Introduction to Computers

Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . 3
Data Representation in a Computer . . . . 3
Time in the Computer World . . . . . 4
Computer Generations . . . . . . 4
Chapter 2
Computer Hardware . . . . . . . 8
Peripheral Devices . . . . . . . 8
The Storage Pyramid. . . . . . . 16
The central processing Unit. . . . . . 18
Computer Performance. . . . . . . 17
Types of Instructions. . . . . . . 18
The Clock . . . . . . . . 18
Memory Measurement . . . . . . 19
Categories of Computers . . . . . . 19
Selecting Computer Technology . . . . . 21
Chapter 3
Computer Software . . . . . . . 22
System Software . . . . . . . 22
Application Software . . . . . . 26
Database and File Systems . . . . . . 32
Database Structures . . . . . . . 36
Chapter 4
Data communications and Networks . . . . 39
Networks Components. . . . . . . 39
Peer to Peer model . . . . . . . 40
Client server model . . . . . . . 41
Network Topologies. . . . . . . 41
Network Types . . . . . . . 45
Developments in Information Technology. . . . 50
Data and Information Movements . . . . . 51
Chapter 5
Computer Security . . . . . . . 52
Security in Architecture . . . . . . 54
Chapter 6
Computer Viruses . . . . . . . 57
Computer Virus Symptoms. . . . . . 58
How Viruses Spread. . . . . . . 58
Help Prevent Computer Viruses . . . . . 59
Chapter 7
Data Protection Act And legal Issues . . . . 60

1
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 8
Computer Ergonomics Health and Safety . . . . 63
Computer Related Injuries . . . . . . 63
Chapter 9
Introduction to MS-DOS . . . . . . 69
Essential Components of DOS . . . . . 69
The BIOS . . . . . . . . 70
Simple MS_DOS Commands . . . . . 77
References . . . . . . . . . 96

2
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Information Technology

Information Technology focuses mainly on the equipments that make computer data
processing & communication possible. It looks at the equipment that is used in data
capture, processing, output, storage and communication. It is a convergence of different
technologies designed to achieve common goals. In the broadest sense, information
technology refers to both the hardware and software that are used to store, retrieve, and
manipulate information. Information technology (IT) is "the study, design,
development, implementation, support or management of InfoTech". Information
technology is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce,
manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information.

1.1.2 Computer
A computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and
provides output in a useful format. It does all that it does by following a program stored
in its own memory (the store program concept). Although mechanical examples of
computers have existed through much of recorded human history, the first electronic
computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). These were the size of a
large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers
(PCs). Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times
more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple
computers are small enough to fit into small pocket devices, and can be powered by a
small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age
and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers
found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial
robots are the most numerous.

1.2 Data representation in a computer

Everything in a computer, from the biggest supercomputer to the smallest handheld
machine, is ultimately reduced to a series of zeros and ones. The words you see on this
page are nothing more than combinations of zeros and ones when they reach the brains of
the computers. That's because the processor in any computer only understands whether
the signal is turned off - 0 - or on - 1. Each zero or one is called a bit. Combinations of
eight of these zeros and ones are bytes and represent one character. You see the character
"A" (has code 65 in denary format); the computer sees 01000001.

Combinations of zeros and ones are converted to languages that we can understand
through the use of the EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) or
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).

1.3 Time in the Computer World

If you can be invited to a competition of blinking eyes. Most computers will win the
game, as the average Pentium IV processor is capable of 2.4 billion blinks a second!

3
 Introduction to Computers

There is literally nothing you can do faster than the typical computer. Computers operate
on nanoseconds (billionth of a second). You just can't beat them. And every year they get
faster and faster, and able to process more and more operations per second. Every time
we think manufacturers have maximized the computer's capabilities, they surprise us and
create even faster, more powerful machines.

1.4 Computer Generations

A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of a product. This
term is also used in the different advancements of computer technology. With each new
generation, the circuitry has significantly changed both in size and design than its
predecessor

1.4.1 The First Generation: 1946-1958 (Vacuum Tube Age)

The first generation computers were huge, slow, expensive, and unreliable. Required a lot
of power to run and produced so much heat that adequate air conditioning was critical to
protect the parts from overheating. The computers occupied large space some were as big
as a house! They could consume electricity that could probably light the whole of a
suburb. The weight was at the region of 20 tons.

General Features of First Generation Computers

 Computers in this generation did from 2 000 to 16 000 additions per second
 Had main memory from 128 bytes to 2 kilobytes (2 048 bytes)
 All computers of this generation used vacuum tubes to perform calculations
 Vacuum tubes are expensive because of the amount of materials and skill needed
to make them.
 Vacuum tubes get hot and burn out light an incandescent light bulb.
 All computers in this generation were very large machines
 Needed special rooms to house them with air conditioning because of the heat
generated by the vacuum tubes
 All required specially trained technicians to run and maintain them
 The software used in this generation was unsophisticated and machine oriented.
(Machine language programming) The programmers had to keep track of where
the instructions and data were stored in memory. Using assembly language was
efficient for the computer and difficult for the programmer.
 Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on
printouts.

The ENIAC used thousands of vacuum tubes, which took up a lot of space and gave off a
great deal of heat just like light bulbs do. The ENIAC led to other vacuum tube type
computers like the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) and the
UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).

1.4.2 The Second Generation: 1959-1964 (Transistor Era)

Computers of this generation were characterized by transistors, which replaced vacuum
tubes. These transistors were much smaller and gave off virtually no heat compared to
vacuum tubes. The use of transistors increased the switching speed(speed of processing)

4
 Introduction to Computers

of the computers and were long lasting and reliable as well. Storage improved with the
introduction of magnetic disk storage and magnetic cores for main memory. High speed
card readers, printers and magnetic tapes were also introduced. The measure of time was
in microseconds. Just the same as first generation, a particular computer was designed to
process either scientific or business oriented problems but not both. Programming the
computer improved from machine language to Assembly language. This allowed the
programmers to use mnemonics (natural language like instructions) operation codes for
instruction operation and symbolic names for storing variables. Compilers (more natural
language like instruction) were also introduced.

General Features of the Second Generation

 Smaller, Faster, More reliable, Much cheaper to build than the First Generation of
computers.
 Used transistors instead of vacuum tubes for performing calculations
 6,000 to 3,000,000 operations per second.
 6 kilobytes to 1.3 megabytes of main memory.
 Contained in four cabinets about 6 feet high by 4 feet wide, each weighing 250
pounds.
 Computers become common in larger businesses and universities.
 Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts
for output.
 Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words.

1.4.3 The Third Generation: 1965-1970 (Integrated Circuits Era)

Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in advancing the computer. However no
one could predict that thousands even now millions of transistors could be compacted in
such a small space. The integrated circuit, or as it is sometimes referred to as
semiconductor chip, packs a huge number of transistors onto a single wafer of silicon.
Placing such large numbers of transistors on a single chip reduced the physical size and
also the processing spewed on the other hand lowering the cost.

The third generation computers could carry out instructions in billionths of a second
(nanoseconds) New mass storage, such as the data cell, was introduced during this
generation boosting storage capacity to megabytes. Drum and disk capacity and speed
was improved. Portable disk pack and high-density magnetic tapes came into use.
Applications using online processing, real-time processing, time-sharing, multiprocessing
and teleprocessing became widely accepted.

General Features of The Third Generation

 Used integrated circuits - many transistors on one piece of silicon
 Computers became: Smaller, Faster, More reliable, Lower in price
 Size of a stove or refrigerator, some can fit on desktops
 Can do 100,000 to 400,000,000 operations per second
 Computers become very common in medium to large businesses

5
 Introduction to Computers

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with the third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory and input-output devices. Computers for the first
time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than
their predecessors

1.4.4 The Fourth Generation: 1971-Today (Microprocessor Era)

This generation can be characterized by both the jump to monolithic integrated circuits
(millions of transistors put onto one integrated circuit chip) and the invention of the
microprocessor. By putting millions of transistors onto one single chip more calculation
and faster speeds could be reached by computers. Because electricity travels about a
30cm in a single nanosecond the smaller the distance the greater the switching speed

However what really triggered the tremendous growth of computers and its significant
impact on our lives is the invention of the microprocessor. Intel Corporation Company
invented a chip the size of a pencil eraser that could do all the computing and logic work
of a computer. The microprocessor was made to be used in calculators, not computers. It
led, however, to the invention of personal computers, or microcomputers. On the other
side the Motorola started producing the MC68XX series of microprocessors. This led to
the development of the Apple Macintosh computers, which is a competitor to Intel
Corporation.

General Features of Fourth Generation Computers

 Used large scale to very large scale integrated circuits
 More than one IC on a silicon chip
 Can do more than one function
 Computers become smaller, faster, more reliable, and lower in price
 Can do 500,000 to 1,000,000,000 operations per second
 Computers become very common in homes and business
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs (Graphic User Interface), the mouse and
handheld devices.

1.4.5 Fifth Generation Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

The development of the next generation of computer systems is characterized mainly by
the acceptance of parallel processing. Until this time parallelism was limited to pipelining
and vector processing. The fifth generation saw the introduction of machines with
multiple processors that could all be work on different parts of a single program.

The major thrust of this generation was based on Artificial Intelligence. Voice
recognition, machine vision, and machine perception. Computers that could recognize
and respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

6
 Introduction to Computers

This present generation has platform from the many gains in parallel computing, both in
the hardware area and in improved understanding of how to develop algorithms to exploit
diverse, massively parallel architectures. Parallel systems now compete with vector
processors in terms of total computing power and most expect parallel systems to
dominate the future!

1.4.6 Future Computer Generations

 Hard to Predict
 It will become lower in price
 Computers will become smaller and faster
 Computers will have larger memories and more storage space
 Computers will become an integral part of everyone's life
 Computer technology and the World Wide Web will greatly reduce the distance
between people and cultures in the world
 People will connect to information at any place or time
 Libr@rm5s @nd othev ylfïrm#tio~ 2gñrces wiìl #lways be ote~"
 Cal|"phone technohow{ wyl,(,dt…you ãnn¨ect"tg!infosmeti-n`anE peopla qly
where"
 Knmpu|eRw$W{nd)FEwmmm siall Enough to Ueis, tae„pec`lO`ngy is anrm`dy
being derd|éPeä0-Råcearch hó¤b'ing done to find`thD4B5ùD àü!k' to put0c/epu|
eVw0qo they!wíll not inter&erD witi phebbody's movem%nt
 THa cmmputer will always b$)óìph yo} Tk help you$i~"taóksn
communicatu,`ind`fiOD é~&orLaTiï~

to c}mm|!5p Uhe de4elotmults cnl!advancement in computer$tuahnolKgé2j`{¥in store

PCV¤[ VE computing("gblrE$eueþx|hIjg will be"ciqable of sensing, acting, feeling anl
K+MiTnicatinG. Vor ex!mpM- SFenari/s!Vìere a to9 c@n provide"c`hldrEn féðhbwater
to drink, #o}G/zt 4heL when crying, pla9 aOd help theM ä 0t(mir
homewoSk$chkuxf0`e"cgmmën. AkcO~dIêg 6o webopedia.com0p¥zv#sirÅ4á-opet)fg is
“@l÷o called ubiquiToõc computinf,¤pervasive computine ab 4`e result of cmmxtte2
tDahfnlogy advafcIjg at`exQoneftIel speeds - a trefd7poward all man-made an` cmma
~ctwrim products having hardware and software”.

Pervasive computing goes beyond the realm of personal computers: it is the idea that
almost any device, from clothing to tools to appliances to cars to homes to the human
body to your coffee mug, can be imbedded with chips to connect the device to an infinite
network of other devices. The goal of pervasive computing, which combines current
network technologies with wireless computing, voice recognition, Internet capability and
artificial intelligence, is to create an environment where the connectivity of devices is
embedded in such a way that the connectivity is unobtrusive and always available.

7
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 2

2.1 Computer Hardware

Hardware refers to the physical objects that you can actually touch, like disks, disk
drives, display screens, keyboards, printers, boards, and chips. The physical parts, which
you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware.

Computer System
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part
called the "computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together to
achieve a specific objective. A computer system has basically five (5) classes or
categories of essential components or elements i.e. input devices, CPU output devices,
secondary storage and primary storage.

Fig. 1 Computer System

2.2 Peripheral Devices

A peripheral is a device that can be attached to a computer (and therefore be used by it).
Most peripherals require particular interfaces (i.e. connection types) and use specialized
signaling and fast protocols to allow rapid data interchange. A protocol is a set of
instructions that governs communication between devices. Peripheral devices can be
grouped into two categories; input devices and output devices.

2.2.1 Input Devices

These are devices that facilitate communication between the user and the computer. They
get data into the computer. Data input into the computer can be of the following forms:
 Manual inputs from a keyboard, speaker, scanner, headmaster or console

8
 Introduction to Computers

 Analogue inputs from instruments or sensors

 Inputs from sources where data has previously been stored like magnetic disks,
optical discs, or cartridges.

Keyboard
There are many alternatives to keyboard layouts. These are distinguished by the
arrangement of letters on the keys. The common layout is the QWERTY. Looking at any
keyboard and checking the arrangement of letters, the probability that the arrangement of
letters is following a QWERTY format is very high. The notable alternative to the
QWERTY layout is the DVORAK layout, which has proved to allow much faster speeds
with a higher degree of accuracy. However this is not common as many users are already
familiar with QWERTY.

Mouse
Allows the recording of relative positions, used to control a number of graphical pointing
devices, One, two or three buttons are common.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

Human readable characters are printed on documents using magnetized ink. This device
reads the documents into the computer system.

Optical Mark Reader

Documents written by making black marks on paper are read into the system. The value
or meaning of a mark is unique to the particular type of document. The marking of Grade
Seven National Examination scripts is done using an OCR.

Joy Stick
Used mainly for interacting with games, the joystick allows the recording of relative
movements in any direction, along with the transmission of game switches.

Digitizing/Graphics Tablet
Graphic artists usually find a Mouse to be an unnatural drawing tool. A pressure sensitive
surface that can be drawn on using a stylus is a popular alternative. Digitising tablets are
able to translate the relative position of the stylus into a set of XY coordinates that can
then control a pointing device on a graphical system.

Scanner
Flat-Bed and Hand Held scanners are common and are, available in monochrome and full
colour. Mono scanners sample the image they are given at pre-determined resolutions;
producing a stream of binary data that breaks the image into scan lines of pixels. Colour
scanners typically scan the image taking 3 or 4 readings at a time, each pass detecting the
relative intensities of each of the colours RED, GREEN, BLUE, then combining that data
into a colour image bit stream for display.

9
 Introduction to Computers

Digital Scanner
Digital scanner technology extends far beyond the page scanners attached to personal
computers or used in offices. The scanners grocery stores use at the checkout counter are
a great example of this technology. Bar Code Readers are also typical of the ability of
technology to increase human productivity. (eg SHOPRITE and MACRO) The biggest
benefit of this technology lies in the fact that input errors are greatly reduced. The
computer reads what is there and processes it. If an error occurs, which does happen in
groceries about 5 % of the time, it isn't because of the computer. It's because the human
programming the computer made a mistake.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

Banks have used magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) technology for years to
process checks. If you still receive cancelled checks from your bank, take a look at the
bottom right hand corner of the check. You'll notice that the amount of the check and the
date it was processed is imprinted in block style numbers. The computer added this
information to ensure that your account was properly credited.

Microphone
Sound cards are capable of sampling audio data at very high rates, converting analogue
sound waves into digital sound bytes. Microphones can be used in the place of mice and
other input devices for those with mobility problems, for dictation and music mixing etc.

Voice Recognition
The latest trend for input devices is voice recognition. This technology allows you to put
data into a computer using a combination of a microphone headset and software on your
computer that recognizes your voice. You speak into the microphone and the software
interprets your voice and records your words. You can also use this technology to execute
commands on your computer, such as "Save this file" or "Print this document."

The software associated with voice recognition technology is very complex because no
two people speak alike. We all have accents, voice inflections, slang words, or even
colds that change the tone of our voice. When you initially use voice recognition
software, you have to "train" the computer to recognize your voice and all of its
characteristics. It typically takes 2 to 3 hours for the initial training with additional
training as you continually use the software. In essence, you build your own dictionary of
words that are unique to you.

Touch Screens
Touch screens are also becoming more common for general usage. Touch screens have
been used in ATM banking machines for years. Now they are coming to a screen near
you – cell phone, computer, television or other household appliances.

2.2.2 Output Devices

Output information is made available in three forms:

10
 Introduction to Computers

 Displayed information: codes, numbers, words, or symbols presented on a display

device like a Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) or Liquid Crystal Display(LCD)
 Control signals: information that operates a control devices, such as a lever,
aileron, or actuator
 Recordings: information that is stored in a machine language or human language
on tapes, disks, or printed media

The Visual Display

The most common output device is the monitor or VDU which produces a soft copy of
the work produced on a computer. It displays the results of processing, and responses by
the computer. Modern monitors are usually Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) or Thin Film
Transistors (TFT) monitors. Older monitors are Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors.

The Printer
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on paper. It produces a hard
copy of work produced on a computer.

Types of Printers

Printers can be divided into two main groups, impact printer and non-impact printer.
Impact printer produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print head strike the ink
ribbon by physically contacting the paper. Non-impact printer produces text and graphics
on paper without actually striking the paper.

Printers can also be categorized based on the print method or print technology. The most
popular ones are inkjet printer, laser printer, dot-matrix printer and thermal
printer. Among these, only the dot-matrix printer is an impact printer and the others are
non-impact printers.

Some printers are named because they are designed for specific functions, such as photo
printers, portable printers and all-in-one/multifunction printers. Photo printers and
portable printers usually use inkjet print method whereas multifunction printers may use
inkjet or laser print method.

 Laser printers are quite expensive to buy and run but produce a high quality
output and are quiet and fast.
 Ink-jet printers offer black and white or colour printing with reduced levels of
quality and speed. Colour ink jet printers are cheaper to buy than colour laser
printers.
 Dot matrix printers are not so common today. They are comparatively noisy and
low quality but are cheap to run and are used when carbon copies or duplicates
need to be made, such as for wage slips. Also, they are useful in dirty
environments such as a garage because they are much sturdier than the other two
types of printer.

11
 Introduction to Computers

Plotters

A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings. They
are usually used for Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacture
(CAM) applications, such as printing out plans for houses or car parts.

2.2.3 Secondary Storage

Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage, is all data storage that is not
currently in a computer's primary storage or memory. It is a permanent storage location
for both programs and data. An additional synonym is external storage. In a personal
computer, secondary storage typically consists of storage on the hard disk and on any
removable media, if present, such as a CD or DVD. The following are some secondary
storage devices:

USB Flash Memory

It is a small, portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s USB port and
functions as a portable storage device. USB flash drives are easy-to-use as they are small
enough to be carried in a pocket and can plug into any computer with a USB drive. USB
flash drives storage capacity varies but they are smaller than external hard drives. They
are smaller and more durable because they do not contain any internal moving parts.

USB flash drives also are called thumb drives, memory sticks, jump drives, pen drives,
key drives, tokens, or simply USB drives.

Floppy Disk

Fig. 7 Diskettes

A reusable magnetic storage medium introduced by IBM in 1971. It was called a floppy
because the first varieties were housed in bendable jackets. Woefully undersized for
today's use, it is no longer standard equipment on computers. However, until the early

12
 Introduction to Computers

1990s, the floppy was the primary method for distributing software and was widely used
for backup. By the mid-1990s, it had mostly given way to the CD-ROM.

Also called a "diskette," the floppy is a flexible circle of magnetic material similar to
magnetic tape, except that both sides are used. The drive grabs the floppy's center and
spins it inside its housing. The read/write head contacts the surface through an opening in
the plastic shell or envelope. Floppies rotate at 300 RPM, which is from 10 to 30 times
slower than a hard disk. They are also at rest until a data transfer is requested. Following
are the three types developed, from newest to oldest, and their raw, uncompressed storage
capacity.
Housing Capacity
3.5" rigid 1.44MB
3.5" rigid 2.88MB
5.25" flexible 1.2MB
8" flexible 500KB

Although floppy disks look the same, what is recorded on them determines their capacity
and compatibility. Every new floppy must be "formatted," which records the sectors on
the disk that hold the data.

Hard Disks
These are permanent storage devices. Hard disks are much faster and provide much
greater storage than floppy disks. They are used to store programs and large amounts of
data. The data is stored in circular tracks which are concentric tracks subdivided into
units called sectors. The capacity can range from several Megabytes to more than a
hundred Gigabytes.

When you save data or install programs on your computer, the information is typically
written to your hard disk. The hard disk is a spindle of magnetic disks, called platters,
that record and store information. Because the data is stored magnetically, information
recorded to the hard disk remains intact after you turn your computer off.

The hard disk is housed inside the hard drive, which reads and writes data to the disk.
The hard drive also transmits data back and forth between the CPU and the disk. When
you save data on your hard disk, the hard drive has to write thousands, if not millions, of
ones and zeros to the hard disk. It is an amazing process to think about, but may also be a
good incentive to keep a backup of your data

RAID - Redundant Array of Independent Disks in some literature it is referred to as.

Redundant Array of Inexpensive Devices. Hard disks are relatively cheap, must be
backed-up in case of crashes, and present a bottleneck for some applications in terms of
the speed at which data can be read off disk, arrays of redundant disks, often with
multiple disks have all or part of the same data, can be used to improve the data transfer

13
 Introduction to Computers

rate, decrease the seek time, and automatically backup data. RAID can provide up to
more than 7 Terabytes of storage capacity.

The advantage of multiple disks is that if any single disk fails, the data is transferred to a
neighboring disk (concept of disk mirroring) and the system continues to operate without
loss of data. It supports hot swapping. Multiple disks can be accessed simultaneously
which makes reading from and writing to the RAID system very fast. Hard disks provide
bulk storage of data. However for offline storage magnetic tapes, floppy disks, opto-
magnetic disks can be used. These can be evaluated using the following, data access
speed, storage capacity, reliability, data transfer rate, cost per storage unit etc.

Optical Disks
While floppy and hard disks use magnetic charges to represent data and programs, optical
storage uses reflected light there are two types of optical disks:

Compact Discs
Compact Disc; most commonly used optical disc. The typical capacity is 650 MB. There
are three basic types:
i. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): Used to distribute large
databases, references, archival and application packages
ii. CD-R: also known as WORM (Write Once, Read Many) used to create custom
music CDs and to archive data
iii. CD-RW: reusable; used to create and edit large multimedia presentations

Digital Versatile Discs

Digital Versatile Disc; also known by the acronym DVDs are high capacity storage
devices. The typical capacity of DVD is 4.7 Gigabytes for a single layer single side
device. There are three basic types:
i. DVD-ROM: used to distribute full-length feature films with theatre quality video
and sound
ii. DVD-R: expected to replace CD-R as prices decline
iii. DVD-RAM and DVD-RW: reusable DVDs used to develop very large-scale
multimedia projects.

Magnetic Tape
Sequential-access storage medium, used to back up or duplicate data and programs
There are two types:
Magnetic Tape Streamers: Known as backup tape cartridge units, they use tape cartridges
to back up hard disks in microcomputers. DAT (digital audiotape) is a high capacity,
advanced technology for magnetic tape
Magnetic Tape Reels: Used to back up minicomputer and mainframe storage devices.
The tape is run on magnetic drives or magnetic tape units

2.2.4 Primary Storage

14
 Introduction to Computers

Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the main area in a computer
in which data is stored for quick access by the computer's processor. On today's smaller
computers, especially personal computers and workstations, the term random access
memory (RAM) - or just memory. Primary memory is divided into two types: the
Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Is volatile which means that the lifetime of the data is dependent on the power. If the
power is turned off or lost temporarily, its contents will be lost forever. This is the
memory used to store temporarily data and instructions waiting to be processed and the
intermediate results of processing. Data and instructions may be fetched from secondary
storage and placed on this memory type before processing. It can also store results before
they are sent to the output devices.

Every time you use a personal computer, the Operating System software and
Applications software that you use must be moved from the hard drive (secondary
storage) to the primary storage area called Random Access Memory (RAM).

If your personal computer starts to run slower and slower over time, it could be because
your programs are requiring more space in the RAM memory than you have available.
The slang term is "RAM Cram." That is, you are trying to cram too many instructions
into too little RAM and your computer just slows down as it moves instructions back and
forth between primary and secondary storage. Sometimes, instead of buying a whole new
computer, you can significantly improve the performance of your current computer by
increasing the amount of RAM. It's relatively cheap and easy to do so.

Features of RAM
 It holds data and programs that are currently in use.
 It a very limited capacity
 It is volatile i.e. it only holds data while the power is on.
 Data can be read and written to.
 It is the main part of primary memory.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Is the part of the computer that holds instructions necessary to start your computer. The
instructions located in this part of the computer are set when your computer is built, and
you can't change them. That's why it's called "Read Only." ROM chips are used in more
products than just computers: cars, hand-held calculators, microwave ovens, stereos,
alarm clocks, and cellular telephones have them. Most of these chips are either of the
PROM or EPROM sub-class of ROM chips.

ROM memory is non-volatile. It has the ability to retain data and programs forever, even
after a power failure. The data and instructions necessary when the power is first
switched on are usually stored in ROM.

15
 Introduction to Computers

Features of ROM

 It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are retained even when the power is lost.
 It is used during start up (Basic Input/Output System- BIOS)
 It contains some device drivers
 It is a small portion of Main memory.

2.3 The Storage Pyramid

The relationship between storage devices, their costs and the storage capacities can be
best illustrated by the storage pyramid below:

Registers

Access Speed RAM Storage capacity

cost increase increases

Disks

Tapes

Fig 9. Storage Pyramid

2.4 The Central processing Unit (CPU)

The Processor
The processor as its name suggests is the unit that does the work of the computer system
i.e. it executes computer programs. Software is composed of instructions, which are
executed (obeyed) by the processor. These instructions tell the processor when and what
to read from a keyboard; what to display on a screen; what to store and retrieve from a
disk drive and so on. A computer program is a set of such instructions that carries out a
meaningful task. A processor can do arithmetic, compare numbers and perform
input/output (read information and display or store it) operations. It has no magical
powers.

2.4.1 CPU Components

The basic CPU components are the (ALU) and the control unit (CU). The ALU carries
out arithmetic operations (e.g. addition and subtraction) and logical operations (e.g.
AND, or OR) while the CU controls the execution of instructions. With the advent of
microprocessors, the term MPU or microprocessor unit is also used. A microprocessor is
simply a processor contained on a single silicon chip.

16
 Introduction to Computers

In addition to the ALU and CU, the processor has a small number (usually less than 100)
of storage locations (REGISTERS) to store information that is currently being processed.
Depending on the processor, a register may typically store 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. The
register size of a particular processor allows us to classify the processor. Processors with
a register size of n-bits are called n-bit processors, so that processors with 8-bit registers
are called 8-bit processors, similarly there are 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit processors. An n-
bit processor is said to have an n-bit word size so a 32-bit processor has a 32-bit word
size. The greater the number of bits the more powerful the processor is, since it will be
able to process a larger unit of information in a single operation. For example, a 32-bit
processor will be able to add two 32-bit numbers in a single operation whereas an 8-bit
processor will only be able to add two 8-bit numbers in a single operation. An n-bit
processor will usually be capable of transferring n-bits to or from memory in a single
operation. This number of bits is also referred to as the memory word size. On some
machines a word is taken to mean a 16-bit quantity and the term long word is used to
refer to a 32-bit quantity.

2.4.2 Control Unit

The control unit can be likened to an opera director. It directs operations to be carried out
by the ALU. Each programmed instruction, when executed, causes the control unit to
energize certain control lines, enabling the computer to perform the function or operation
indicated by the instruction.
The program may be stored in the internal circuits of the computer (main memory), or it
may be read instruction-by-instruction from auxiliary storage.

2.4.3 Arithmetic-Logic Unit

The arithmetic & logic unit performs all arithmetic operations adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing. Through its logic capability, it tests various conditions
encountered during processing and takes action based on the result. Specifically, data is
transferred as needed from the internal storage section to the arithmetic-logic section,
processed, and returned to the main storage section. Data may be transferred back and
forth between these two storage sections several times before processing is completed.
The results are then transferred from main storage to an output unit.

2.4.4 Registers
In computer architecture, a processor register (or general purpose register) is a small
storage location available on the CPU whose contents can be accessed more quickly than
storage available elsewhere. Typically, this specialized storage is not considered part of
the normal memory range for the machine. Most, but not all, modern computers adopt the
so-called load-store architecture. Under this concept, data is loaded from some larger
memory — be it cache or RAM — into registers, manipulated or tested in some way
(using machine instructions for arithmetic/logic/comparison) and then stored back into
memory, possibly at some different location. Processor registers are at the top of the
memory hierarchy, and provide the fastest way for a CPU to access data.

17
 Introduction to Computers

2.5 Computer Performance

The performance of a computer in terms of processing speed related to:
 Processor Chip Type
Usually the performance of a computer is related to the processor chip type , with
more advanced chips giving an improved performance. Early processor chips
were known as 8086, 286, 386 and 486. They are all now obsolete and have been
superseded by a Pentium chip. A Pentium is certainly faster that the different
“86s”.
 Primary Memory Size (RAM Size)
It is very important to ensure that the computer has enough primary memory size,
i.e. RAM size. If there is adequate RAM, and the computer is well configured, it
will be fast and can run many programs concurrently without running out of
memory.
 Clock Speed
Obviously, the more cycles per second, the more actions that the CPU can carry
out. The speed of the clock is measured in millions of cycles per second

2.6 Types of Instructions

 Arithmetic instructions - Combine two pieces of data to form a single piece of

data using one of the arithmetic operations.

 Logic instructions – Logic instructions transform the digital computer into a

system that is more than a high-speed adding machine. Using logic instructions,
the programmer may construct a program with any number of alternate sequences.
For example, through the use of logic instructions, a computer being used for
maintenance inventory will have one sequence to follow if the number of a given
item on hand is greater than the order amount and another sequence if it is
smaller. The choice of which sequence to use will be made by the control section
under the influence of the logic instruction. Logic instructions, thereby, provide
the computer with the ability to make decisions based on the results of previously
generated data. That is, the logic instructions permit the computer to select the
proper program sequence to be executed from among the alternatives provided by
the programmer.

 Control instructions These instructions are used to send commands to devices

not under direct command of the control unit, such as input/output units or
devices.

2.7 The Clock

The clock controls the rate at which, activities are carried out by the CPU. It
generates a stream of cycles or ticks and an action can only be carried out on the
occurrence of a clock tick. Obviously, the more cycles per second, the more
actions that the CPU can carry out. The speed of the clock is measured in millions
of cycles per second. One cycle per second is one Hertz (Hz), a kilohertz (KHz) is
1000Hz, a megahertz (MHz) is 1000 KHz and a gigahertz is 1000 MHz.

18
 Introduction to Computers

Currently, PCs are being marketed with clock rates ranging from 2 to 4 GHz and
the rate continues to increase.

2.8 Memory Measurement

A bit is the smallest element of data storage. Bits grouped together form a byte.
With the ASCII code 8 bits make a byte. For example when you type the letter
“a” the computer will understand it as a combination of zeros and ones, e,g,
01100001. The following indicate the relationship between the different data
units:

Bit = 1 or 0
Byte = 8 bits
Kilobyte = 1024 bytes
Megabyte = 1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte = 1024 megabytes
Terabyte = 1024 gigabytes

2.9 Categories of Computers

 Supercomputers: Largest computers employing parallel processing. Used in

situations where the power of mainframes would be inadequate. The National
Weather Service uses a supercomputer to store models of weather patterns to help
predict storms or sunny days.
Some years ago a computer called "Big Blue," manufactured by IBM, played a
series of chess games against Garry Kasparov, the greatest chess player in human
history. The interesting part of this match lies in the fact that the computer used a
technology called parallel processing. That is, it had thousands of processors
working together to calculate each move it would make and the countermove
Kasparov would make. Kasparov, on the other hand, was only using one
processor - his brain - to calculate all the moves by both sides. Kasparov actually
beat the computer for a few rounds but ultimately lost the match. It's fascinating
to think that the computer, able to process millions and millions of instructions
per second, had to use all of its strengths and massive parallel processing to
outwit a person using one single processor.

 Mainframes: These are the huge computers housed in very large rooms. Until the
mid-1970s they were the only computers available. With the invention of the
mini-computer and later the personal computer, many people said mainframes
were too big, too expensive, and not needed anymore. The Internet and the advent
of computer networks literally saved the mainframe from oblivion. Mainframes
have the necessary power and speed to process millions of transactions from the
Internet and networks and have the storage capacity needed for all the data
captured and processed by larger Information Systems. America Online, the
largest Internet Service Provider in the world in the 90s, used many mainframes
connected together to process all the transactions across its network and to

19
 Introduction to Computers

provide Internet access to the 17 million users who subscribed to the AOL
service. How many subscribers have ZOL, ECOWEB, ZARnet, TELCONET?

 Minicomputers: Mini-computers have less power and capacity than a mainframe

but more than a personal computer. They are normally used by smaller
companies. Now they are used in smaller networks that don't require the power
and speed of mainframes. While they are still useful in many cases, they are
sometimes replaced by more powerful workstation and personal computers that
are connected to emulate the power of a mini-computer.

 Workstation computers: The workstation computer can be easily confused with

a personal computer (PC) because it is configured much the same way. However,
this computer has more computing capacity in its CPU than a typical personal
computer. Scientists and engineers are the main users of workstations, although
people who process graphics (or pictures) find a workstation necessary, since the
processors can handle the huge amounts of data associated with graphic files.

 Personal computers: While this class of computer used to be called a

microcomputer, and sometimes still is, that label gives a false impression of what
the machine can do. The prices of PCs have dropped drastically over years, while
computing capacity and power have continued to increase. Many small businesses
find it cheaper and easier to connect multiple PCs to form a small network than to
purchase more expensive equipment. In the UK they say they are more people
with computers that those with pets.

 Laptop Computers.
Laptop computers were designed to facilitate the computing needs of mobile users
or users who are in transit. A laptop is a computer, which integrates screen,
keyboard, secondary storage and motherboard in one single piece, a single
portable case. Battery power supply is used to power the laptop computers during
outreach programs or field surveys where there is no electrical power supply.
However the lifespan of laptop batteries are short ranging from one to ten hours.
They also run on adapters that are used to charge laptop batteries, the same
technique that is used to charge cell phone batteries. Laptop computers are
smaller than desktop computers and usually weigh about one to three kilograms.

They are called laptops because they can be placed on one’s lap and operated with
ease. However agronomists believe that the use of laptops in this manner cause
one to be impotent. They argue that the amount of heat produced can make one
sterile. Studies have been conducted in the past to determine whether the concerns
of agronomists are valid. Unfortunately the results are, thus far, inconclusive. This
is a very interesting topic to health professionals which are encouraged to further
this research and come up with conclusive results.

20
 Introduction to Computers

2.10 Selecting Computer Technology

 Compatibility
The non availability of hardware procurement standards will lead to departments
buying different set of hardware, which are incompatible. As a result
organizations may lose money trying to make one system to work with the other.
It is also costly to have different hardware systems, as they require different
expertise to run and maintain them.
 Availability Of Spare Parts
It is important to ensure there spare parts available. At the same time the
maintenance of inventory parts will be expensive in terms of the amount of
storage space that will be required. When one range of compatible hardware
components is carried, a small space may be required to warehouse parts;
otherwise a bigger one may be required.
 Reliability
In general most computer systems are faulty. Users should exercise extreme
caution when buying cutting edge technology, which has not been tried and
tested. It is very dangerous to use a hardware system that is fresh from the
designer’s workshop. This type of hardware should be avoided at all costs. Some
may argue that to be first is a competitive strategy that gives early starters an edge
over those who adopt a wait and see strategy, however proper planning remains
the sole key to success.
 Expandability.
Organizations should buy hardware components that facilitate future growth.
They should buy hardware components that can be upgraded in future with ease.
They should go for hardware components which allow new components to be
added on, as a way of increasing the usefulness of the system at the same time
increasing the life span of hardware components. Expandable systems may
facilitate future growth and improvement in hardware at a minimal cost and
disruption to the organisational activities.
 After Sales Service
It is also important to ensure that supplier offers a good after sales service,
especially if the equipment is highly specialized and expensive.
 Availability Of Documentation
User and technical manuals are a very vital part of equipment. Ensure that the
documents are available and are in a language that is understood by the users. It
will be foolish to buy equipment and then discover that the manuals are in
Chinese when you do not understand it.

21
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 3

3.0 Computer Software

Computer software is a listing of detailed instructions that are used to instruct hardware
components and other software components on how tasks could be executed. Computer
software could be described as a “ blood” of a computer system. It is generally used to
interface hardware components with users. It coordinates hardware components so that
they can work together efficiently. Computer software is also designed to schedule
computer processing and jobs to optimize the use of hardware. There are basically three
types of computer software, these are: System Software, Application Software and
Development Software.

3.1 Systems Software

A series of computer programs which control the operation of the computer itself.
Application programs such as GIS software run under an operating system. Examples of
operating systems include MS Windows 95, MS Windows NT, UNIX, VMS, DOS and
OS/2.The systems software is designed to manage a number of computer resources
including computer hardware. They coordinate, monitor, and schedule the processing and
use of computer resources. System software acts as a linkage between computer systems
and application programs. System software is designed and implemented by systems
programmers. Figure 6.1 models a kind of a relationship that exist between different
computer systems. Systems software does include different types of programs such as;
operating system software, translators, system utility software, database management
software, and communication software.

Fig. 10 Relationship Between Hardware And Software

3.1.1 Operating Systems (OS).

An OS is composed of a number of programs that manage and control computer
resources such as peripheral devices, CPU, Main Memory, Disks, USB flash Memory,
and Tapes. The operating system should be loaded into main memory before the
computer could be used. By and large OS coordinates computer resources by scheduling

22
 Introduction to Computers

jobs to be processed, allocating memory to processes, and giving a user some feedback
on the status of a job being processed. Following is simple list of operating system
functions:

Functions Of An Operating System

 It provides an interface between the computer and the user.
 It manages the flow of information in the computer.
 It directs information to appropriate destinations
 It keeps a record of all saved files, their names, location, and size
 It establishes a relationship between hardware and software
 It controls the running of other programs.
 Usage logging. It keeps a log or record of all activities that take place within the
system.

The following are programs that make up the OS; job management programs, supervisory
programs, and input/output programs.

3.1.2 Supervisory programs.

Supervisory programs form the heart of the operating system. They are the set of
instructions responsible for the management of computer hardware components and other
computer resources. The supervisory programs can be in turn be classified into two
categories; the resident and transient programs. The resident programs (kernel) are
programs that are kept loaded in the main memory and they reside in the internal
memory. They are responsible for the start up procedures and the loading of other
programs. The transient programs are stored in the secondary memory, the hard disks and
are quickly transferred to the main memory immediately they are needed. If they are not
required they are kept in the secondary memory.

 Job management Programs.

Job management programs are responsible for the selection, initiation,
termination, and scheduling of jobs meant to be processed. They maximize the
efficiency in which computer resources are used and how processing is
performed. They seek to optimize the use of computer resources and also ensure
that they are shared by many array of jobs and processes.

 Input/Output Management programs.

These system programs are responsible for input and output requirements. They
assign input and output resources to programs. They also do transfer data between
the CPU, main memory, and other computer hardware resources such as printers,
terminal, and disk drives.

 Resources Management Programs

 Multiprogramming
Operating systems do allow a number of jobs or processes to be executed
seemingly at the same time by allowing different data sets and programs to

23
 Introduction to Computers

reside in memory at the same time in separate memory partitions. The

available memory is divided into a number of different partitions and each
partition will be allocated to a given job. This technique is known as
multiprogramming. Input/output operations are slower than the CPU, hence
while a given job is still waiting inputs, it gets suspended and a ready job will
be processed to ensure that the CPU does not lie idle. The speed of data access
from a hard disk is measured in milliseconds yet the speed of a CPU is
measured in nanoseconds, thereby giving other jobs amply time be processed
while the suspended job waits for inputs. Multiprogramming is only possible
with computers that are multi users, that is they allow more than one person to
use the system at the same time.

 Multitasking
However some computers are single user. Single user computers can also
implement a form of “multiprogramming” called multitasking using
multitasking operating systems. Multitasking is where a given user can run
many independent programs or application on the same computer with
different windows being displayed on the screen. There will be a foreground
task, the active task, the background task, which is not active, and a several
intermediate tasks. Users can switch from one task to the other using a
combination of hot keys or simple clicking on a task button on the task bar.
The process of switching between several active tasks is called task switching.

 Time Slicing
An alternative to multi programming is time slicing where each program is
given a fixed time slot once it elapses it is moved out of memory to wait for
its next time slot. The difference between multiprogramming and time slicing
are the factors that determine when a job is supposed to be moved out of
memory. In time slicing, it is the elapse of the permitted time slot regardless
of whether the processing is complete or not. Whereas in multiprogramming it
is as a result of a logical input delay encountered, otherwise a job can be
processed to completion without interruption. It should be noted that a given
CPU will always process only one job at any given time and there is no way
they can process many jobs simultaneously.

 Multiprocessing
Computers with more than one CPU can process jobs and tasks
simultaneously through multiprocessing and parallel processing techniques.

3.1.3 Utility Programs.

System utilities are set of programs that users find useful in executing common or routine
tasks. They are designed to handle repetitive tasks such as sorting, searching, listing,
merging, copying, pasting, deleting, cutting, diagnosis, formatting, file viewing, file
saving, and directory programs.

24
 Introduction to Computers

3.1.4 Translators.
Language translators are used to convert developed programs into computer or machine
language. The examples are: assembler, compiler, and interpreter. They consists of
library programs and linkage editors whose definitions, and use is beyond the scope of
this course synopsis.

3.1.5 Communication Software.

Communication software is a type of system software that handles the electronic
communication needs. It is an extension of an operating system and it provides additional
instructions meant to control a number of communications equipments, including
terminals and computers. Communication software monitors communications,
equipments, lines, and manages traffic on communication lines. It logs and analyzes
communication traffic, and does diagnosis all communication problems. It also
supervises all communications with remote sites or terminals. They are designed to
permit a connection between devices and to allow them to “ talk” , and thereafter it
disconnects the established communication session.

3.1.6 Database Management Systems Software.

Database Management System (DBMS) is another form of system software which is
regarded by some computer experts as an extension of operating system, but the
relationship seem to be very remote. The DBMS is designed to handle records and files.
It facilitates quick retrieval of data, ensures data and program independence. It is also
designed with a view of reducing data redundancy, data duplication, and improving
security of data and programs.

3.1.7 User Interface/Operating Environments.

Operating systems do communicate with users through a number of user interfaces
ranging from the most difficult to use and understand to user friendly user interfaces. A
user interface is the communication window through which user can communicate with
the computer systems and place their requests for processing by a computer. There are
about five user interfaces and these are; command line, graphical, windowing, dynamic
data interchange, and desktop organizers.

 Command Line Interface/Environment.

It makes use of the system prompt as a media for communication with users.
Users have to know all the valid commands and their meaning before keying the
commands on the prompt for any request to the system. However such systems
are no longer common. Operating systems such as DOS, UNIX, and Linux do
offer a command line interface. Communication between a user and an operating
system is largely carried out through a keyboard.

 Graphical User Interface/Environment.

Graphical User Interface, GUI (pronounced as gooey) is a user friendly interface
system that is preferred by a number of computer novices. It uses self explanatory
icons, dialogue boxes, a variety of menus (pop up, drop down), buttons, scroll
bars, and pointers in place of difficult and hard to remember commands. Instead

25
 Introduction to Computers

of keyboarding commands users move around a pointer on the screen and click on
programs to activate them. The process of finding a desired data, file or program
through the use of a pointer thereafter activating it by clicking on it may be
loosely described as “ Point and Shoot” process. Some operating systems use
touch screen systems where users simple touch a desired icon on the screen using
either a light pen or a finger to activate it. Research is on going to come up with
systems that can be activated using voice. One has to mention the name of the file
to run it using voice recognizers.

3.1.8 Features of a good User Interface

User interface enables communication between the user and the computer. A good
interface should have the following characteristics:

 It should be user-friendly, allowing the user to do basic operations without

referring the manual.
 It should be attractive enough to encourage the user to use it. A user should not be
put off or discouraged by the user interface.
 It must be effective and deliver exactly what it purports to deliver. The user
should not be given surprises.

3.2 Application Software.

Application program are designed to perform specific tasks or solve specific business
problems. They are referred to as user systems or user oriented systems, systems that are
used by users to interface with the operating system. Examples of application systems
are: Spreadsheet programs, Word processors, Presentation programs, Database
Management Systems, payroll, Hospital Information Systems, and many more. These
application tools are developed by application programmers and they are known by
different names depending on their purpose and who developed them and for which
group of people. For example, there are general purpose/off the shelf and customized
software/tailor made or bespoke applications.

3.2.1 Computer Packages.

Computer packages are developed systems that are readily available for use by
organizations whose specifications of desired systems meet the ones offered by a vendor
of a computer package. The systems are bought off the shelf and are usually industry
specific so as to take advantage of economies of scales. Computer packages are
developed by software houses, which have highly skilled and experienced software
developers. Computer packages are an alternative to constructing a tailor made company
specific Information System.

 General Purpose Software is referred to as packaged or off-the-shelf software.

Software packages are software tools designed to support a number of
organizations in a particular industry. They tend to be generic in nature catering
for industry needs instead of specific needs of a given company. They are cheaper

26
 Introduction to Computers

as compared to customized software due to production costs that are spread over a
number of copies produced.

 Tailor Made Or Customized Software is produced specifically for a given

client and for use by that client. The production costs are going to be absorbed by
one client and is never distributed over a number of clients. This type of
application system is said to be customized in the sense that it is tailor made to
suit the specific needs of a given organization. Customized software is developed
by in house programmers or can be developed by an external company whereas
the general purpose software is developed by commercial software houses.

Advantages of Packages.
 They are readily available.
 They are cheaper.
 They are more reliable.
 Offer excellent documentation.
 Offer after sales support and training.
 A long-term relationship can be easily cultivated.
 A company benefits from yearly upgrades and enhancements.
 They are less risky as they are rigorously tested through beta testing.
 They are developed by highly skilled and experienced developers.
 Cutting edge technology is used.
 They can be easily customized.
 Organization owns and controls the system.
 They are easy to understand.
 Their interface is standardized and their look and feel is also standardized.

Disadvantages of Packages.
 May not be compatible with already installed systems.
 May not be compatible with the operating system.
 May fail to meet the needs and the objectives of the organization.
 Not designed to meet specific requirements of a given organization.
 Does not recognize specific organizational policies, and standards.
 Modifications are very expensive.
 Annual License fees are heavy and are paid in hard currency.
 Organization has no control over the system

Advantages of Tailor Made Software

 The user is involved during the design and development so user needs tend to be
well captured.
 Designed to give the perfect fit.
 Test runs can be done before the commissioning.
 Compatibility with other existing systems is
 Organization owns the software and the rights there off.
 Can be modified as and when there is need.

27
 Introduction to Computers

Disadvantages of Tailor Made Software

 Expensive as cost are not spread among.
 It is not tried and tested like other software.
 If not properly done it may lack proper and important documentation.

3.2.1 Examples Of General Purpose/Off The Shelf Software

 Word processing Software.
Word processing software is a software which is used for the production of
documents. It permits users to create, edit, print, and store textual material. They
are used to write letters, memorandum, reports, and other similar documents.
Word processing software offer a variety of integrated tools to facilitate the
production of documents of high quality. These include; grammar checkers,
formatting tools, spell checkers, footnote managers, thesauruses, table of contents
managers, page numbering tools, columns, tables, document merging tools, search
tools, end notes managers, and many more. Word processors do increase the
productivity of clerical, administrative staff and other word processing users such
as typo crafters or typesetters. E.g. MS-Word, WordPerfect, WordStar etc.

 Spreadsheet.
A spreadsheet is sometimes called a worksheet. it is an electronic version of a
ledger sheet. It is made up of rows and columns which are labeled using numbers
and letters The columns are labeled with alphabetic letters whereas rows with
numeric data. It is designed to manage and to manipulate numeric data. A
spreadsheet uses a set of inbuilt formulas to perform calculations. There are also
inbuilt formulas that perform basic functions such as summing, computing an
average, maximum, minimum and counting entries etc. Spreadsheet programs can
also recalculate automatically range of cells once data entries have been changed
within a given range with a formula. Formatting tools can be used to enhance the
appearance and outlook of the spreadsheet. Data can also be represented
graphically using inbuilt graphical tools. E.g. MS-Excel, QuatroPro, Lotus 1-2-3
and others.

 Database
A database is a collection of logical related files. They are designed to address the
short comings of traditional file approach. The disadvantages that are addressed
are; data independence, data redundancy, data duplication, inefficient use of
resources, and lack of security. Large amount of data can be easily stored in a
database in an organized manner. With databases, users can classify and organize
information, can quickly access and manipulate data, generate and print reports,
can find, sort, filter data easily and can create mailing lists and query data stored.
E.g. MS- Access, Dbase, Oracle and many other packages.

28
 Introduction to Computers

3.2.2 Example of Specialized Software

 Mining Software
Virtually all industries have software that is designed to meet their needs. The
mining and its related industries for example have software that is designed to
meet their specific needs. In exploration users may want be confident that their
expensively acquired drilling data is stored in a safe and easy to access repository
and that you are able to consolidate and view data from various sources quickly
and efficiently. With Surpac, they can effortlessly link into most common data
sources (Access, SQL, Oracle, DataShed etc) by following a simple mapping
process. Alternatively, Surpac has the facility to create a fully relational database
and manage the loading of raw data into this database. You will have complete
control in table design to handle the complexities of your particular project data
and quality control procedures to validate data as it is uploaded.
E.g. Surpac, Vulcan

 Graphic Design Software

The term "graphic design" refers to a number of artistic and professional

disciplines that focus on visual communication and presentation. The field is also
often referred to as Visual Communication or Communication Design. Various
methods are used to create and combine words, symbols, and images to create a
visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use
typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.
Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the
communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated.
Different programs are available on the market for Graphic Design. E.g. Corel
Draw, Quark Express, Photo Shop etc.

 Engineering Design/Drawing Software

Engineering drawings and designs can also made quick and easy by use of
software such as CAD. Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the act of using
computers to design an object. CAD techniques follow standard engineering
design and drafting procedures, but use a computer to help speed up the process.
AutoCAD draws a diagram of a "part" you desire to build with scale and can be
used to determine the quantity of material needed. And is also given to your
designer. Example of such software are: AutoDesk, AutoCAD,

3.2.3 Shareware and Freeware

There are also shareware and freeware software packages. Shareware is distributed
through the Internet and is less costly. Shareware is not expensive at all, developers only
ask for a small fee otherwise it is somewhat free. Freeware on the other hand is purely
free. One can simple download a freeware from the Internet and use it without paying for
it. Freeware is sometimes known as public domain software. Debates on their usability
and quality are on-going and readers of this module are free to make their own informed
decisions, observations, and conclusions.

29
 Introduction to Computers

Freeware (from "free" and "software") is computer software that is available for use at
no cost or for an optional fee. Software classified as freeware is normally fully functional
for an unlimited time with no cost, monetary or otherwise. Freeware is software available
at zero price. The author usually restricts one or more rights to copy, distribute, and make
derivative works of the software. The software license may impose restrictions on the
type of use including personal use, individual use, non-profit use, non-commercial use,
academic use, commercial use or any combination of these. For instance, the license may
be "free for personal, non-commercial use".

Shareware (also known as trialware or demoware) refers to proprietary software that is

provided to users without payment on a trial basis and is often limited by any
combination of functionality, availability or convenience. Shareware is often offered as a
download from an Internet website or as a compact disc included with a periodical such
as a newspaper or magazine. The rationale behind shareware is to give buyers the
opportunity to use the program and judge its usefulness before purchasing a license for
the full version of the software. Firms with superior software thus have an incentive to
offer samples, except if their product is already well known, or if they do not want to be
listed in direct competition with other products on shareware repositories.

Shareware is usually offered either with certain features only available after the license is
purchased, or as a full version but for a limited trial period of time. Once the trial period
has passed the program may stop running until a license is purchased. Shareware is often
offered without supports or updates which only become available with the purchase of a
license. The words "free trial" or "trial version" are indicative of shareware.

3.2.4 End User Computing

End user computing is where users are given a leeway to develop their own mini
application software tools instead of waiting for long periods for systems to be delivered
by the in house software development teams. End User Computing (EUC) was
popularized by a number of technological developments and factors briefly discussed
below:
 Software backlogs. The failure by software developers to match the demand of
software products.
 Introduction of easy to use and understand software development aids to empower
none developers.
 Introduction of fourth generation languages (4GLs).
 Introduction of packaged software.
 Computer Literacy.
 Availability of affordable, portable and cheaper microcomputers.
 Increased Computer usage.
 A quest for a paperless office.

3.2.5 Benefits of End User Computing

 Users have total control over their User Developed Applications. (UDAs)
 There is no need for lengthy and time-consuming discussions that characterize
proper software development.

30
 Introduction to Computers

 Cultivate a sense of ownership and does motivate workers.

 Developers are given more time to concentrate on critical and core business
activities.
 Does increase productivity.

3.2.6 Disadvantages
 Promote the development of poorly designed and documented system with hard to
detect system faults.
 End users lack skill and programming experience. They can waste their time on
task that are not achievable with available technology.
 User developed systems have poor internal controls.
 User developed applications are usually incompatible.
 There is sometimes duplication of efforts due to lack of coordination.
 UDAs do compromise the security of corporate database with every user
interested in interfacing his system with the main database.
 Many end users lack corporate vision and do not conform to organizational
vision, mission, goals, and objectives and to system of strategies.
 Lack of continuity in the event of a user leaving the organization or otherwise.
 The next person will struggle in the position since all the system tools required for
the execution of the tasks will be untraceable.
 Integrity of database is compromised through incidental database corruptions and
deletion of records, data elements and files. The entire database may be wiped
out.

3.2.7 Development Software

Development software is a special type of software which is used to develop both system
and application software. It is commonly referred to as programming languages that
range from the first generation to third generation languages. These programming
languages tend to become more easier as one move away from the first generation to the
fifth generation. In simplicity, the first generation languages are the most difficult set of
programming languages while on the other hand the fifth generation languages are ease
to understand and are user friendly. The generation of programming languages are listed
below:
 1st Machine Level programming languages.
 2nd Low level programming languages.
 3rd High level programming languages.
 4th Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs).
 5th Fifth Generation Languages or Natural Languages(NLs)

Programming languages or tools are not user tools. End users have little contact with
programming languages they only get to use systems that have been developed using
these tools. Development software is widely used by programmers or developers who
need to first learn and understand the languages before using them. These languages can
be loosely described as a form of language like any language spoken in the world.

31
 Introduction to Computers

However programming languages are very strict when it comes to syntax and semantics
of a given programming language. Syntax is defined as a set of strict rules that have to
be closely followed by software developers when they are developing software using a
particular programming language. It should be noted that programming languages do
differ when it comes to rules that govern them. Knowing one programming language
does not necessarily mean a programmer can easily understand the next language, though
it is an advantage.
Following faithfully the strict set of rules of a given programming language does not
guarantee that software tools that are going to be developed will be usable and of high
quality. They may fail to achieve what they were designed for, hence the semantics.
Semantics has to do with the meaning of the program and its ability to achieve what it
was designed to achieve. For example if it was designed to sum two numbers, it should
add the two numbers instead of subtracting one number from the other for it to be
semantically correct.

3.3 Database and File Systems

Most Information Systems are database based. They do interact with databases for them
to be relevant and most useful. Data has to be stored in the database, accessed later to
manipulate and process data. With realization of the significance of database approach,
various database models and database types will be discussed. It is also imperative to
note that database structure, frequent access and size of database does influence the
choice of storage media. Management has to be informed for them to make sound
decision on the selection of a database structure and media.

3.3.1 File and Database Management Systems

File and Database management systems do improve managerial decision making by
providing information in the right form, at the right time and at the right place. They
provide management with relevant information in the desired form for them to make
quick and sound decisions. On the other hand management should be able to quickly
access the system and quickly locate the desired information to speed up decision-making
process.

3.3.2 File Concepts

 Data element
 A data element is a field, a logical collection of alphanumeric characters. For
example name, surname and student registration number.

 Record
A record is a collection of logically grouped data elements or fields. The fields
should also be interrelated for them to be treated as records for example; details of
John form a record.

 File
A file is a collection of interrelated records e.g. a student file, employee file, a
patient file, and beneficiary file.

32
 Introduction to Computers

 Database.
Is a collection of interrelated and logically grouped files that can be accessed from
a central point. The files are cross-referenced and have at least one common data
element used for referencing one file from the other.

3.3.3 File Structures.

 Sequential File Structure.
Sequential file structure stores records sequentially using a unique key called a
primary key. To retrieve or access record number 5100, the computer system has
to first scan through all the earlier records before the desired record is retrieved.
All the first 5099 records are to be accessed one after the other before record 5100
is retrieved. The file structure is very slow and its speed reduces exponentially
with the size of the file. As the file grows the speed reduces. However if the file is
accessed once every month, the file structure may be satisfactory and ideal, given
the fact that it is the cheapest. For example a payroll is updated sequentially once
a month and pay slips are printed sequential once every month. A problem may
arise when a number of employees are to visit the pay office with a number of
enquiries. Magnetic tape storage media supports this file structure.

 Random file Structure.

Records are accessed and stored randomly. A record is given a specific disk space
address and this location can be accessed directly without having to scan all the
earlier records. Disk and optical storage media do support Random Access
Method (RAM). Records on a random access media are addressed using hashing
algorithms, which are applied on the primary key. The file structure is faster as
records are accessed directly, unfortunately more than one records can compete
for one disk address there by creating access problems.

 Indexed Sequential File Structure.

Records are stored sequentially on a random access media. Each record is given a
specific disk address and thereafter an index of all disk addresses is compiled for
random access. This file structure is better known as Indexed Sequential Access
Method (ISAM). It permits both sequential and random access of records in a file.
This is the main advantage of ISAM because one record can be accessed in two
ways. A block of addresses can be accessed randomly with individual records
accessed sequentially. Unfortunately the method uses a lot of memory for the
maintenance of indexes and to sort records sequentially.

 Real time File Processing.

ISAM and RAM support interactive file processing where user enquiries can be
processed in real time mode. The system can be processing an enquiry at the same
time processing records. The two systems offer the shortest possible response
times. However if records are not processed immediately, sequential file approach
may be considered. Enquires can be accumulated and processed in a batch using a
primary key. Sequential file structure is inefficient and cheaper.

33
 Introduction to Computers

3.3.4 File Management Software

Files on a computer are managed and maintained by a suit of programs. The management
programs store and process data elements in a file. For example programs that prepare
and generate reports are known as report writers. Some management programs have
graphic tools for analyzing data graphically. There are also utility programs for sorting,
saving, filtering, searching, deleting and formatting data elements.

3.3.5 Database Concepts

A database approach was developed to try and address the shortcoming of the traditional
File system. Besides providing solutions to the file system problems, the database
approach seeks to organize data and records in a uniformed and cost effective way. The
approach does make savings on disk space, time and other computer resources. Some of
the limitations of traditional approach are discussed below.

 Data program dependence.

Data program dependence is where data formatting depends on the structure of a
program that is used to manipulate the data file to the extent that if the format of
the data file is changed, the program has to be modified accordingly. If the
program is to be modified the structure of the data file has to be changed as well
otherwise there will be no compatibility between the data file and the application
program.
 Data Redundancy.
When a number of departments run similar files, they tend to repeat certain
details, which result in Data redundancy. Redundancy is the unnecessary
duplication of fields across a number of files and wastage of resources such as
memory space, which could have been used for something else.
 Data Inconsistency.
Data redundancy leads to data inconsistency. For example if a record is edited in
one file while the other departments running similar file(s) do not effect the
changes, there will be inconsistency between these files. A student can ask the
student records department to effect his change of address and that change when it
is not communicated to other interested departments, his correspondences from
the same university but different departments will be sent to his old and new
addresses instead to the new one due to data inconsistency in the university
systems.

3.3.6 Database Management Systems (DBMS).

The database management system is an engine through which database systems are able
to address the shortcomings of file systems. A database system is a collection of software
packages and programs that store data in a uniform way, organize data into records in a
uniform way, and allow access to data in a uniform way. The DBMS acts as an interface
between application programs and data. Application programs cannot directly access data
but they can do so through the database management system.

34
 Introduction to Computers

3.3.7 Components of DBMS

 Data Dictionary.
A data dictionary (DD) does contain names and descriptions of every filed in the
database. It contains descriptions of how data elements relate to each other. With
data dictionary data is stored in a consistent manner with no duplications. It also
ensures that the length of data elements is uniform and is of a common character
data for easy access of any application program. The use of a data dictionary in
this manner ensures that there is no data program dependence. Database users can
easily change the characteristics of data elements without having to change the
application programs. Data dictionary is also useful in resolving name clashes by
keeping track of all names of data elements. It is a piece of software used for
managing and controlling data definitions. It is a Meta data, it holds data about
data, and it contains descriptions of data and information about their technical
characteristics and their interrelationships. It includes information about where
data is used, length of the filed and whether it is numeric, alphabetic or
alphanumeric. It gives a complete reference system for all available data
elements.
 Data Languages.
There are two types of Data Languages (DL); these are Data Description
Language (DDL) and Data Manipulation Language (DML). DDL is used to place
data in the data dictionary; it is the language, which is used to describe the
characteristics of data elements. DML is a data manipulation language for
uniform access to data. It uses standard set of commands to manipulate data. The
standard commands are used to retrieve data, process data, store, search, save,
delete and many more operations. The following are examples of some of the
standard commands: FIND, GET, SORT, SEARCH, PRINT, DELETE, and
SAVE.
 Teleprocessing Monitor.
A Teleprocessing Monitor (TP) is communication software that is designed to
manage communications between a database and remote terminals. They are used
to manage order entry systems that have terminal located at various remote sites.
 Application Development Software.
These are set of programs or tools used by developers to develop user defined
application programs that process data into desired forms.
 Security Software.
Security software takes care of security needs of the database system. It provides
a variety of tools that shield the database from unauthorized access and from
security attacks. Passwords, level of access, transaction log files, system log files
and encryption are some of the security features that can be employed to secure a
database.
 Archiving and Recovery Systems.
This component of the system provides means and techniques of making copies of
a database or for backup. They also have restart and recovery tools for data
reconstruction in the event of database corruption. Restart and recovery tools help
in the recovery of lost data.

35
 Introduction to Computers

3.3.8 User Tools

 Report Writers – These are tools for the design and generation of reports by
users without having to configure a software tool or to use development tools.
They are wizard tools that guide a user through the reporting process.
 Structured and other Query Languages –Query languages consist of set
of commands for creating tables, updating and accessing data. It consists
of a set of data manipulation commands. Users can ask ad hoc questions
interactively without the aid of developers. Users have to only remember
the commands and their syntax. There are about thirty Standard English
like commands. For example the following is a SELECT query
statement.
SELECT Name, ID, Program, Age FROM Student Records File
WHERE Program = “ CAC” .
Some query languages use natural languages where query commands and
statements are as close as possible to plain English; the following is an
example of a natural query statement. Query languages allow users to retrieve
data from a database without having detailed information about the record
structure. Users are shielded from the processes of the Database Management
Systems.

3.3.9 Database Administrator.

A database administrator (DBA) is the overall in charged with the running of a corporate
database. Duties of a database administrator include the following:

 He manages the organization ‘s data resources and their use.

 The DBA is also in charge with the security of the database and with the setting
up of user accounts and levels of access.
 The functions of DBA also include database planning, design, operation, training,
and user support. The role of DBA requires someone who can easily relate to all
levels in the organization. It requires someone with both management skills and
technical flair.
 The DBA also ensures security and maintenance.

The most important role of a Database Administrator is to ensure that users give up their
ownership of data, which is a shared resource.

3.4 Database Structures

3.4.1 Hierarchical Database Structure

Fig 11 Hierarchical Database Structure

36
 Introduction to Computers

The records in a hierarchical structure are logically organized into a hierarchy of

relationships. It models a parent child relationship where a parent record is allowed to
have one or more child records whereas child records are only allowed one parent record.
The structure is inflexible time consuming and is not user friendly. Database enquiries are
slow, costly and time consuming.

3.4.2 Network Database Structure

Fig 12 Network Database Structure

A network database structure is similar to hierarchical structure but its more flexible and
user friendly. It views data in sets; each set is composed of an owner record and one or
more member records. A record is allowed to be a member of one or more sets, and an
owner record can also have one or more member records.

3.4.3 Relational Database Structure

Fig 13 Relational Database Structure

This is a database whose structure is made up of numerous separate but linked tables.
Each table contains information relevant to a particular feature, and is linked to other
tables by a common value. For example, two tables StudentTable and PaymentTable are
linked by the Student ID. One of the advantages of a relational database is that
duplication of entries is reduced or even eliminated, allowing for the efficient
management of larger databases.

3.4.5 Advantages of Databases

 Data sharing – the entire organizational database is accessible to all users.
 Reduced data redundancy – duplication of data is minimized.

37
 Introduction to Computers

 Improved data consistency – data inconsistency is substantially reduced as a result

of data redundancy that has been minimized.
 Data program Independence – data description is independent from the formatting
of programs that manipulate data.
 Increased application programmer and user productivity -- Use of application
programming tools to write programs and report generators for generation of
reports.
 Improved data administration and control – one person has overall responsibility
of the database, the Database Administrator. The DBA enforce standards and
controls access to data.
 Emphasis on data as a corporate resource – there is greater corporate attention to
Information Systems that aid decision-making; hence a database is treated as an
Information resource.

3.4.6 Disadvantages
 Concurrency problems.
 Ownership.
 Expensive as more resources are required for backup, maintenance, DBA,
Equipment, memory space, and other devices.
 Data insecurity, once security has been breached all the data can be lost since
data storage is usually centralized.

38
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 4

4.0 Data Communications And Networks

Data communication means the conveying from one location to another of information
that originates or is recorded in alphabetic, numeric, or pictorial form, or as a signal that
represents a measurement; includes telemetering and facsimile but not voice or television.
Also known as data transmission. A network is the linking of two or more computers so
that they can share data and communicate. A number of media can be used to link or
network computers and devices in order to facilitate a communication. Below is a
discussion of some data transmission media:

 Twisted pair wire

Twisted-pair wire consists of eight copper wire strands individually insulated in
plastic. This wire is not shielded from any outside interference so it is called the
Unshielded Twisted Pair(UTP) If a metal sheath is used to encase the wire then it
is called the Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). The most commonly used wire in LAN
networking applications in Zimbabwe (2005) is the UTP CAT5. These support
speeds of above 500Mbps. To avoid signal drop-out and crossover, the overall
recommended length of a UTP is about 120m per segment.

 Coaxial Cable
This is usually used for TV cables. It has a very low bandwidth and is not very
common transmission media.

 Fibre Optic
An optic fibre is a thin strand of glass that transmits pulsating beams of light
instead of electrical frequencies. It can transmit data at more than 2000Mbps. It is
not susceptible to electromagnetic interference nor is it easy to tape data from it as
a hacker. However it is expensive to install.

 Wireless Links
Wireless communication networks are common these days. Wireless transmission
is a form of an unguided media, so it offers flexibility in terms of network layout.
Weather can affect wireless links.

4.1 Network Components

While a computer is the main component of a computer network, there are other devices
that enable the devices to communicate and share data. The following are some of the
devices:

 Router
A router will look at the IP portion of the packet for a destination network. Then it
looks at its internal tables for the best way to send the IP packet to the next router
or the destination network. Routers are used when connecting multiple networks,
and managing network traffic on the basis of protocol.

39
 Introduction to Computers

 Bridge
A Bridge sends data packets across a network link based on the (Media Access
Control) MAC-layer source and destination address. A bridge looks at the source
address in the Ethernet packet, and then builds its address table. It also looks at
the destination information to decide whether to send the packet over the WAN or
LAN. It is used when the major concern is to avoid lading down either LAN
segments with unnecessary transport.

 Router

A router is used to route data packets between two networks. It reads the
information in each packet to tell where it is going. If it is destined for an
immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet (IP packet for
example), readdress the packet to the proper ethernet address, and transmit it on
that network. If it is destined for another network and must be sent to another
router, it will re-package the outer packet to be received by the next router and
send it to the next router. Routing occurs at the network layer of the OSI model.
They can connect networks with different architectures such as Token Ring and
Ethernet. Although they can transform information at the data link level, routers
cannot transform information from one data format such as TCP/IP to another
such as IPX/SPX. Routers do not send broadcast packets or corrupted packets. If
the routing table does not indicate the proper address of a packet, the packet is
discarded.

 Modem
A modem is a device that is used to convert digital signals to analogue signals and
vice versa. It is actually a modulator-demodulator, hence the name MODEM. Its
practical use is to connect a computer to a phone line for the sake of transferring
data to remote computers. Modems can be internal or external. Typical modem
speed for data transfer is 56Kbps.A network is an interconnected group of nodes;
or a series of points, or stations connected by communications channels. A
network can consist of at least two nodes. The main purpose of a network is to
share resources.

4.2 Peer To Peer Model

A network can be configured as a peer- to- peer or client – server. In the former
configuration, there is no central control over the network- all nodes have the same
privileges. Computers can provide resources (act as server) or access resources from
other computers (act as client). This type of network is appropriate for 2 to 10 computers
It is suitable for small networks where there is no concern for security and privacy of
data.

40
 Introduction to Computers

4.3 Client Server Model

The client-server model is whereby one node in the network is responsible for giving
services to other clients or nodes. This gives more privileges to the server, e. g. logging
on, printer usage Server based - Allow for a central control over network resources.

4.4 Network Topologies

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices. This article
introduces the standard topologies of networking. Think of a topology as a network's
virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual
physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home
LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find
a ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

 bus
 ring
 star
 tree
 mesh

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic
topologies.

4.4.1 Bus Topology

Fig 14 Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common
backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared

41
 Introduction to Computers

communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A
device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast
message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually
accepts and processes the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling
compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both
were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus
networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen
computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In
addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

4.4.2 Ring Topology

Fig 15 Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes.
All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down
the entire network. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school
campuses.

42
 Introduction to Computers

4.4.3 Star Topology

Fig 16 Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection
point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the
hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star
network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only
take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails,
however, the entire network also fails.)

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
concentrators.

43
 Introduction to Computers

4.4.4 Tree Topology

Fig. 17 Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest
form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the
"root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of
the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast
traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

4.4.5 Mesh Topology

Fig 18 Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to

44
 Introduction to Computers

destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only
travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.

A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As
shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices
connect only indirectly to others.

Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. You can probably build a
home or small business computer network without understanding the difference between
a bus design and a star design, but becoming familiar with the standard topologies gives
you a better understanding of important networking concepts like hubs, broadcasts, and
routes.

4.5 Network Types

One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope
or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of
design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are:
 LAN - Local Area Network
 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have
gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution. Note that these network
types are a separate concept from network topologies such as bus, ring and star.

4.5.1 LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building
will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span
a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always
implemented as a single IP subnet.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled,
and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain
connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

4.5.2 WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest
WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a

router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN
address and a WAN address.

45
 Introduction to Computers

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet)
are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed
ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and
X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

4.5.3 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

A MAN is a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a
WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a
government body or large corporation.

4.5.4 The Internet

The Internet is a huge network of computers in a global scale connected via

telecommunication links, for the sake of sharing information.

4.5.5 Components of the Internet

 World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is the worldwide collection of documents linked together
by the use of “links” or words that point to other documents. It can also be
referred to as the collection of host machines, which deliver textual documents,
static graphics and videos through the Internet. The operation of the Web relies
primarily on hypertext as its means of information retrieval. HyperText is a
document containing words that connect to other documents. These words are
called links and are selectable by the user. A single hypertext document can
contain links to many documents. In the context of the Web, words or graphics
may serve as links to other documents, images, video, and sound. Links may or
may not follow a logical path, as the creator of the source document programs
each connection.

 E-Mail
Electronic mail(e-mail), allows computer users locally and worldwide to
exchange messages. Each user of e-mail has a mailbox address to which messages
are sent. The capability to send electronic files to an e-mail address renders e-mail
very useful communication tool. These files are referred to as MIME attachments.
MIME stands for Multimedia Internet Mail Extension, and was developed to help
e-mail software handle a variety of file types. Electronic mail is not necessarily
part of the World Wide Web but simply one of the services of the Internet.
 Telnet
Telnet is a program that allows you to log into computers on the Internet and use
online databases, library catalogues, chat services, and more. There are no
graphics in Telnet sessions, just text. To Telnet to a computer, knowledge of its
address is necessary. Telnet is available on the World Wide Web and is one of the
common Web-based resources available through.

46
 Introduction to Computers

 FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This is both a program and the method
used to transfer files between computers. Anonymous FTP is an option that
allows users to transfer files from thousands of host computers on the Internet to
their personal computer account. FTP sites contain books, articles, software,
games, images, sounds, multimedia, course work, data sets, etc. FTP transfers can
be performed on the World Wide Web without the need for special software. In
this case, the Web browser will suffice. Whenever a download is from a Web site
to a local machine, FTP will be in use. Search engines such as FtpFind, located at
http://www.ftpfind.com/ provides access to FTP

 E-Mail Discussion Groups

E-mail is a facility offered on the Internet and provides worldwide
communication of users. The Internet is home to a large community of individuals
who carry out active discussions organized around topic-oriented forums
distributed by e-mail. Tile.net at http://tile.net/ gives an example of a site that
offers a searchable collection of e-mail discussion groups.

 Usenet News
Usenet News is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions of
computer users exchange information on a vast range of topics. The major
difference between Usenet News and e-mail discussion groups is the fact that
Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users must connect to these
computers to read or download the messages posted to these groups. This is
distinct from e-mail distribution, in which messages arrive in the electronic
mailboxes of each member. Usenet discussion forums are called newsgroups.

 Chat & Instant Messaging

Chat programs allow users on the Internet to communicate with each other by
typing in real time. They are sometimes included as a feature of a Web site, where
users can log into the "chat room" to exchange comments and information about
the topics addressed on the site. Chat may take other, more wide-ranging forms.

4.5.6 Applications of the Internet

 Communication
The Internet enables efficient and effective communication. It is as easy to
communicate with people around the globe, as it is to communicate with people in
the next building. Using tools like electronic mail, mailing lists and newsgroups,
the human network of any individual can be expanded to include others with
similar interests all around the world. These communication tools allow us to
share ideas, collaborate on projects, ask questions and request information from
experts, researchers, professionals and enthusiasts in a wide variety of fields.
Despite its technological nature, the Internet is a place where people
communicate.

47
 Introduction to Computers

 Dissemination of Information
The Internet allows quick and easy distribution of information. Internet
information is distributed and can be located anywhere in the world and be
accessible to an international audience. This makes the dissemination process
very efficient. The Internet is an ideal way to distribute government information
to citizens, health information to patients, consumer information to the public and
current event information to all who are interested.

 Research and Education

Researchers have been using the Internet since its inception to share computer
resources, to communicate and to collaborate on research projects. Today, more
educators are taking advantage of this effective means of distributing information
to students. Electronic communication tools allow students to easily communicate
with their professors, teachers and peers. The Internet helps place the focus on the
information and the learning process, rather than the physical campus.

 Marketing and Public Relations

Marketing and public relations are activities in which every organization must
participate. Whether an organization's mission is to educate students, to inform
the public or to sell and support its products, the Internet can provide an avenue of
communication and a means for delivering information. Because of its effective
information dissemination capability, the Internet makes an excellent tool for
informing people about the mission and services of any organization. More
businesses are using the Internet to sell, to provide support for and to advertise
their products and services.

 Personal Growth and Entertainment

The Internet is a great place to learn, grow and have fun. There are many
opportunities for the life long learner to find information about subjects of interest
to them. Employment opportunities are advertised on the Internet. Users can find
out about current events and sporting events and read electronic journals and
newspapers. There are weather reports from around the world, travel information
on a wide variety of destinations etc. Users can join in discussion on their
favourite activities and meet share similar interests.

There are as many uses of the Internet as one can imagine.

4.5.7 Accessing Information on The Internet

For a document to be accessible on the Internet, it must be coded with links that can be
read by web servers. The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) specifies the path for any
resource on the Internet. It consists basically of three parts: the protocol, the host and the
document. The format of the URL is as follows:
protocol://host/path/filename

For example: http://www.zsm.co.zw/infotech/notes_on_html.pdf

48
 Introduction to Computers

Protocol: http
Host computer name: www
Second-level domain name: zsm
Top-level domain name: co
Country Code Top Level Domain (ccTLD) zw
Directory name: infotech
File name: notes-on-html.pdf

4.5.8 Internet Protocol

A protocol is a set of instructions governing communication in a given system. The
Internet protocols are the world’s most popular open-system (nonproprietary) protocol
suite because they can be used to communicate across any set of interconnected networks
and are equally well suited for LAN and WAN communications. The Internet protocols
consist of a suite of communication protocols, of which the two best known are the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet
protocol suite not only includes lower-layer protocols (such as TCP and IP), but it also
specifies common applications such as electronic mail, terminal emulation, and file
transfer.

4.5.9 Searching Techniques on the Internet

There are three basic types of tools:

 Search Engines
A "search engine" is a Web site that employs Web Crawlers, or robots to search
the Web. Search engines take the information gathered by its robots and use it to
create a searchable index of the Web. Search engines are recommended for very
targeted or obscure topics, multi-concept queries and searches for specific sites.

 Subject Directories
A subject directory is a service that offers a collection of links to Internet
resources submitted by site creators or evaluators and organised into subject
categories. Directory services use selection criteria for choosing links to include,
though the selectivity varies among services. Most directories are searchable.
Directories are useful when you are doing topic-based research.

Situations Leading To The Use Of Subject Directories:

 When there is a broad topic or idea to research
 When there is need to see a list of sites on a topic often recommended and
annotated by experts
 When there is need to look around in a controlled environment
 When there is need to retrieve a list of sites relevant to a topic, rather than
numerous individual pages contained within these sites
 When there is need to search for the site title, annotation and (if available)
assigned keywords to retrieve relevant material rather than the full text of a
document

49
 Introduction to Computers

 When there is need to avoid viewing low-content documents that often turn up on
search engines

Appropriate Situations For The Application Of Search Engines:

 On a narrow or obscure topic or idea to research
 When looking for a specific site
 When there is need to search the full text of millions of pages
 When there is need to retrieve a large number of documents on a topic
 When searching for particular types of documents, file types, source locations,
languages, date last modified, etc.
 When taking advantage of newer retrieval technologies such as concept clustering,
ranking by popularity, link ranking, and so on

4.6 Developments in Information Technology

Technological advancement bring with it a host of advantages and innovations,
unfortunately it is not wise for organization to be chasing latest state of the art technology
for the sake of it. All the new technologies should be monitored and evaluated before
they are used. Technology that meets both business and Information System strategies is
highly recommended. Some of the technological advances are briefly discussed below.

 E-commerce.
E –commerce allows business partners to do business over the Internet. Trading is
done on the Internet electronically. Government services can also be availed over
the Internet. There are a number of subdivisions of electronic commerce; these are
Business-to-Business or E business (B2B), Business to Commerce (B2C),
Commerce to Business (C2B), and Commerce-to-Commerce (C2C). The
government Internet services are classified as Government to Consumer (G2C).

 E Banking.
E banking is where banking activities and transactions are carried over the
Internet. Financial obligations are settled over the Internet on line.

 Remote Access.
Corporate databases can be accessed and queried from a remote site using either
leased or dial up facilities.
 Intranet.
A company Internet that is restricted to internal users only. Incoming and out
going data streams are filtered and subjected to defined communication rules and
protocols.

 Extranet.
It is a form of Internet that is only accessible to an organization or neighbourly
organization, which are usually in the same line of business. It could be a network

50
 Introduction to Computers

of state universities or non-state universities. An organization can develop an

extranet that links it up with its suppliers and other service providers.

 Broadband Networks.
Broadband networks are able to carry multimedia data in the form of text, video
and voice for data transmission, teleconferencing, and data conferencing. They
transmit data at high speeds.

 Mobile Commerce.
Mobile commerce involves the use of hand held devices to transact using wireless
communication systems for example cellular technology.

 Mobile Computing.
Mobile computing is designed for mobile users who are always in transit so that
they can be always in touch with their corporate databases and offices and work
away from work through remote access. The most common technology under this
category is telecommuting.

4.7 Data and Information Movement

Data and information transportation is another area of concern. Data can be lost, stolen or
tempered with in transit hence it needs to be secured. However service bureaus do
provide formal pick up and return arrangements using armored vehicles. Data and
information movements are documented and logged in log files. When data and
information are to be sent electronically, they have to be first encrypted before they are
sent. The details of sent data should also be scrambled and logged in a secure file.

Chapter 5

51
 Introduction to Computers

5.1 Computer Security

Computer security is a branch of computer technology known as information security as

applied to computers and networks. The objective of computer security includes
protection of information and property from theft, corruption, or natural disaster, while
allowing the information and property to remain accessible and productive to its intended
users. The term computer system security means the collective processes and
mechanisms by which sensitive and valuable information and services are protected from
publication, tampering or collapse by unauthorized activities or untrustworthy individuals
and unplanned events respectively. The strategies and methodologies of computer
security often differ from most other computer technologies because of its somewhat
elusive objective of preventing unwanted computer behaviour instead of enabling wanted
computer behaviour.

5.1.1 Security At Design Level

The technologies of computer security are based on logic. As security is not necessarily
the primary goal of most computer applications, designing a program with security in
mind often imposes restrictions on that program's behaviour.

There are various strategies and techniques used to design security systems. However
there are few, if any, effective strategies to enhance security after design. One technique
enforces the principle of least privilege to great extent, where an entity has only the
privileges that are needed for its function. That way even if an attacker gains access to
one part of the system, fine-grained security ensures that it is just as difficult for them to
access the rest.

When designing a computer system, the following concepts should be considered:

 Defence In Depth

The design should use "defence", where more than one subsystem needs to be
violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds.
Defence in depth works when the breaching of one security measure does not
provide a platform to facilitate subverting another.

The idea behind the defence in depth approach is to defend a system against any
particular attack using several, varying methods. Defence in depth is originally a
military strategy that seeks to delay, rather than prevent, the advance of an
attacker by yielding space in order to buy time. The placement of protection
mechanisms, procedures and policies is intended to increase the dependability of
an IT system where multiple layers of defence prevent espionage and direct
attacks against critical systems. In terms of computer network defence, defence in
depth measures should not only prevent security breaches, but buys an

52
 Introduction to Computers

organization time to detect and respond to an attack, thereby reducing and

mitigating the consequences of a breach.

Using more than one of the following layers constitutes defence in depth.

 Physical security (e.g. locks)

 Authentication and password security
 Anti virus software
 Firewalls (hardware or software)
 IDS (intrusion detection systems)
 Logging and auditing
 Biometrics
 Timed access control
 Software/hardware not available to the public

 Fail Safe

Fail-safe or fail-secure describes a device or feature which, in the event of

failure, responds in a way that will cause no harm, or at least a minimum of harm,
to other devices or danger to personnel. Fail-safe components of a system are
distinguished from fail-secure components in that, in the former, component
failure allows, but does not cause or invite, a certain improper system behavior. In
the latter, component failure does not allow a certain improper system behavior,
although some proper behaviors are impeded. For example, a lock that unlocks at
the wrong time has failed, but it may be considered fail-safe if its failure does not
send the door flying open or attract undue attention to the door's unlocked state. In
contrast, a fail-secure lock will remain locked during a failure, but cannot be
unlocked even with the correct key.

Despite popular belief , "fail safe" does not mean that the device or system is
designed so that failure is impossible; it simply means that when failure does
occur, it should occur in the safest fashion.

 Audit Trails

Webopedia defines an audit trail as "a record showing who has accessed a
computer system and what operations he or she has performed during a given
period of time." Audit trail or audit log or usage logging is a chronological
sequence of audit records, each of which contains evidence directly pertaining to
and resulting from the execution of a business process or system function.

In information or communications security, information audit means a

chronological record of system activities to enable the reconstruction and
examination of the sequence of events and/or changes in an event.

53
 Introduction to Computers

5.2 Security Architecture

Security Architecture can be defined as the design artefacts that describe how the security
controls (security countermeasures) are positioned, and how they relate to the overall
information technology architecture. These controls serve the purpose to maintain the
system's quality attributes, among them confidentiality, integrity, availability,
accountability and assurance.

5.2.1 Hardware Mechanisms That Protect Computers And Data

Hardware based or assisted computer security offers an alternative to software-only

computer security. Devices such as dongles may be considered more secure due to the
physical access required in order to be compromised.

While many software based security solutions encrypt the data to prevent data from being
stolen, a malicious program or a hacker may corrupt the data in order to make it
unrecoverable or unusable. Similarly, encrypted operating systems can be corrupted by a
malicious program or a hacker, making the system unusable. Hardware-based security
solutions can prevent read and write access to data and hence offers very strong
protection against tampering and unauthorized access.

Working of hardware based security: A hardware device allows a user to login, logout
and to set different privilege levels by doing manual actions. The device uses biometric
technology to prevent malicious users from logging in, logging out, and changing
privilege levels. The current state of a user of the device is read both by a computer and
controllers in peripheral devices such as harddisks. Illegal access by a malicious user or a
malicious program is interrupted based on the current state of a user by harddisk and
DVD controllers making illegal access to data impossible. Hardware based access control
is more secure than logging in and logging out using operating systems as operating
systems are vulnerable to malicious attacks. Since software cannot manipulate the user
privilege levels, it is impossible for a hacker or a malicious program to gain access to
secure data protected by hardware or perform unauthorized privileged operations. The
hardware protects the operating system image and file system privileges from being
tampered. Therefore, a completely secure system can be created using a combination of
hardware based security and secure system administration policies.

5.2.2 Secure Operating Systems

One use of the term computer security refers to technology to implement a secure
operating system. Much of this technology is based on science developed in the 1980s
and used to produce what may be some of the most impenetrable operating systems ever.
Though still valid, the technology is in limited use today, primarily because it imposes
some changes to system management and also because it is not widely understood. Such
ultra-strong secure operating systems are based on operating system kernel technology
that can guarantee that certain security policies are absolutely enforced in an operating
environment. An example of such a Computer security policy is the Bell-La Padula

54
 Introduction to Computers

model. The strategy is based on a coupling of special microprocessor hardware features,

often involving the memory management unit, to a special correctly implemented
operating system kernel. This forms the foundation for a secure operating system which,
if certain critical parts are designed and implemented correctly, can ensure the absolute
impossibility of penetration by hostile elements. This capability is enabled because the
configuration not only imposes a security policy, but in theory completely protects itself
from corruption. Ordinary operating systems, on the other hand, lack the features that
assure this maximal level of security. The design methodology to produce such secure
systems is precise, deterministic and logical.

The following terms used in engineering secure systems are explained below.

 Authentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points

are who they say they are.
 Automated theorem proving and other verification tools can enable critical
algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet
their specifications.
 Capability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege
separation and mandatory access control. This section discusses their use.
 Chain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded
has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.
 Cryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems,
reducing the probability that data exchanged between systems can be intercepted
or modified.
 Firewalls can provide some protection from online intrusion.

5.2.3 Ways Of Securing Systems And Data

 Access authorization restricts access to a computer to group of users through the

use of authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole
computer – such as through an interactive logon screen – or individual services,
such as an FTP server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating
users, such as passwords, identification cards, and, more recently, smart cards and
biometric systems.
 Anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify,
thwart and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware).
 Applications with known security flaws should not be run. Either leave it
turned off until it can be patched or otherwise fixed, or delete it and replace it
with some other application. Publicly known flaws are the main entry used by
worms to automatically break into a system and then spread to other systems
connected to it. The security website Secunia provides a search tool for unpatched
known flaws in popular products.
 Backups are a way of securing information; they are another copy of all the
important computer files kept in another location. These files are kept on hard
disks, CD-Rs, CD-RWs, and tapes. Suggested locations for backups are a
fireproof, waterproof, and heat proof safe, or in a separate, offsite location than

55
 Introduction to Computers

that in which the original files are contained. Some individuals and companies
also keep their backups in safe deposit boxes inside bank vaults. There is also a
fourth option, which involves using one of the file hosting services that backs up
files over the Internet for both business and individuals.

Backups are also important for reasons other than security. Natural disasters, such
as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes, may strike the building where the
computer is located. The building can be on fire, or an explosion may occur.
There needs to be a recent backup at an alternate secure location, in case of such
kind of disaster. Further, it is recommended that the alternate location be placed
where the same disaster would not affect both locations. Examples of alternate
disaster recovery sites being compromised by the same disaster that affected the
primary site include having had a primary site in World Trade Center I and the
recovery site in 7 World Trade Center, both of which were destroyed in the 9/11
attack, and having one's primary site and recovery site in the same coastal region,
which leads to both being vulnerable to hurricane damage (e.g. primary site in
New Orleans and recovery site in Jefferson Parish, both of which were hit by
Hurricane Katrina in 2005). The backup media should be moved between the
geographic sites in a secure manner, in order to prevent them from being stolen.

 Cryptographic techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it so it

becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble
the message, but eavesdroppers cannot.
 Encryption is used to protect the message from the eyes of others. It can be done
in several ways by switching the characters around, replacing characters with
others, and even removing characters from the message. These have to be used in
combination to make the encryption secure enough, that is to say, sufficiently
difficult to crack. Public key encryption is a refined and practical way of doing
encryption. It allows for example anyone to write a message for a list of
recipients, and only those recipients will be able to read that message.
 Firewalls are systems which help protect computers and computer networks from
attack and subsequent intrusion by restricting the network traffic which can pass
through them, based on a set of system administrator defined rules.
 Honey pots are computers that are either intentionally or unintentionally left
vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers or fix
vulnerabilities.
 Intrusion-detection systems can scan a network for people that are on the
network but who should not be there or are doing things that they should not be
doing, for example trying a lot of passwords to gain access to the network.
 Social engineering awareness keeps employees aware of the dangers of social
engineering and/or having a policy in place to prevent social engineering can
reduce successful breaches of the network and servers.
 File Integrity Monitors are tools used to detect changes in the integrity of
systems

Chapter 6

56
 Introduction to Computers

6.1 Computer Viruses

A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer.
Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one
computer to another and to interfere with computer operation. A virus is a program that
piggy-backs on other programs. It can be attached to a Word or Excel file. Each time the
file is run, the virus runs too. It attaches itself to other programs and continues to
reproduce. A virus might corrupt or delete data on your computer, use your e-mail
program to spread itself to other computers, or even erase everything on your hard disk.

The term "computer virus" is sometimes used as a catch-all phrase to include all types of
malware, even those that do not have the reproductive ability. Malware includes
computer viruses, computer worms, Trojan horses, spyware, dishonest adware and other
malicious and unwanted software, including true viruses.

 Worm

A computer worm is a malicious program that can replicate and run itself. It
differs from a computer virus in that it doesn’t need to embed itself into a host
program to run. Computer worms usually spread through networks, although
other methods of transport can be utilized such as local drives. A worm can
exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself automatically to other computers
through networks,

 Trojan horse

Trojan horse is a program that appears harmless but hides malicious functions.
Worms and Trojan horses, like viruses, may harm a computer system's data or
performance. Some viruses and other malware have symptoms noticeable to the
computer user, but many are surreptitious or simply do nothing to call attention to
themselves. Some viruses do nothing beyond reproducing themselves.

 Spyware

This is software that sends information about your Web surfing habits to its Web site.
Often quickly installed in your computer in combination with a free download you
selected from the Web, spyware transmits information in the background as you
move around the Web. Also known as "parasite software," "scumware," "junkware"
and "thiefware," spyware is occasionally installed just by visiting a Web site

6.2 Computer Virus Symptoms

After you open and run an infected program or attachment on your computer, you might
not realize that you've introduced a virus until you notice something isn't quite right. Here
are a few primary indicators that your computer might be infected:

57
 Introduction to Computers

 Here The computer runs slower than usual.

 The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
 The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
 The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer does not run as
usual.
 Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
 Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
 You cannot print items correctly.
 You see unusual error messages.
 You see distorted menus and dialog boxes.
 There is a double extension on an attachment that you recently opened, such as
a .jpg, .vbs, .gif, or .exe. extension.
 An antivirus program is disabled for no reason. Additionally, the antivirus
program cannot be restarted.
 An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus
program will not run.
 New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not
associated with any recently installed programs.
 Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
 A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally
remove the program.

These are common signs of infection but they might also indicate hardware or software
problems that have nothing to do with a virus.

6.3 How Viruses Spread

 Computer viruses are often spread by attachments in e-mail messages or instant

messaging messages. That is why it is essential that you never open e-mail
attachments unless you know who it's from and you are expecting it.
 Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or audio
and video files.

 Computer viruses also spread through downloads on the Internet. They can be
hidden in illicit software or other files or programs you might download.

 Computer viruses can spread through the local network.

 They can also be spread through sharing of storage media such as USB flash and
diskettes.

6.4 Help Prevent Computer Viruses

Nothing can guarantee the security of your computer. You can continue to improve your
computer's security and decrease the possibility of infection by using a firewall, keeping

58
 Introduction to Computers

your computer up-to-date, maintaining a current antivirus software subscription and

following a few best practices.

Note: Because no security method is guaranteed, it's important to back up critical files
on a regular basis before you encounter a virus or other problems.

Steps to help avoid viruses:

 Use an Internet firewall. Note: Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP

with SP2 have a firewall already built-in and turned on by default.
 Install antivirus software and keep it up to date.
 Scan all storage devices before using them.
 Never open an e-mail attachment from someone you don't know.
 Avoid opening an e-mail attachment from someone you know, unless you know
exactly what the attachment is. The sender may be unaware that it contains a
virus.
 Beware of Internet downloads; they are the greatest carrier of viruses.
 Do not pirate software as you could pirate a virus to your system.

59
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 7

7.1 Data Protection Act, Copyright and Legal Aspects

The purpose of the Act is to protect the rights of the individual about whom data is
obtained, stored, processed or supplied rather than those of the people or organisations
who control and use personal data. The Act applies to both computerised and paper
records. The Act requires that appropriate security measures will be taken against
unauthorised access to, or alteration, disclosure or destruction of personal data and
against accidental loss or destruction of personal data.

This section provides a quick overview of what the Key Principles of information-
handling practice mean. The Key Principles themselves are discussed below in the
context of their definition in law.

7.1.1 Key Principles

 Data may only be used for the specific purposes for which it was collected.
 Data must not be disclosed to other parties without the consent of the individual
whom it is about, unless there is legislation or other overriding legitimate reason
to share the information (for example, the prevention or detection of crime). It is
an offence for Other Parties to obtain this personal data without authorisation.
 Individuals have a right of access to the information held about them, subject to
certain exceptions (for example, information held for the prevention or detection
of crime).
 Personal information may be kept for no longer than is necessary and must be
kept up to date.
 Personal information may not be sent outside the European Economic Area unless
the individual whom it is about has consented or adequate protection is in place,
for example by the use of a prescribed form of contract to govern the transmission
of the data.
 Subject to some exceptions for organisations that only do very simple processing,
and for domestic use, all entities that process personal information must register
with the Information Commissioner's Office.
 Entities holding personal information are required to have adequate security
measures in place. Those include technical measures (such as firewalls) and
organisational measures (such as staff training).
 Subjects have the right to have factually incorrect information corrected (note:
this does not extend to matters of opinion)

7.1.2 Individual Responsibilities

60
 Introduction to Computers

All staff and students have a duty to observe the Principles of the Act. Individuals who do
not handle data as part of their normal work have a responsibility to ensure that any
personal data they see or hear goes no further. This includes personal data and
information extracted from such data, thus, for example, unauthorised disclosure of data
might occur by passing information over the telephone, communicating information
contained on a computer print-out or even inadvertently by reading a computer screen.

General Guidelines

 Do not leave people's information on your desk when it is not in use,

 Lock all filing cabinets,
 Do not leave data displayed on screen, do not leave your computer logged on and
unattended,
 Do not give your password to anyone under any circumstances,
 Do not choose a password that's easy to guess,
 Never send anything by fax or e-mail that you wouldn't put on the back of a
postcard.

7.1.3 Subject Rights

The Data Protection Act creates rights for those who have their data stored (subjects), and
responsibilities for those who store, process or collect personal data.

The person who has their data processed has the right to:

 View the data an organisation holds on them, for a small fee, known as 'subject
access fee'
 Request that incorrect information be corrected. If the company ignores the
request, a court can order the data to be corrected or destroyed, and in some cases
compensation can be awarded.
 Require that data is not used in any way that may potentially cause damage or
distress.[5]
 Require that their data is not used for direct marketing.

7.1.4 Data Protection Principles

 Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully.

 Personal data shall be obtained only for one or more specified and lawful
purposes, and shall not be further processed in any manner incompatible with that
purpose or those purposes.
 Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the
purpose or purposes for which they are processed.
 Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date.
 Personal data processed for any purpose or purposes shall not be kept for longer
than is necessary for that purpose or those purposes.

61
 Introduction to Computers

 Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the rights of data subjects
under this Act.
 Appropriate technical and organisational measures shall be taken against
unauthorised or unlawful processing of personal data and against accidental loss
or destruction of, or damage to, personal data.
 Personal data shall not be transferred to a country or territory outside the area of
origin unless that country or territory ensures an adequate level of protection for
the rights and freedoms of data subjects in relation to the processing of personal
data.

7.1.5 Exceptions

The Act is structured such that all processing of personal data is covered by the act, while
providing a number of exceptions. Notable exceptions are:

 National security. Any processing for the purpose of safeguarding national

security are exempt from all the data protection principles,
 Crime and taxation. Data processed for the prevention or detection of crime, the
apprehension or prosecution of offenders, or the assessment or collection of taxes
are exempt from the first data protection principle.
 Domestic purposes. Processing by an individual only for the purposes of that
individual's personal, family or household affairs is exempt from all the data
protection principles.
 Immigration data.
 Data required by law to be public.

62
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 8

8.1 Computer Ergonomics, Health and Safety

Ergonomics is the science of designing machines, tools, and work environments to best
accommodate human performance and behaviour. It aims to improve the practicality,
efficiency, and safety of a person working with a single machine or device (e.g., using a
telephone, driving a car, or operating a computer terminal). Taking the user into
consideration has probably always been a part of tool design;

Fig 19 Recommended Sitting

8.2 Computer Related Injury Examples

Some of the common ailments that computer users suffer from are Musculoskeletal
Disorders (MSD), Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI), Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, and others.
All these ailments need proper care of an orthopedic MD for the right treatment at the
right time. Every computer user should know the different signs and symptoms of these
disorders so that they can seek prompt medical attention while they encounter with any
kind of difficulty.

8.2.1 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Carpal tunnel syndrome is a medical problem of the hands. The pinching of a large nerve,
the medial nerve that travels under the palm, causes the problem. Normally, the nerve

63
 Introduction to Computers

carries information about the sensation of touch from the hand to the brain, but when the
nerve is pinched, the sensation of touch can be blocked.

 Causes - The use of highly repetitive wrist movements appears to be connected

with development of carpal tunnel syndrome, but medical conditions like
diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, and pregnancy can be causes as
well. In an office environment, carpal tunnel syndrome can be worsened by
incorrect use of a computer keyboard.
 Symptoms - The symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome can include numbness,
tingling, pain and weakness in the thumb, index, middle and ring fingers. Initially,
the feelings may come and go, but the pain is often worse and night and can wake
you up. The symptoms may worsen when you are doing forceful or repetitive
work with your hands, like driving, gardening, cleaning, or using a computer.
Symptoms, which would suggest the problem is not carpal tunnel syndrome,
include pain in the forearm or shoulder, or worsening symptoms when reaching
overhead (e.g., washing hair).
 Prevention - The best prevention for individuals who may be at risk for carpal
tunnel syndrome (data entry clerks, word processors, or computer programmers),
is correct use of the keyboard and mouse.

8.2.2 Repetitive Strain Injury

Other computer injury ailments are many risk factors for repetitive strain injury (RSI).
Some are well-known, such as spending long hours working with a mouse or sitting in a
poorly configured workstation. Others are not readily apparent. For example, having long
fingernails leads you to type with flat rather than curved fingers. But if you do not know
the major risk factors then you add another: ignorance. You cannot take preventive
measures if you are not aware of the dangers.

 Causes - The use of highly repetitive wrist movements appears to be connected

with development of carpal tunnel syndrome, but medical conditions like
diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, and pregnancy can be causes as
well. In an office environment, carpal tunnel syndrome can be worsened by
incorrect use of a computer keyboard.
 Symptoms

a) The users experience constant pain in the hands, elbows, shoulders, neck,
and the back. Other symptoms of Repetitive Strain Injury are cramps,
tingling, and numbness in the hands. The hand movements of the user may
become clumsy and the person may find it difficult even to fasten buttons.
b) Another variant of Repetitive Strain Injury is that, it may produce painful
symptoms in the upper limbs, but the site may be difficult to locate.
c) A major cause is due to long unbroken periods of work. Ergonomics or the
lack of it plays a very important role. Lack of information about the
condition leads to neglect by the concerned individuals.

64
 Introduction to Computers

 Prevention

The following are simple steps that can be taken to prevent or reduce chances of RSI:

a) Type using neutral wrist position, not bending the wrist toward the little
finger nor toward the thumb.
b) Adjust (or replace) the Keyboard. The correct keyboard adjustment is one
where the keyboard is flat and at or below elbow level. This position
makes it easiest to type with your wrists in the neutral position. If you
can't have the keyboard at the correct height, you should choose the
adjustment which keeps your wrists as near to the neutral position as
possible.
c) Watch out for that mouse! You may be able to cut down on your mouse
usage by using keyboard shortcuts instead. You may also want to switch
your mouse hand.

d) Take regular breaks. One of the most frequent pieces of advice you will
hear if you have RSI is to take regular breaks. It's also one of the most
difficult pieces of advice to follow. It has been suggested that, for RSI
prevention purposes, you should take a five minute break after every 20 or
30 minutes of continuous activity. If you are suffering from RSI you
should clearly take more frequent and longer breaks.

e) Sit up straight. Don't slouch. Your mother probably told you this. It was
good advice, and she probably didn't know how many hours you would be
spending in front of a keyboard. Bad posture is a primary risk factor in
RSI. Choose and adjust your seat so that you sit up straight, rather than
leaning forward over the keyboard. Adjust your display so that the
monitor is directly in front of you, with the top of the screen at eye.

8.2.3 Computer Vision Syndrome

Computer vision syndrome (CVS), defined as a complex of eye and vision problems that
are experienced during and related to computer use, is a repetitive strain disorder that
appears to be growing rapidly, with some studies estimating that 90 percent of the 70
million U.S. workers using computers for more than 3 hours per day experience it (CVS)
in some form. Your eyes also need proper care as the other parts of the body. It is the
worst affected organ in case you have to sit in front of the computer for long hours.
Eyestrain and Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) are the most common disorders that the
eyes encounter with.

Symptoms

a) Eyestrain
b) Blurred vision
c) Dizziness or nausea

65
 Introduction to Computers

d) Difficulty concentrating
e) Headaches
f) Red, dry or burning eyes
g) Increase in nearsightedness
h) Change in color perception
i) Slow refocusing
j) Excessive fatigue
k) Occasional double vision

Prevention

a) Have your eye muscles tested once a year.

b) Use indirect lighting and eliminate exterior light and reflections by closing drapes
or blinds.
c) Maintain a distance of 20-30 inches between the eyes and the computer.
d) Monitor should be about six to eight inches below eye level.
e) Use a font size of 12-14.
f) Take a break every 20 minutes and look outside your window or at a distant
object for 20 seconds.
g) Adjust your workstation and chair to the correct height. Purchase ergonomic
furniture to ensure adequate distance from the screen, and good posture.
h) Match the computer screen to the brightness of the environment.
i) Install an anti-glare screen to minimize reflections on the screen. Reduce the
internal ambient light if necessary.
j) Use glasses with an anti-reflective coating.

8.2.4 Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSD)

Musculoskeletal Disorders can range from general aches and pains to more serious
Problems. Medical practitioners do recommend that all the users who use computers
regularly should report signs and symptoms as early as possible to prevent serious injury
or permanent damage.

Symptoms

The most commonly noticed signs and symptoms of Musculoskeletal Disorders

associated with computer use are as follows:

a) Numbness or a burning sensation in the hand

b) Reduced grip strength in the hand
c) Swelling or stiffness in the joints
d) Pain in wrists, forearms, elbows, neck, or back followed by discomfort
e) Reduced range of motion in the shoulder, neck, or back
f) Dry, itchy, or sore eyes
g) Blurred or double vision
h) Aching or tingling

66
 Introduction to Computers

i) Cramping
j) Loss of color in affected regions
k) Weakness
l) Tension stress headaches and related ailments

Prevention

It is always better to take precautions to avoid Musculoskeletal Disorders than to treat

them after you get affected. Some general precautions include:

a) Taking regular breaks from working at your computer - a few minutes at least
once an hour
b) Alternating work tasks like mixing computer tasks with non computer tasks
alternately to avoid strain
c) Regular stretching to relax your body
d) Using comfort equipment such as footrests, wrist/palm rests, and document
holders if required
e) Keeping the mouse and keyboard at the same level
f) Avoiding gripping your mouse too tightly – it is always recommended to hold the
mouse lightly and click gently
g) Familiarize yourself with keyboard shortcuts for applications you regularly use
like Ctrl+S to save and Ctrl+P to print (to avoid overusing the mouse).

8.2.5 Examples of What Causes Possible Ergonomics Issues.

Sitting

Sitting in one place for long periods is a risk because it slows blood circulation.
Continuously holding your elbows bent in the palms-down position strains the nerves and
muscles of the arms and upper body. Poor sitting habits compound the problem. For
example, leaning on your elbow can compress the nerve, or sitting on one foot can
impede circulation in your legs.

Repetitive movements

Making the same movements again and again, such as typing numbers into a spreadsheet
or circling a mouse or trackball, tires the muscles. Research says that a user can be
injured by as little as two hours of clicking per day, and is in the danger zone at four
hours per day. Working for extended periods without taking breaks does not allow the
muscles time to recover from the exertion.

Static loading

Staring at the monitor without doing much at all--sometimes referred to as static

loading--can also be injurious. Web surfing is a perfect example. You might be gripping a
mouse and slouching in your seat. Your head might be falling forward and your shoulders

67
 Introduction to Computers

slumping, which strains muscles of the upper body from neck to fingertips. (Sitting with
your feet up on the desk and the keyboard in your lap is not a great idea, either.)

Faulty technique

Faulty technique includes resting your wrists, forearms, or elbows on the desk or armrest
as you type or winging your elbows away from your body. Cradling the telephone
between your ear and shoulder with your head cocked to the side is also a bad habit. And
you should not pound the keys or grip the mouse, twisting your wrists from side to side or
up and down.

Bad workstations

Working in awkward positions not only makes people grumpy, it leads to injury because
the muscles become strained and fatigued. Awkward positions can be cultivated by
working in a cubicle that is too small or sitting on an uncomfortable chair. Many
monitors are too high, too low, or off to one side. Keyboards on desktops are often too
high, but on your lap they are too low. Mice are often too far away to be reached without
straining.

Work habits

People who have strong work ethics may ignore their own needs to get ahead in their
careers or because they feel obliged to give 110 percent. Others work on cyclical
deadlines, where weekly, monthly, or quarterly crunch times result in unusually long
hours at the computer. RSI can be a "nice guy's disease," felling people who habitually
volunteer to take on extra work or cannot say no.

Awareness of discomfort

People have varying degrees of awareness about pain and comfort or how they move, sit,
and stand. Some people zone out at the computer, concentrating so much that they forget
about their posture or movements. Becoming sensitive to these matters helps you become
aware of symptoms and avoid injury or reinjury.

68
 Introduction to Computers

Chapter 9

9.1 Introduction to MS-DOS

MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) is a single-user, single-tasking computer

operating system that uses a command line interface. Before Windows existed, MS-DOS
was the most popular operating system for PCs, and DOS continued to be the most
popular OS from 1981 when the PC was introduced.

9.1.2 Brief History

When IBM launched its revolutionary personal computer, the IBM PC, in August 1981, it
came complete with a 16-bit operating system from Microsoft, MS-DOS 1.0. This was
Microsoft's first operating system, and it also became the first widely used operating
system for the IBM PC and its clones.

MS-DOS 1.0 was actually a renamed version of QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating
System), which Microsoft bought from a Seattle company, appropriately named Seattle
Computer Products, in July 1981. QDOS had been developed as a clone of the CP/M
eight-bit operating system in order to provide compatibility with the popular business
applications of the day such as WordStar and dBase. CP/M (Control Program for
Microcomputers) was written by Gary Kildall of Digital Research several years earlier
and had become the first operating system for microcomputers in general use.

QDOS was written by Tim Paterson, a Seattle Computer Products employee, for the new
Intel 16-bit 8086 CPU (central processing unit), and the first version was shipped in
August, 1980. Although it was completed in a mere six weeks, QDOS was sufficiently
different from CP/M to be considered legal. Paterson was later hired by Microsoft.

Until its acquisition of QDOS, Microsoft had been mainly a vendor of computer
programming languages. Gates and co-founder Paul Allen had written Microsoft BASIC
and were selling it on disks and tape mostly to PC hobbyists.

MS-DOS soared in popularity with the surge in the PC market. Revenue from its sales
fuelled Microsoft's phenomenal growth, and MS-DOS was the key to company's rapid

69
 Introduction to Computers

emergence as the dominant firm in the software industry. This product continued to be
the largest single contributor to Microsoft's income well after it had become more famous
for Windows.

9.2 Essential Components of DOS

DOS is composed of a number of files. You can choose to keep all of its components
available on disk so that you can use all the facilities it offers (this is the norm if space is
not a constraint). Alternatively you may choose to have a minimal setup in which case
not all of its features will be available. However at a minimum there are three system
files which you must have.

These are IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS and COMMAND.COM.

The disk which your computer uses to load and run DOS must contain these files and is
called the System, or Startup, or Boot, disk.

COMMAND.COM - The command processor (or shell) is the part of DOS that executes
(or processes) the commands we will be looking at. These commands are either internal
to the command processor (i.e. part of it), or external to it.

You must not create a file with the same name as an Internal Command. Examples of
such commands are DIR, DEL and COPY, which are part of the COMMAND.COM
program. You will find that the names of these commands cannot be seen when you list
the files on your disk.

Each External Command is a separate executable program. When the user enters the
name of an external command DOS reads the appropriate program file into memory and
control of the computer system is passed to it; when the command terminates the
command processor regains control of the system. External Commands e.g. XCOPY, can
be seen when you list your files.

9.3 The BIOS

All IBM compatible PCs have a program which is not part of DOS but interacts with it to
provide peripheral device support. This software is called the BIOS (Basic Input/Output
System) and it contains the basic instructions for controlling such things as the disk
drives (see below), keyboard and serial/parallel ports while the machine is running. It
also contains instructions for testing various parts of the computer (e.g. memory, floppy
disk drives and the various interfaces) which are executed when the computer is starting
or 'powering' up. This POST (Power On Self-Test) routine will display a message if there
are any problems.

Once the tests are all passed the operating system is loaded from disk and the machine is
ready for use. This BIOS program is classed as firmware and stored in ROM (Read Only
Memory).

70
 Introduction to Computers

9.4 Disk Drives and Floppy Disks (Diskettes)

Disk drives are those parts of the computer hardware which hold the disks and perform
the writing and reading of data to and from disk. Within a DOS command line they are
referenced by a letter plus a colon. The hard disk drive, containing the large capacity, fast
access, fixed disk, is normally referred to as C:(i.e. the C drive), the floppy drive is A:
and if there is a second floppy drive it is B:

When your PC is running a Prompt appears at the left of the screen indicating that the
computer is ready for you to type in commands. This System, or DOS, or Command,
Prompt includes a letter to indicate the current or default drive. That is the disk drive
DOS will use when executing the command if no other is specified in the command line.
For example A>and C> are both common prompts indicating the floppy and hard drives
respectively.

When the floppy disk drive writes data to a floppy disk it places it in concentric circles
called tracks. A floppy disk contains either 40 or 80 tracks each of which is divided into
small sections called sectors, each sector containing 512 bytes. The disk drive contains a
read/write head which moves from one track to the next as the disk rotates either finding
data to be read, or locating free space to which it can write (depending on whether DOS
has requested a read or write operation).

9.4.1 Write Protecting Floppy Disks

On a floppy disk it is possible to physically enable or disable writing to the disk. This
allows you to prevent accidental writing to the disk or unintentional formatting of the
disk.

To disable writing to a 5.25" floppy disk a notch called the write protect notch should be
covered by non transparent tape on both side of the disk.

If you look at the back of a 3.5" disk you will see there is a write protect window with a
plastic sliding tab in the lower right corner. Sliding the tab down to open the window
Write Protects the disk.

9.4.2 New Floppy Disks and Disk Formatting

A new floppy disk must be formatted before DOS can read from and write to it. DOS
provides the FORMAT command to allow the user to format disks. Information on how
to use the FORMAT command will be given later. When you format a disk DOS reserves
a small part of it for its tracking system. This consists of the File Allocation Table and
Root Directory which allow DOS to store and locate files on the disk (see next section).
When formatting a disk DOS also marks defective sectors so that it will not store
information there.

9.4.3 Disk Structure

71
 Introduction to Computers

Formatting a disk creates the following data structures on it -

The Root Directory - This contains the name, attributes (see later), time and date of last
modification and size of each file on the disk. It also identifies the disk location of the
first cluster of each file.

A Cluster, or Allocation Unit, is a group of consecutive sectors (in the case of a floppy
disk 2 sectors). It is the smallest unit of disk space that can be allocated to a file.

Files are divided into clusters because there is not always a single piece of free disk space
big enough to accommodate a particular file. Therefore it has to be broken up and
distributed over different parts of the disk where there is free space i.e. where there are
free clusters. As a result of this files, and disks themselves, are often referred to as being
fragmented, a characteristic which slows down the processes of writing to and reading
from the disk.

The File Allocation Table (FAT 1) - After the first cluster of a file has been located the
FAT is used to locate subsequent clusters. It contains the address of each subsequent
cluster in the allocation chain.

FAT 2 - A copy of FAT 1 which DOS uses to verify the integrity of the filing system.

The Boot Sector - When a disk is formatted as a boot (or system) disk a small program
called the Bootstrap Loader is placed in the Boot Sector, the first sector on the disk. This
program loads the operating system from disk into memory after the BIOS has
successfully completed its POST.

9.4.4 Directory Structure

It is possible to store hundreds of files on a disk and it can a tedious task trying to find a
particular one you are looking for if they are not categorised in any way. Therefore DOS
allows you to group related files together in directories. The main directory on a disk is
called the ROOT directory, which is represented by \ (a back slash) and it is created by
DOS when formatting the disk. You can create directories in the ROOT directory and
within each other and they can each contain a number of files. The directory structure is
often thought of as an inverted tree structure with the root at the top branching down into
lower layer directories and subdirectories. For example -

72
 Introduction to Computers

Fig 20. Directory Structure

9.4.5 Files and Filename

Data and programs are stored on disks in files. DOS itself consists of a number of files
working together to provide the operating system. Other computer programs such as
word processors and spreadsheets are also constructed from a number of files. When you
save work produced with one of these packages (e.g. a document from a word processor)
you save it to a file. When naming a file it is always a good idea to use a name which
indicates the contents of the file. Likewise when naming a directory, which is a special
type of file, you should use a name which helps to identify the files it contains.

DOS has certain rules governing the naming of files -

Filenames are not case sensitive.

Maximum length allowed for a filename is 8 characters.
Maximum length allowed for the extension to a file name is 3 characters.
The file name and extension are separated by a . (period).
Characters not permitted in naming files are
. " / \ [ ] : | < > + = ; , ? ^ * And Spaces
These characters have special meaning when used in or with a file name.

File extensions can have special meaning to DOS or other programs and are often used to
indicate the type of a file.

e.g. The .BAT extensions signifies a Batch files. A batch file contains a batch or group of
DOS commands which are performed one after the other when the file is executed (or
run). You execute a batch file by typing its name, without the .BAT extension, at the
DOS prompt. AUTOEXEC.BAT is a batch file which is often found on the boot disk.

73
 Introduction to Computers

DOS accesses this file in the last stage of booting (i.e. starting) your system and executes
each command it contains.

Here are some commonly used extensions and the type of file they indicate

BAK Backup file

BAS Basic program
BAT Batch file; it contains a group of DOS commands the user wants to run
COM Command file
DOC Document
EXE Executable file, Similar to COM file
PRN Print file
SYS System file
$$$ Temporary file

9.4.6 Directory Names

These follow the same rules as ordinary file names except that extensions are not allowed
in version 5 and earlier versions of MS-DOS. Remember that a directory is just a special
kind of file - i.e. a file which can contain other files.

When a list of files is displayed on screen the label <DIR>is appended to those names
which in fact indicate directories.

9.5 Running DOS Commands

Commands are entered at the DOS prompt, e.g. A> or C> or F> which, as previously
noted, informs you of the default or current drive. The exact form of the initial prompt
depends on what type of disk booted the computer and whether the startup file
AUTOEXEC.BAT, has customised the prompt. A letter plus > (greater than sign) is the
default prompt.

For example A:\> indicates that the computer was booted with a floppy disk, whereas C:\
> means the computer was booted from a hard disk and F:\> indicates that the computer
may have been booted from a networked machine.

A command line can contain just a command itself i.e. a single word, but most commands
can take parameters (or arguments) indicating files or directories on which the command
is to operate. Parameters are separated from commands by one or more spaces.

74
 Introduction to Computers

You finish a command line by pressing the Return or Enter key (<return> or <enter), and
this signals the computer that you have finished typing in your command and that it
should carry it out.

9.5.1 Changing the Default Disk Drive

Unless you specify in a command line a particular (Disk) Drive to use, DOS will attempt
to execute the command on the current, or default, drive. i.e. It will look for the
directories and files referenced in the command line on the disk in the drive indicated by
the screen prompt, e.g.

A> (diskette)

C> (hard disk)

Suppose the current/default drive is C and you are going to perform a lot of operations on
your diskette in drive A. To avoid typing A: in your command line every time you
execute a command you can change the default drive.

To change the default drive from C to A type A: <return>

The prompt will now include A instead of C

To make C the default drive again type C: <return>

9.5.2 Repeating Commands

Very usefully DOS buffers (i.e. remembers) the last command you typed in. If you want
to run that command again simply press F3 and then <return> to run it. F3 Recalls the
last command the user entered

9.5.3 Command Line Syntax

command-name DRIVE:\PATH\DIRECTORY /SWITCHES

FILE

This is a simplified illustration of the basic format of DOS command lines. The
command-name is of course essential but, depending on what that command is, the other
elements of the command line may or may not be present. Moreover some command
lines will contain additional elements not included in this example. The components of
the command line are explained below.

(Note - it is not necessary to understand this abstract illustration of the DOS command
line as examples are given for each of the commands discussed in these notes. Indeed you
might prefer simply to look at the actual commands.)

75
 Introduction to Computers

The components of the command line are -

command-name = a DOS command

DRIVE: = a letter plus colon indicating the relevant disk (drive) for the following path
and directory/file.

Usually
C: for the hard disk drive.
A: for the floppy disk drive.
B: if there is a second floppy disk drive.
F: for a network disk.

PATH = a hierarchy of directories, each preceded by a \ (back slash), from the Root
directory of the disk (represented by the first \) to the directory containing the directory or
file on which the command is to be executed.

e.g. \faculty\dep_ment\admin

Note - If you are already in the directory which contains the file or directory to be
manipulated then the drive and path do not need to be specified.

DIRECTORY = the directory on which the command is to be executed.

or FILE = the file on which the command is to be executed.

If a path has been specified then a \ must be placed before this item to separate it from the
path.

e.g. \faculty\depart\admin\minutes.doc

SWITCHES = ways of modifying the operation of the command.

Throughout the notes, a number of possible switches are listed for each

command, however often no switches will be required.

Switches can usually be combined - i.e. you can have more than one switch for a
particular command.

Note - Very often elements of this syntax can be omitted, in which case DOS will use
defaults. e.g. If no DRIVE: is specified in the command line, then DOS attempts to
execute the command on the current drive (i.e. that indicated by the screen prompt). If
no PATH is specified, then DOS attempts to execute the command in the current
directory (i.e. the directory in which you are currently working).

76
 Introduction to Computers

An example of how the commands are presented in the notes is now given using the DIR
command. The command name and a brief note of what it does is given in the heading,
followed by a little more explanation, its syntax and some examples.

DIR - Lists files and subdirectories

This command lists information about files and subdirectories and the amount of free
disk space.

Command Syntax: DIR DRIVE:\PATH\DIRECTORY /SWITCHES

FILE

Where SWITCHES are

P - page through the screens

W - produce a wide listing

Example: List the contents of the root directory of the hard disk

DIR C:\

9.5.4 DOS Help

Version 5 of DOS came with a command which helps the user establish what each DOS
command can do. (DOS 6 provides a similar, more graphical facility.)

Command Syntax: HELP command-name

Example 1: Display a brief description of what all the DOS commands do.

HELP

Example 2: Display more information about a particular command e.g. DIR

HELP DIR

or DIR / ?

This will provide the syntax of the command in a form similar to that used in the notes.

9.6 Simple MS-DOS Commands

9.6.1 Disk Manipulation Commands

 FORMAT - formats a disk

77
 Introduction to Computers

 SYS - makes a disk a System disk

 UNFORMAT - unformats a disk
 DISKCOPY - makes a copy of a diskette

FORMAT - formats a disk

A disk must be formatted for a particular operating system before it can be read from or
written to by that operating system. DOS formatting creates:

a) A new root directory and file allocation table on the disk, it also
b) Destroys anything already on the disk.

Therefore do not format a disk until you are sure there is nothing on the disk that you
want to preserve.

You will not normally need to format a disk a second time (i.e. after your initial format of
a blank disk). If you do reformat a disk, all existing data on it will be destroyed.

Command Syntax: FORMAT DRIVE /SWITCHES

Where SWITCHES are

S - create a DOS system/boot disk - i.e. Format the disk and automatically install the
DOS system files (IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS and COMMAND.COM) on it

F:x - where x is the floppy disk size i.e. one of 160, 180, 320, 360, 720, 1.2, 1.44, 2.88

The F switch is most commonly needed if formatting a DD (Double Density) disk in a

HD (High Density) drive. Specifically, formatting a 3.5" 720 KB disk in a 3.5" 1.44 MB
drive, e.g.

FORMAT A: /F:720

If you use the FORMAT command without switches on a 3.5" disk in a HD (1.44 MB)
drive, DOS will attempt to format that disk to 1.44 MB even if it is a DD disk. This will
result in a disk which is unreadable on DD drive machines. By using the F:720 switch the
disk will be readable on both types of machine.

Other SWITCHES

T:t - where t is the number of tracks per disk side

N:s - where s is the number of sectors per track

Together these provide an alternative to the F:x switch for specifying the size of the disk
being formatted, e.g.

78
 Introduction to Computers

FORMAT A: /T:80 /N:9

Can be used to perform the same format as using F:720 above.

Remember
A machine with a HD drive can read and format both HD and DD disks.
A machine with a DD drive can read and format only DD disks.

Examples using the FORMAT command -

Example 1: Format a HD floppy disk in a HD drive

FORMAT A:

Example 2: Format a disk as a DOS System disk

FORMAT A: /S

Example 3: Format a 3.5" DD 720 KB disk in a 3.5" HD 1.44 MB drive

FORMAT A: /F:720
/T:80 /N:9

SYS - makes a disk a System disk

If you already have a formatted disk which you want to be able to use as a System (or
Boot) disk, you can install the 3 essential system files to it using this command.

Example: Make the diskette in drive A a system disk by installing the system files on the
hard disk to it

SYS C: A:

Note - that to make a disk a system disk you must either use the /S switch with the
FORMAT command, or use the SYS command. Simply copying the system from one
disk to another does not create a system disk.

UNFORMAT - unformats a disk

The UNFORMAT command is a limited safe guard introduced in DOS 5 to recover data
from a disk which have been lost as a result of performing a FORMAT.

You should not really need to use this command if you are careful. It is good practice
always to use the DIR command on a disk to see if it has already been used before trying
to format it. If DIR displays information about files and directories or disk space then the

79
 Introduction to Computers

disk is already DOS formatted. (However this simple test does not let you know if the
disk has already been formatted but for a Macintosh computer.)

Note - Unformatting a disk only works if the UNFORMAT command is used before
putting any new files on it.

Command Syntax: UNFORMAT DRIVE: /SWITCH

Where SWITCH is

TEST - display only, non committal of data. This shows how UNFORMAT would
attempt to recreate the information on the disk, but does not actually unformat the disk
and do so.

Example 1: Test to see how a disk would be recovered from a format

UNFORMAT A: /TEST

Example 2: Actually recover from use of the FORMAT command

UNFORMAT A:

DISKCOPY - makes a copy of a diskette

DISKCOPY makes an exact copy of one floppy disk (the source disk) on another (the
destination or target disk). The original contents of the destination disk are destroyed. If
the destination disk is unformatted DISKCOPY will format it. The disks should be of the
same type (e.g. two 1.44 MB HD disks), however if the destination disk is of a different
type from the source disk DISKCOPY will try to format it to match the source diskette
but this may not be possible.

Note - The XCOPY command (see later) is the best command to use when copying files
between different types of disk (e.g. a 720 KB DD disk and a 1.44 MB HD disk), or when
you want to preserves the original contents of the destination disk.

Command Syntax: DISKCOPY DRIVE1: DRIVE2:

(source disk) (destination disk)

Example 1: Make a copy of a diskette using two identical drives. (The copy will be from
the diskette in drive A to the diskette in drive B)

DISKCOPY A: B:

If you only have one floppy disk drive, which is normal, you can still make an exact copy
of a diskette. You specify drive A twice in the command line, start the copy with the

80
 Introduction to Computers

source diskette in that drive, and swap it with the target diskette as directed during the
copying operation until the copy is complete.

Example 2: Make a copy of a diskette using one drive

DISKCOPY A: A:

9.6.2 Directory Manipulation Commands

 MD or MKDIR - creates a directory

 CD or CHDIR - changes directory
 PROMPT - changes the command prompt
 TREE - displays the directory structure
 RD or RMDIR - removes a directory
 Renaming directories

PATH - creates a search path

MD or MKDIR - creates a directory

The MD or MKDIR command is used to create subdirectories in the root directory or

other subdirectories.

Command Syntax: MD DRIVE:\PATH\DIRECTORY

Example 1: Create a subdirectory named DOCS in the root directory of C

MD C:\DOCS

Example 2: Create a subdirectory of the DOCS subdirectory called WORK

MD C:\DOCS\WORK

Example 3: Create a subdirectory of WORK called TEMP

MD C:\DOCS\WORK\TEMP

Example 4: If you were already in the WORK directory (see next section re changing
directory) the following would be sufficient to create the TEMP subdirectory

MD TEMP

CD or CHDIR - changes directory

The CD or CHDIR command is used to move from one directory to another; or to show
the current directory path (i.e. the hierarchy of directories from the root directory to the

81
 Introduction to Computers

one you are currently working in). The directory you are currently in is known as the
current or default directory. When you move to another directory it becomes the current
directory. Once your system has booted your initial current directory will normally be the
root.

Command Syntax: CD DRIVE:\PATH

or CD

DOS uses the following 'special' characters to reference particular directories within the
directory structure and these can also be used with the CD command.

\ - the Root Directory

. - the Current Directory
.. - the Parent Directory of the current directory

Example 1: Move to the subdirectory TEMP (assuming it exists)

CD C:\DOCS\WORK\TEMP

Example 2: Display the path to the current directory (i.e. Current Directory Path)

CD

Example 3: Move to the parent directory of the current directory

CD ..

Example 4: Move back to the subdirectory TEMP (this example assumes you are
currently in subdirectory WORK; use example 2 to check before moving)

CD TEMP

Example 5: Move to the root directory. (This will make the root the current directory)

CD \

PROMPT - changes the command prompt

It is useful if you can see immediately from the command/screen prompt what directory
you are currently working in (i.e. the current directory) and the path to that directory. The
PROMPT command enables you to do this.

To make the command prompt show the path to the current directory, and not just the
letter representing the default disk drive, type

PROMPT $P$G

82
 Introduction to Computers

Your AUTOEXEC.BAT file may already include this command line, if not it can be
edited to do so. In this way a useful prompt will be set up every time you start a new
session on your computer.

After typing PROMPT $P$G as indicated, move up and down through the directory
structure to see how the prompt changes.

TREE - displays the directory structure

The TREE command enables the user to obtain a graphical view of the structure of
directories and subdirectories on a disk.

Command Syntax: TREE DRIVE:\PATH /SWITCH

Where SWITCH is

F - Display the names of files in each directory

Example 1: Display the structure of the DOCS directory

TREE C:\DOCS

Example 2: Display the directory structure and files of C

TREE C: /F

RD or RMDIR - removes a directory

RMDIR or RD is used to remove a directory. This command will only work if the
directory concerned is empty.

Command Syntax: RD DRIVE:\PATH\DIRECTORY

Example: Remove the empty subdirectory of C:\DOCS\WORK called TEMP

RD C:\DOCS\WORK\TEMP

DOS 6 introduced the DELTREE command which allows you to delete directories
whether or not they are empty. (i.e. it allows you to delete all the files and subdirectories
in a directory plus the directory itself with a single command.) This command should be
used with care.

Renaming directories

In DOS 5 there is no single command that allows you to rename a directory. You have to
use a combination of the MD, XCOPY, DEL and RD commands. This has been

83
 Introduction to Computers

addressed in DOS 6 with the introduction of the MOVE command which can be used to
rename directories or move files. (For DOS 5 renaming directories is simpler with
DOSSHELL - see later.)

PATH - creates a search path

For many DOS commands there is a program file which has to be executed in order for
the command to work. In the examples so far we have assumed that this is not a problem
but in fact DOS has to know where on disk, i.e. in which directory, the corresponding
program file is. If it cannot find the file then the command will fail. By default DOS will
only look in the current directory for this program/executable file. If it is not there then
DOS has to know the path (i.e. the hierarchy of directories from the root) to it.

This can be achieved by prepending the relevant path to the command name whenever
composing a command line. However it would be better if DOS could simply be told in
which directories to look for program files whenever a command name was entered. This
can be achieved by using the PATH command. It enables you to specify the path to
directories DOS should search, after the current directory for the program file for a
command. Once this command has been issued DOS will remember these directories
until the command is used again either to clear the search path or set a new search path,
or until the machine is switched off.

Command Syntax: PATH DRIVE:\PATH

You can have multiple occurrences of DRIVE:\PATH each separated by ;

Example 1: Set a path to \ (the root directory), and the DOS directory

PATH C:\DOS

This instructs DOS that after it has searched the current directory for a program file, it
should then search the root directory of C: and then the DOS subdirectory of the root.

This should be a minimum search path when using DOS because most of the DOS
program files are usually kept in the DOS subdirectory and the root directory. It allows
the DOS commands to be used, as in these notes, without prepending them with a path. A
search path containing at least these elements is usually set up in the AUTOEXEC.BAT.

Example 2: Add the directory MEMOS on the diskette to the search path

PATH C:\ DOS;A:\MEMOS

You can also use the PATH command to see what directories are currently in the search
path, and to clear it.

Example 3: Display the current search path PATH

84
 Introduction to Computers

Example 4: Clear the search path PATH ;

9.6.3 File Manipulation Commands

 DIR - Lists files and subdirectories

 Wildcard Characters ? *
 EDIT - creates a new file or modifies an existing file
 COPY - copies a file or a group of files
 XCOPY - copies all files in a directory (and its subdirectories)
 DEL or ERASE - deletes a file or a group of files
 UNDELETE - undeletes files
 COPY (or XCOPY) plus DEL - moves files
 DOSKEY - recalls commands
 RENAME or REN - renames files
 TYPE - displays text files
 PRINT - prints a text file
 COPY - used to create a file
 ATTRIB - sets file properties

DIR - Lists files and subdirectories

This command lists the names of files and directories in the current directory, or one
specified in the command line. It can also provide additional information such as the
amount of free space on the disk, the dates directories were created, and the dates files
were last modified and there sizes.

It is also possible use DIR to search for specific files.

Command Syntax: DIR DRIVE:\PATH\DIRECTORY /SWITCHES

FILE

Where SWITCHES are

P - page through the listing one screen at a time

W - produce a wide listing
S - execute the command in subdirectories of the
subject directory as well as the directory itself
A:x - list only files with attribute x where x = h (hidden), r (read only), s (system)
O:y - order the listing according to y where y = n (name), e (extension), s (size), d (date
and time - earliest first)
B - blank out heading and summary information

85
 Introduction to Computers

Example 1: List the contents of the root directory of the floppy disk

DIR A:\

Example 2: Produce a wide listing of the current directory of C one page at a time

DIR C: /P /W

Example 3: List every occurrence of the file AUTOEXEC.BAT in the current directory
and its subdirectories

DIR AUTOEXEC.BAT /S

Example 4: List the contents of the DOS directory in chronological order

DIR C:\DOS /O:D

Example 5: List only those files in the root of C which are hidden

DIR C:\ /A:H

Wildcard Characters ? *

A Wildcard Character is a character which has special meaning. In DOS wildcards are
the * (the asterisk) and ? (the question mark ). They are usable with many DOS
commands. The question mark represents any single character, and the asterisk a string of
characters. Wildcards enable you to do more with the basic commands.

As examples, suppose you wanted to use the DIR command to list only the files that
ended with a particular extension, or started with a particular word.

Example 1: Display only those files in the root of C whose name ends with the .COM
extension

DIR C:\ *.COM

Example 2: Display those files in the DOS directory which start with DISK, are followed
by 4 characters, and have any extension.

DIR C:\DOS\DISK????.*

You should get into the habit of using the DIR after you have executed a command (e.g.
the MD or CD commands discussed above, or the COPY, DEL etc. commands below) to
confirm the effects of that command.

86
 Introduction to Computers

EDIT - creates a new file or modifies an existing file

To create a text file in DOS you invoke the Screen Editor by using the EDIT command.

Command Syntax: EDIT DRIVE:\PATH\ FILE

FILE must be an unformatted ASCII text file

Carry out the following steps to create your own file; this will give you a file on which to
practice the other commands.

Type EDIT <return> at the DOS prompt.

Once in the editor press the ESC key.

You should get the following screen, which is bluish in colour:

Fig 21 MS-DOS Editor Screen

Then type in the bold text below, using your own name where it says your name. This
text will constitute the contents of the file. (If you make a mistake while typing use the
following keys to make corrections. - The Delete and BackSpace keys to remove letters;
the (Arrow) keys to position the Cursor without removing letters; and the
Insert key to switch between Insert and Over Write mode.)

@echo off
echo.
echo GOOD DAY your name
echo.

Once you have finished press the Alt key which, as indicated at the bottom of the screen,
activates the menus. You will see the first letters of the Menu Items at the top of the
screen become illuminated. The File item should be highlighted. If not use and to

87
 Introduction to Computers

highlight it. Press the Return or Enter key to activate the File Menu. Use to move the
menu Bar down to Save As, and press <return< to select this option.

Type in the file name HELLO.BAT <return>. You have now created a file called
HELLO.BAT, containing the above text. Now leave the Editor by activating the File
Menu, and then selecting Exit.

The file you have just created is a simple Batch file - i.e. a file of DOS commands which
will be executed, one after the other, simply by typing in the name of the file (without the
.BAT extension).

To run this batch file type HELLO <return> at the DOS prompt.

The message Good Day should appear.

The Editor provides an easy method of creating a new text file. It is particularly useful for
creating DOS batch files (which are special text files). If you want to modify/edit an
existing text file then you simply supply the name of that file as a parameter to the
command. Once in EDIT you can use a mouse, or simply the keyboard, to highlight text,
cut (or copy) and paste that text, select menu items, etc. Most of the commands in EDIT
are self explanatory and easy to use.

Example: Edit the batch file you have just created.

EDIT HELLO.BAT

COPY - copies a file or a group of files

The COPY command enables you to make copies of files. It may be used to make a copy
within a particular directory, to copy from one directory to another and to copy from one
disk to another. You can use the command to copy one file by using its filename, or
several files by using the DOS wildcard characters * and/or ?

Command Syntax: COPY DRIVE1:\PATH1\ FILE1(S) DRIVE2:\PATH2\ FILE2(S)

Example 1: Copy one file from drive C to drive A

COPY C:\HELLO.BAT A:

Example 2: Make a copy of a file within the same directory. You have to give the copy a
different name. e.g. GREETING.BAT

COPY A:\HELLO.BAT A:\GREETING.BAT

Example 3: Copy all the files in the root of A to a directory on the hard drive

88
 Introduction to Computers

COPY A:\*.* C:\DOCS

Now use the DIR command to list the files on drive A again.

XCOPY - copies all files in a directory (and its subdirectories)

The XCOPY command behaves in the same way as the COPY command, however it
allows the copying of all the files in a directory, and also its subdirectories.

Command Syntax:

XCOPY DRIVE1:\PATH1\DIRECTORY DRIVE2:\PATH2 /SWITCHES

FILES

Where SWITCHES are

S - copy subdirectories which contain files

E - also copy empty subdirectories (/E is used with /S)
D:date - only copy files changed after a certain date

Example 1: Copy the contents of the DOCS directory, and its subdirectories, including
empty ones, to directory TEMP-DIR on A

XCOPY C:\DOCS A:\TEMP-DIR /S /E

DOS will allow you to create the TEMP-DIR if it does not already exist.

Example 2: Copy all the files in the root directory of C modified on or after 1/1/96 to A

XCOPY C:\*.* A: /D:1/1/96

Example 3: Copy all the files in the A drive's TEMP-DIR directory to a directory with the
same name on the C drive

XCOPY A:\TEMP-DIR C:\TEMP-DIR

DEL or ERASE - deletes a file or a group of files

The DEL or ERASE commands perform the same operation; you can use either.

Command Syntax: DEL DRIVE:\PATH\FILE(S) /P

The P switch causes DOS to prompt the user with the name of the file to be deleted, to
confirm that this is really his intention, before actually carrying out the deletion. If the P
switch is omitted then the deletion is carried out silently.

89
 Introduction to Computers

Example 1: Prompt the user with the name of each file in the current directory that has
the extension .BAK, and ask him to confirm whether it should be deleted

DEL *.BAK /P

Example 2: Delete the file HELLO.BAT from the DOCS directory

DEL C:\DOCS\HELLO.BAT

Example 3: Delete all files in the root of A

DEL A:\*.*

Whenever the wildcard character is used in this manner, the user is always reminded that
all files in the directory will be deleted, and asked to confirm Yes or No.

Warning

NEVER delete the file COMMAND.COM file since it is the file which enables DOS
commands to run.

Be very careful when using wildcard characters with the DEL/ERASE command, as you
will not be asked to confirm the deletion of individual files when using it (unless you use
the /P switch) and so may delete a file which you really need to keep. You should always
use DIR to list the contents of the directory before you start deleting using wildcards, to
see exactly what files will be affected.

UNDELETE - undeletes files

The UNDELETE command, which was not available before DOS 5, attempts to undo the
use of DEL. It provides a degree of protection against accidental deletion of files.
UNDELETE relies on the fact that DELeting a file does not physically remove it but
simply marks the area of disk concerned as available for reuse. Thus once you have
deleted a file you will not see it if, for example, you execute the DIR command but
providing it has not been subsequently overwritten it should be recoverable using
UNDELETE.

Command Syntax: UNDELETE DRIVE:\PATH\FILE(S) /SWITCHES

Where SWITCHES are

LIST - list all files deleted which have not been subsequently overwritten
ALL - undelete all deleted files without prompting the user

Example 1: Undelete the file called HELLO.BAT which has been deleted from the A
drive

90
 Introduction to Computers

UNDELETE A:\HELLO.BAT

If recoverable the dialogue will be continue something like this -

Directory: A:\
File Specifications: HELLO.BAT

Deletion-tracking file not found.

MS-DOS directory contains 1 deleted files.

Of those, 1 files may be recovered.

Using the MS-DOS directory method.

?ELLO BAT 49 1/1/96 16:23 ...A Undelete (Y/N)? Y

Please type the first character for ?ELLO .BAT: H

File successfully undeleted.

Example 2: Undelete all files that are recoverable in the current directory

UNDELETE

COPY (or XCOPY) plus DEL - moves files

DOS 5 does not have a specific command for moving files (DOS 6 does) but this can be
achieved by using the COPY (or XCOPY) and DEL commands. i.e. Making copies and
then deleting the originals.

Example: Move all the document files in the root directory of drive C to drive A

COPY C:\*.DOC A:

DEL C:\*.DOC

RENAME or REN - renames files

The RENAME or REN command is used to rename a file or a group of files. The file
contents and the location of the renamed files remains the same.

Command Syntax: REN DRIVE:\PATH\ FILE1 FILE2

Example 1: Rename a single file

REN C:\HELLO.BAT MESSAGE.BAT

91
 Introduction to Computers

Example 2: Rename a group of files to have a common file extension

REN A:\TEMP-DIR\*.BAT *.BAK

DOSKEY - recalls commands

The DOSKEY command is only available in DOS 5 and 6. Once the command is issued
and the DOSKEY program installed it saves subsequent command lines typed in at the
keyboard in an area, or buffer, of RAM; this in effect means that it 'remembers' previous
command lines. The user can recall these lines with a few simple keystrokes instead of
having to type them in again.

To start DOSKEY type

DOSKEY <return>

From this point on the command lines you input will be remembered.

You can then use the and (or F8 ) keys to view the command lines and <return> to
execute your choice.

You can edit a command line you have recalled by using the and keys to position
yourself within the line and using the Insert key to switch between Over Writing and
Inserting text before typing in your changes. You can also clear the current command line
by pressing the ESC key.

Additionally

F7 Displays a numbered list of the commands DOSKEY has stored

F9 Allows you to selects a command by number

Alt+F7 Clears the buffer

TYPE - displays text files

The TYPE command is used to display the content of a textfile on screen. (If the screen
displays garbled characters, with regular beeping sounds, then it is likely that the file is a
non text file.) TYPE merely displays a file; it does not allow you to edit/change it.

Command Syntax: TYPE DRIVE:\PATH\ FILE

Example: Display the contents of a file called MESSAGE.BAT

TYPE MESSAGE.BAT

92
 Introduction to Computers

PRINT - prints a text file

The PRINT command allows you to obtain a print-out of a text file. Printers are slow
devices and are often shared by more than one computer. Obviously you do not want to
have to wait until your file is physically printed before being able to continue using your
machine. Therefore when you execute the PRINT command your file is added to a print
queue - this is a list, stored in memory, of files waiting to be printed. This 'queuing' of a
file by PRINT is very quick; much quicker than the actual printing of the file. Once the
PRINT command has been executed DOS is free to execute other commands even though
the relevant file might not yet have been printed. You can continue working and the file
will be printed, in the background, when it reaches the top of the queue.

Command Syntax: PRINT /SWITCHES DRIVE:\PATH\ FILE

Where SWITCHES are

T - Terminate printing i.e. remove all files from the print queue

C - Cancel printing of the specified file

Example 1: Print two text files

PRINT A:\TEMP-DIR\HELLO.BAK MESSAGE.BAT

Example 2: List the files in the Print Queue

PRINT

Example 3: Cancel the printing of MESSAGE.BAT

PRINT /C MESSAGE.BAT

Example 4: Empty the print queue

PRINT /T

COPY - used to create a file

The COPY command can be used as a quick method of creating a small text file. The
command line you use instructs DOS to copy all subsequent screen output (represented
by CON:) to the file you specify, until you terminate this action and close the file by
pressing Ctrl+Z (i.e. pressing the Ctrl key and before releasing it pressing the Z key) or
the F6 function key.

This method of creating a file is very crude. Unlike EDIT or other editors it does not
allow you to correct your mistakes as you are creating the file.

93
 Introduction to Computers

Command Syntax: COPY CON: DRIVE:\PATH\ FILE

The best way to demonstrate this use of COPY is with an example.

Type in the following. Every thing you type after the COPY line will be stored in LONG-
MSG.BAT until you press Ctrl+Z or F6. If you make a mistake while typing you can
abort what you have done and return to the DOS prompt by pressing Ctrl+C (i.e. pressing
the Ctrl and C keys in the manner indicated for Ctrl+Z above). Use your own name where
it says your name.

COPY CON: LONG-MSG.BAT

@echo off
echo.
echo GOOD DAY your name
echo.
pause
echo YOU ARE USING
ver

Then type Ctrl+Z or F6

Now run this batch file which you have just created.

ATTRIB - sets file properties

ATTRIB enables you to assign files the properties, or attributes, of being Read Only (R),
Hidden (H) and System (S) files. Each of these attributes (R, H, and S) is assigned with +
and cleared with -

Command Syntax: ATTRIB + attribute DRIVE:\PATH\FILE(S) /SWITCH

- attribute

Where attribute may be

R - read only file attribute (file cannot be deleted or edited but can be listed with DIR and
viewed and copied)

S - system file attribute (file cannot be deleted or copied, nor is it visible with the DIR
command but it can be edited)

H - hidden file attribute (same properties as S)

A file may have more than one attribute

SWITCH is

94
 Introduction to Computers

S - apply the command in all subdirectories of the path specified

Example 1: Protect the MESSAGE.BAT file from being deleted or changed - i.e. making
it Read Only

ATTRIB +R MESSAGE.BAT

Try deleting or editing the file once you have added this attribute.

Example 2: Remove the Read Only attribute from a file

ATTRIB -R MESSAGE.BAT

Example 3: Hide all the batch files in the current directory

ATTRIB +H *.BAT

Use DIR to check the files have been hidden.

Example 4: Make the files visible to DIR again

ATTRIB +H *.BAT

Note, that although System and Hidden files cannot be seen using DIR, it is possible to
find out what files have these attributes (and their names if you have forgotten them) by
using ATTRIB on its own to view the attributes of all files in your directory.

REFERENCES
ELLISWORTH J.U.H and ELLSWORTH M.V, The new Internet Business Book New
York
John Willey and Sons Inc:, 1996

LAUDON, KC AND LAUDON J.P (4th Edition) Management Information Systems, and
the internet New York ,Drydon press, 1998

LAUDON, KC AND LAUDON J.P (8th Edition) Management Information Systems:

managing the Digital firm, New Delhi: Prentice Hall, 2004

FERGUSON, S. and HEBELS, R, Computers for Librarians: An Introduction to the

electronic library

LEWIS MACKENZIE Communication And Networks, The MacGraw-Hill Publishing,

England, 1998

SUSAN B, PECK AND STEPHEN A, Building your own website: Everything you need
to reach your audience on the web, O’Leilly and Associates, 1996

95
 Introduction to Computers

ZHENGXIN CHEN, Data mining and Uncertain Reasoning, Department of Computer

Science, University of Nebraska, Omaha, J Wiley and Sons Inc, 2001

PASTORE, MICHAEL, SHOPERS Say E-commerce Was Good For Them URL:
http://www.cyberatlas.internet.com

GLASNER, JOANNA, “FBI” : NET fraud Reports Rising URL:

http://www.wirednews.com, http://www.fraud.org

Also Used WIKIPEDIA, HOWSTUFF WORK and many other Internet resources.

Please do not be limited to these resources

96