
orders of magnitude (30dB or 40dB), when the receiver is only moved a
fraction of the wavelength.
 As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over larger distances, the local
average received signal will gradually decrease. This is called large-scale path loss.
 Typically the local average received power is computed by averaging signal
measurements over a measurement track of 5l to 40l. (For PCS, this means 1m-
10m track)
 The models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary-receiver
transmitter (T-R) separation distance are called large-scale propagation models
 Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters
 SOME BASICS:
WHAT IS DECIBEL (DB)
 What is dB (decibel):
 A logarithmic unit that is used to
describe a ratio.
 Let say we have two values P1 and
P2.
 The difference (ratio) between
them can be expressed in dB and
is computed as follows:
 10 log (P1/P2) dB

 Example:
 Transmit power P1 = 100W
 Received power P2 = 1 W
 The difference is
10log(100/1) = 20dB.
 SOME BASICS:
DB
 dB unit can describe very big ratios with numbers of
modest size.
 See some examples:
 Tx power = 100W, Received power = 1W
 Tx power is 100 times of received power
 Difference is 20dB
 Tx power = 100W, Received power = 1mW
 Tx power is 100,000 times of received
power
 Difference is 50dB
 Tx power = 1000W, Received power = 1mW
 Tx power is million times of received
power
 Difference is 60dB
SOME BASICS:
DBM & DBW
 For power differences, dBm is used to denote a power level with respect to
1mW as the reference power level.
 Let say Tx power of a system is 100W.
 Question: What is the Tx power in unit of dBm?
 Answer:
 Tx_power(dBm) = 10log(100W/1mW) = 10log(100W/0.001W) =
10log(100,0000) = 50dBm
 For power differences, dBW is used to denote a power level with respect to
1W as the reference power level.
 Let say Tx power of a system is 100W.
 Question: What is the Tx power in unit of dBW?
 Answer:
 Tx_power(dBW) = 10log(100W/1W) = 10log(100) = 20dBW.
• Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
• Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model

• ht: the height of the transmitter

• hr: the height of the receiver
• Eo: the free space E-field (in units of V/rn) at a reference distance d0 from the
transmitter
• The electric field (at the receiver) at a distance d from the transmitter can be written
as
• Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model

Received power
at a distance d from
the transmitter
• Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model: Example
• A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station and uses a vertical λ/4 monopole
antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB to receive cellular radio signals. The E-field at 1 km
from the transmitter is measured to be V/m. The carrier frequency used for this
system is 900 MHz.
a) Find the length and the gain of the receiving antenna.
b) Find the received power at the mobile using the 2-ray ground reflection model
assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is 50 m and the receiving
antenna is 1.5 m above ground.
• Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model: Example
• Knife-edge Diffraction Model
• Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and
buildings is essential in predicting the field strength in a given service area.
• When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the
attenuation caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a
diffracting knife edge.
• Fresnel Zone Geometry
• The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path difference around an
obstruction is explained by Fresnel zones.
• Fig. demonstrates a transparent plane located between a transmitter and receiver.

• The concentric circles on the plane represent the loci of the origins of secondary
wavelets which propagate to the receiver such that the total path length increases
by for successive circles (Fresnel zones)
• The successive Fresnel zones have the effect of alternately providing constructive
and destructive interference to the total received signal.
• The radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by

Lets learn by an example…

• The excess total path length traversed by a ray passing through each circle is nλ /2,
where n is an integer.
The difference between the direct path and the diffracted
path, called the excess path length

Fresrtel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter

 SOME BASICS:
SIGNAL STRENGTH
 Measure signal strength in
 dBW = 10*log(Power in Watts)
 dBm = 10*log(Power in mW)
 802.11 can legally transmit at 10dBm (1W).
 Mobile phone base station: 20W, but 60 users, so 0.3W / user, but antenna has
gain=18, dBi (dB(isotropic) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with the
hypothetical isotropic antenna)
 SOME BASICS:
NOISE
 Interference
 From other users
 From other equipment
 E.g., microwave ovens 20dBm 50% duty-cycle with 16ms period.
 Noise in the electronics – e.g., digital circuit noise on analogue parts.
 Non-linearities in circuits.
 Often modeled as white Gaussian noise, but this is not always a valid
assumption.
SOME BASICS:
NOISE
 Thermal noise
 Due to thermal agitation of electrons. Present in all electronics and
transmission media.
 kT(W/hz)
 k Boltzmann’s constant = 1.3810-23
 T – temperture in Kelvin (C+273)
 kTB(W)
 B bandwidth
 E.g.,
 Temp = 293,=> -203dB, -173dBm /Hz
 Temp 293 and 22MHz => -130dB, -100dBm
 SOME BASICS:
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (SNR)
 SNR = signal power / noise power
 SNR (dB) = 10*log10(signal power / noise
power)
 Signal strength is the transmitted power
multiplied by a gain – impairments
 Impairments
 The transmitter is far away.
 The signal passes through rain or fog and the
frequency is high.
 The signal must pass through an object.
 The signal reflects of an object, but not all of the
energy is reflected.
 The signal interferes with itself – multi-path fading
 An object not directly in the way impairs the
transmission.
 SOME BASICS:
RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
 The received signal must have a strength that is larger than the receiver sensitivity
 20dB larger would be good
 E.g.,
 Mobile phone base station: -119dBm
 Mobile phone hand set: -118dBm
 SOME BASICS:
SIMPLE LINK BUDGET
 Determine if received signal is larger than the receiver sensitivity
 Must account for effective transmission power
 Transmission power
 Antenna gain
 Losses in cable and connectors.
 Path losses
 Attenuation
 Ground reflection
 Fading (self-interference)
 Receiver
 Receiver sensitivity
 Losses in cable and connectors
 3.5 Practical Link Budget Design using path
Loss Models
 Most RF propagation models are derived from combined
 (i) analytical studies
 (ii) experimental methods
 Empirical Approach – measured data is fitted to a curve or an analytical expression
 uses field measurements
 implicitly accounts for all factors (known and unknown)
 model generally not valid for all frequencies or environments

 Classical Models have evolved to predict large scale path loss

 used to estimate receive signal strength as a function of distance

 used along with noise analysis techniques used to predict SNR
 for RF mobile systems
3.5 Practical Link Budget Design using path
Loss Models
• Radio propagation models combine
– analytical method
– empirical method
• Log-distance Path Loss Model
– average received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance
• The average path loss
n
d 
PL (d )   
 d0 
or
d 
PL(d )(dB)  PL (d 0 )  10n log 
 d0 
3.5 Practical Link Budget Design using path
Loss Models
3.5 Practical Link Budget Design using path
Loss Models
SHADOWING
• Log-normal Shadowing
– Surrounding environmental clutter may be different at two different
locations having the same T-R separation.
• Measurements have shown that at any value d, the path loss PL(d) at a
particular location is random and distributed normally (normal in dB)
d 
PL(d )  PL(d )  X   PL(d 0 )  10n log   X 
 d0 
and
Pr (d )  Pt (d )  PL(d )
X  : zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with
standard deviation 
• The probability that the received signal level will exceed a certain
value  can be calculated from • The log-normal distribution
   Pr (d )  describes the random shadowing
Pr[ Pr (d )   ]  Q  effects which occur over a large
   number of measurement
where Pr (d )  Pt (d )  PL(d ) locations.
• n and σ are computed from
measured data
 3.10 Outdoor Propagation Model
• Estimating PL(d) requires terrain profile for propagation over irregular terrain
such as
• simple curved earth profile
• high mountains
• obstacles: trees, building,
• all models predict Pr(d) at given point or small area (sector)
• wide variations in approach, complexity, accuracy
• most based on systematic interpretation of empirical data
- Longely Rice
- Durkins Model
- Okumura Model
- Hata Model
- Wideband PCS Microcell
- PCS Extension to Hata Model
- Walfisch – Bertoni Model
3.10.3 Okumura Model – wholly based on
measured data - no analytical explanation
• Among the simplest & best for in terms of path loss accuracy in cluttered
mobile environment
• Disadvantage: slow response to rapid terrain changes
• Common std deviations between predicted & measured path loss  10dB -
14dB
• Widely used for urban areas
• Useful for
- frequencies ranging from 150MHz-1920MHz
- frequencies can be extrapolated to 3GHz
- distances from 1km to 100km
- base station antenna heights from 30m-1000m
Okumura developed a set of curves in urban areas with quasi-smooth terrain
• effective antenna height:
- base station hte = 200m
- mobile: hre = 3m
• gives median attenuation relative to free space (Amu)
• developed from extensive measurements using vertical omni-
directional antennas at base and mobile
• measurements plotted against frequency
Estimating path loss using Okumura Model

1. determine free space loss between points of interest

2. add Amu(f,d) and correction factors to account for terrain

L50(dB)= LF + Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA (3.80)

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)

LF = free space propagation loss
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment
• Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of frequencies

• antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB per decade or 10dB per decade for heights less
than 3 m

G(hte) =
hte 10m < hte < 1000m (3.81a)
20 log
200
h
G(hre) = 10 log re hre  3m (3.81b)
3
h
G(hre) = 20 log re 3m < hre <10m (3.81c)
3

• model corrected for

• h = terrain undulation height
• isolated ridge height
• average terrain slope
• mixed land/sea parameter
Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space = Amu(f,d) (dB)
Correction Factor = GAREA(dB)
L50(dB)= LF + Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA (3.80)
L50(dB)= LF + Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA (3.80)
 3.10.4 Hata Model:
• Empirical model of graphical path loss data from Okumura
• predicts median path loss for different channels
• valid over UHF/VHF band from 150MHz-1.5GHz
• charts used to characterize factors affecting mobile land propagation
• standard formulas for approximating urban propagation loss
• correction factors for some situations
• compares closely with Okumura model as d > 1km  large mobile systems
Parameter Comment
L50 50th % value (median) propagation path loss (urban)
fc frequency from 150MHz-1.5GHz
hte, hre Base Station and Mobile antenna height
 (hre) correction factor for hre , affected by coverage area
d Tx-Rx separation
L50 (urban)(dB) = A + B log10d (3.82)

A= 69.55 + 26.16 log10(fc) – 13.82 log10(hte) – (hre)

• represents fixed loss – approximately 2.6 power law dependence on fc

• dependence on antenna heights is proportional to hre1.382

B= 44.9 - 6.55 log10(hte)

• represents path loss exponent, worst case ≈ 4.5

L50 (urban)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16log10 fc – 13.82 log10 hte – (hre) + (44.9-6.55hte)log10 d

Mobile Antenna Height Correction Factor for Hata Model

 (hre) Comment Eq.

(1.1log10 fc - 0.7)hre – (1.56log10 fc - 0.8)dB Medium City 3.83
8.29(log10 1.54hre)2 – 1.1 dB Large City (fc  300MHz) 3.84a
3.2(log10 11.75hre)2 – 4.97 dB Large City (fc > 300MHz) 3.84b
Hata Model for Rural and Suburban Regions
• represent reductions in fixed losses for less demanding environments

L50 (dB) Comment Eq.

L50 (urban) - 2[log10 (fc/28)]2 – 5.4 Suburban Area 3.85
L50 (urban) - 4.78(log10 fc)2 - 18.33log10 fc - 40.98 Rural Area 3.86

Valid Range for Parameters

• 150MHz < fc < 1GHz Propagation losses increase
• 30m < hb < 200m • with frequency
• 1m < hm < 10m • in built up areas
• 1km < r < 20km
 3.10.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model
• European Co-operative Scientific & Technical (EUROCOST) formed COST-231
• Extend Hata’s model to 2GHz

L50 (urban)(dB) = 46.3 + 33.9logfc – 13.82 loghte – (hre) + (44.9-6.55hte)logd + CM

• (hre) defined in 3.83, 3.84a, 3.84b

• for medium sized cities CM = 0dB

• metropolitan centers CM = 3dB

fc = frequency from 1500MHz - 2 GHz

hte = 30m-200m
hre = 1m-10m
d = 1km-20km
 3.10.6 Walfisch & Bertoni Model
path loss: S = P0Q2P1 (3.89)

  
2
P0 =   (3.90)
 4R 
P0 = free space path loss between isotropic antennas
Q2 = reduction in rooftop signal due to row of buildings that
immediately shadow hill
P1 = based on diffraction  determines signal loss from
roof top to street

S (dB) = L0 + Lrts + Lms (3.91)

L0 = free space loss
Lrts = roof-to-street diffraction & scatter loss
Lms = multi-screen diffraction loss from rows of building
 3.11 Indoor Propagation Model
• smaller Tx-Rx separation distances than outdoors
• higher environmental variability for much small Tx-Rx separation
- conditions vary from: doors open/closed, antenna position,
- variable far field radiation for receiver locations & antenna types
• strongly influenced by building features, layout, materials
• Dominated by same mechanisms as outdoor propagation (reflection,
refraction, scattering)
• Classified as either LOS (Line-of-sight) or OBS (Obstructed)
• Surveyed by [Mol91], [Has93]
- Partition Losses – Same Floor
- Partition Losses – Different Floor
- Log-distance path loss model
- Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
- Attenuation Factor Model
Partition Losses – Same Floor
• hard partitions: immovable, part of building
• soft partitions: movable, lower than the ceiling

Partition Losses – Different Floor: dependent on external building

dimensions, structural characteristics & materials

Log-distance path loss model: accurate for many indoor paths

d 
PL(dB) = PL (d 0 )  10n log    (3.93)
 d0 

• n depends on surroundings and building type

•  = normal random variable in dB having std deviation 
• identical to log normal shadowing mode (3.69)
 Attenuation Factor Model
• includes effect of building type & variations caused by obstacles
• reduces std deviation for path loss to   4dB
• std deviation for path loss with log distance model  13dB
d 
PL (d ) (dB)  PL (d 0 ) (dB)  10nSF log   FAF (dB)   PAF (dB) 3.94
 d0 
nSF = exponent value for same floor measurement – must be accurate
FAF = floor attenuation factor for different floor
PAF = partition attenuation factor for obstruction encountered by primary ray tracing

primary ray tracing = single ray drawn between Tx & Rx yields good accuracy
with good computational efficiency

PAF(1)
Tx PAF(2)
FAF
Rx
 Replace FAF with nMF = exponent for multiple floor loss
d 
PL( d ) (dB )  PL( d0 ) ( dB )  10nMF log     PAF ( dB ) 3.95
 d0 
 decreases as average region becomes smaller-more specific
Building Path Loss
• Obeys free space + loss factor ()
loss factor increases exponentially with d
• (dB/m) = attenuation constant for channel
d 
PL(d ) (dB )  PL( d0 ) (dB )  20 log    d  FAF (dB )   PAF (dB ) 3.96
 d0 
4-story bldg
f 
850MHz 0.62
1.7GHz 0.57
2-story bldg
f 
850MHz 0.48
1.7GHz 0.35
Attenuation Factor Model (Measurements)
Attenuation Factor Model (Measurements)
Attenuation Factor Model (Related Tables)
Attenuation Factor Model (Related Tables)
Attenuation Factor Model (Example)