SPECIALIZED INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES (SIT)

Overview: This course covers the topics to familiarize basic computer operation including basic hardware of
a computer, basic software applications, history of a computer and Trends in IT. Also include the basic
troubleshooting of a computer and computer network.

CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Computer Technology

Objectives: Understand the Basic Idea/Knowledge about classification, types of computers

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store,
retrieve, and process data.
 A computer is an electronic device that processes data according to instructions that are provided
by computer programs. Computers can be used to perform a wide range of tasks, from basic
calculations to complex operations

WHO INVENTED THE COMPUTER?

Charles Babbage (1791 – 1871) is often referred to as the “father of the computer.” He is credited with
promoting the concept of programming and the idea of automating computation.

Ada Lovelace (1815 – 1852) wrote what is often regarded as the first algorithm intended to be processed
by a machine.

George Boole (1815 – 1864) developed a logic system that laid the groundwork for the binary system that’s
used in computer programming and digital circuit design.

Alan Turing (1912–1954) is credited with formalizing the concepts of “algorithm” and “computation” with
the invention of his Turing machine. He also made contributions to the field of artificial intelligence and
proposed a method for determining whether a machine is capable of intelligent behavior that is
indistinguishable from that of a human.

John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry (1942) designed and built one of the first electronic digital computers.
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), which was designed primarily for solving linear algebraic equations,
used binary digits and had the ability to perform simultaneous operations in parallel.

John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert (1945) designed and built the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC), one of the earliest electronic general-purpose digital computers. ENIAC could be
reprogrammed to solve a wide range of numerical problems.

John von Neumann (1903-1957) proposed the principle of stored programs in 1945. This innovation is
often considered to be as significant as the transition from mechanical to electronic computing.

John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invented the transistor in 1947. Transistors, which are
used to control and manipulate electrical signals, began to replace vacuum tubes in computers in the late
1950s.

Robert Noyce’s idea for putting an integrated circuit (IC) on a silicon chip in 1959 made it possible to mass
produce integrated circuits and paved the way for miniaturizing computer components.

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Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Stanley Mazor, and Masatoshi Shima designed the first commercially available
microprocessor, which was released by Intel in 1971. The microprocessor’s ability to perform a variety of
tasks on a single chip helped make personal computers (PCs) and smart devices possible

IPO CYCLE

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

 Computer Hardware - is responsible for executing tasks. Also refers to a computer’s physical
components.
 Computer Software - provides the hardware with directions for what tasks to perform – and how to
perform them. Software refers to the system software and software applications that run on a
computer and enable the hardware to perform various tasks.
 Firmware – is a special type of software that is embedded in hardware components to control their
basic functions.
 Peripherals – are external devices that connect to a computer and provide it with additional
functionalities.

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Computers are typically classified by category type, brand name, or operating system (OS). The
classifications help consumers, businesses, and tech enthusiasts make informed purchasing decisions,
because they help shoppers understand what to expect from a particular computer in terms of capability,
compatibility, and overall user experience.

TYPES OF SOFTWARE
 Operating System - System software is designed to run a computer's hardware and provides a
platform for applications to run on top of.
 Application Software – An application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks.

Other types of software include programming software, which provides the programming tools software
developers need; middleware, which sits between system software and applications; and driver software,
which operates computer devices and peripherals.

COMPUTER CATEGORIES
Computers are often categorized by their physical size, functional capabilities, and intended use. Popular
computer categories include:

Supercomputers: In the past, supercomputers were individual computers that had a lot of processing
power. Today, most high-performance computing is carried out with computer clusters or processing units
that work together to achieve extremely high levels of computational speed and performance.

Microcomputers: These are small computers that can be embedded in consumer electronics, home
appliances, automobiles, and machinery to control specific functions.

Mainframe computers: These are powerful computers that are primarily used by enterprise-level
businesses for batch processing. Mainframe computers have large form factors. Today, most mainframes
are about the size of a refrigerator.

Workstations: Workstations are high-performance computers that have more processing power and are
more expensive than regular desktop computers. Workstations, which are used to process large datasets

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and perform complex calculations quickly, have played an important role in the development of large
language models (LLMs) and generative AI.

Servers: This is a computer that provides data and services to other computers over a network. In theory,
any type of computer can be used as a server.

Personal computers (PCs): PC computers are used by individuals and businesses for everyday tasks.
This category includes both desktop and mobile computers.
 A desktop computer is a personal computer designed for use at a single location. Desktops have
larger form factors, more processing power and greater storage capacity than mobile computing
devices.
 A mobile computer is a portable computing device that is designed to be easily carried and used
in different locations. Mobile computers typically have built-in batteries that provide power, are
designed with small form factors for hand-held use and easy transport, and offer wireless
Internet connectivity options.
STANDARD COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Component Description
The CPU is responsible for executing instructions,
performing calculations, and controlling the way data
Central Processing is transmitted from one component to another. The
Unit (CPU) CPU, which was historically referred to as a
computer’s brain, is also commonly known as
a processor or microprocessor.

This is a computer’s main circuit board. It acts as the

backbone that provides slots and sockets for essential
Motherboard computer components and various expansion cards.
The components physically plug into the motherboard
so they can communicate and share data.

This type of volatile memory temporarily stores data

Random Access
that other programs are using. When the computer’s
Memory (RAM)
power is turned off, data stored in RAM disappears.

This type of non-volatile memory saves data when the

computer’s power is turned off. Hard disk
Storage drives (HDDs), solid-state storage drives
(SSDs), hybrid drives (SSHDs), and on-board memory
chips are all examples of computer storage.

This component converts alternating current (AC)

from a standard electricity outlet on a wall into the
Power Supply Unit
direct current (DC) that a computer uses. The
(PSU)
component within a PSU that performs the AC to DC
conversion is known as a rectifier.

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 This component handles the way images, video, and
animations are rendered. It processes the complex
mathematical and geometric calculations that are
Graphics
necessary to render graphics, and offloads these
Processing Unit
compute-intensive tasks from the central processing
(GPU)
unit. This accelerates the computer’s ability to display
and manipulate visual data, and allows the CPU to
focus on other computing tasks.
The cooling system in a computer is responsible for
maintaining optimal operating temperatures for a
Cooling System computer’s internal components. Heat sinks and
fans are commonly used to prevent CPUs, GPUs and
PSUs from overheating.
These are external devices that connect to a
computer to provide input and output (I/O) functions.
Keyboards and mice are examples of input devices
Peripherals that allow the user to enter data and
commands. Ultrawide monitors, laser printers, and
speakers are examples of output devices a computer
uses to convey information to the user.
A network adapter, also known as a network interface
card (NIC), is a hardware component that enables a
Network Adaptor computer to connect to a network. Network adapters
allow a computer to communicate with other network
devices and the internet.

STANDARD COMPUTER SOFTWARE COMPONENTS

Component Description
These are specific types of software that allow a computer’s operating system to
communicate with peripheral hardware devices. Drivers translate OS commands into
Device Drivers
actions that the device can understand and execute. Most operating systems today have
pre-installed generic drivers to facilitate the use of plug and play (PnP) peripherals.

These are low-level software programs that help a computer maintain, optimize, and
Utility Software manage its resources. Utilities for disk defragmentation, disk cleanup, and disk
formatting are included in most operating systems.

These are programs designed to help users perform specific tasks. Some types
of application software (like word processors and spreadsheets) are designed to be used
Application Software
for a variety of related tasks. Other types of application software (like photo editing or
accounting software) are designed for one specific task.
This type of computer software acts as a bridge that allows disparate software
Middleware
applications to communicate and share data.

This is a computer’s most important software. The OS acts as an intermediary between

the computer’s hardware and the user. It is responsible for managing hardware resources,
Operating System (OS)
running software applications, providing a graphical user interface, managing
device access control, managing file storage, and handling networking tasks.

CHAPTER 2: Computer Hardware

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Objectives: Identify and understand the Basic computer hardware components and its function. Also, the
Disassembly and Assembly of computers and laptops

Input Devices - Input devices are used to allow us to enter information into a computer system. This
might be, for example, to control a character in a game, click on a shortcut icon on your desktop, or type
data into a spreadsheet.

Keyboard
Made up of a panel of keys, this device is used to input alphanumeric
characters, symbols and simple commands into a computer.

This is by far the easiest way for most users to input letters & numbers, such
as when writing a report or producing a spreadsheet. It’s also very commonly
used for navigation by visually impaired users and users with limited motor
function.

Mouse
A pointing device that allows a user to control a cursor on the screen in order to
select objects that are displayed.

Microphone
An audio input device that allows a user to enter sounds into the computer system. Your
sound card will contain an analogue to digital converter (ADC) to convert the analogue
sound wave into digital data the computer can store & transmit.

This is commonly used for recording your voice, such as for a podcast or a vlog. Finally, it
can be used to input commands in a speech interface and for voice-to-text data input
which is popular with visually impaired users, users with limited motor function and those
with cognitive disabilities like dyslexia.

Webcam
A device used to input digital video or still pictures into a computer system. It does this
through the use of an image sensor chip.

This is used for VoIP conversation so that you can send a video of yourself along with
your voice. This lets you see friends and family on the other side of the world. It’s also
used for vlogging.

Scanner
A device that converts documents into digital data so that they can be viewed
and edited on a computer system. It does this by shining a light onto the
document which reflects onto a CCD array.

This can be used to scan in hard copies of photos for editing or sharing online.
It can also be used with OCR software to scan in documents that we are then
able to edit using word processing software.

Graphics Tablet/Digitizer
A flat board and a pointing device, known as a stylus, that allows a user to enter
data much like they’re using a pen & paper. These work in many different ways.

Graphic designers commonly use these to produce illustrations, such as designing

a logo. Of course, this is also used in tablet PCs as the primary input device.

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Sensor
An input device that takes readings from the environment such as temperature,
light and motion. Obviously, each type of sensor works in a completely different
way.

An example of where this could be used is a thermostat that detects temperature

and turns your heating on or off.

Output Devices - Output devices are used to send data from a digital device to a user or another device.
For example, this could be so you can see the photo you’ve just taken on your digital camera or to hear the
voice of someone you’re having a VoIP conversation with.

Monitor
A device that outputs a visual display of the user interface of any software
that is currently being used on the computer.

We use it so we can see the data we are working with and can interact with
it. Without the monitor, we wouldn’t be able to see the effect of our inputs.

Printer
A device that is used to produce physical copies of the documents & images produced
using a computer system.

Braille embossers are a type of printer that outputs in braille so that those with visual
impairments can read it. 3D printers produce objects based on models created in CAD
software.

Speakers
A device that is designed to produce audio output by converting the digital audio
signal from a computer into an analogue signal.

It is commonly used to listen to music and to take part in VoIP conversations or

video conferencing. Headphones are another auditory output device that is more
private & portable.

Actuator
An output device that produces motion. We use it to control or move things. They are
commonly used with sensors as part of ‘Ubiquitous Computing’ devices. An example could
be an actuator that turns our heating on or off.

List of Computer Hardware components that you will find INSIDE THE MODERN COMPUTER.

 Motherboard: The motherboard (also known as a logic board in other devices) coordinates all of the
other hardware.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU interprets and executes most of your computer's
commands.

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  Random Access Memory (RAM): RAM is the memory your computer uses to work; it's different from
the storage that holds your files and programs. Your computer spends RAM to run those programs
and process information.

 Power Supply Unit (PSU): The PSU is the means through which your computer draws power. It's
usually a cord that plugs into the wall and a "power brick."

 Video card: This component handles drawing graphics in games and displaying videos.

 Hard Disk Drive (HDD): An HDD is an older version of the hard drive; it stores information like apps
and documents on a physical disc that your computer reads with an arm that travels across it
(similarly to a record player).

 Solid-State Drive (SSD): Newer SSDs store information on chips. They're faster, quieter, and more
expensive than HDDs, though both do the same job.

 Optical disk drive (e.g., BD/DVD/CD drive): This feature is less common in newer computers, but
they provide a place to enter a music, movie, or data disk for your computer to read.

 Card reader (SD/SDHC, CF, etc.): Your computer uses these to read from portable storage like SD
cards.

Computer Memory

Memory is most often referred to as the primary storage on a computer, such as RAM. Memory is also
where information is processed. It enables users to access data that is stored for a short time. The data is
only stored for a short time because primary memory is volatile, meaning it isn't retained when the
computer is turned off.

The term storage refers to secondary memory and is where data in a computer is kept. An example of
storage is a hard drive or a hard disk drive (HDD). Storage is nonvolatile, meaning the information is still
there after the computer is turned off and then back on. A running program may be in a computer's
primary memory when in use -- for fast retrieval of information -- but when that program is closed, it
resides in secondary memory or storage.

Types of computer memory

In general, memory can be divided into primary and secondary memory; moreover, there are numerous
types of memory when discussing just primary memory. Some types of primary memory include the
following
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 Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available to the
processor than the computer's main memory source. It is also called CPU memory because it is typically
integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU.

 RAM. The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be accessed directly by the
processor.

 Dynamic RAM. DRAM is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used by the data or
program code needed by a computer processor to function.

 Static RAM. SRAM retains data bits in its memory for as long as power is supplied to it. Unlike DRAM,
which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to be
periodically refreshed.

 Double Data Rate SDRAM. DDR SRAM is SDRAM that can theoretically improve memory clock speed
to at least 200 MHz.

 Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM. DDR4 RAM is a type of DRAM that has a high-
bandwidth interface and is the successor to its previous DDR2 and DDR3 versions. DDR4 RAM allows
for lower voltage requirements and higher module density. It is coupled with higher data rate transfer
speeds and allows for dual in-line memory modules (DIMMS) up to 64 GB.

 Rambus Dynamic RAM. DRDRAM is a memory subsystem that promised to transfer up to 1.6 billion
bytes per second. The subsystem consists of RAM, the RAM controller, the bus that connects RAM to
the microprocessor and devices in the computer that use it.

 Read-only memory. ROM is a type of computer storage containing nonvolatile, permanent data that,
normally, can only be read and not written to. ROM contains the programming that enables a computer
to start up or regenerate each time it is turned on.

 Programmable ROM. PROM is ROM that can be modified once by a user. It enables a user to tailor a
microcode program using a special machine called a PROM programmer.

 Erasable PROM. EPROM is programmable read-only memory PROM that can be erased and re-used.
Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a window designed into the memory
chip.

 Electrically erasable PROM. EEPROM is a user-modifiable ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher-than-normal electrical voltage. Unlike
EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from the computer to be modified. However,
an EEPROM chip must be erased and reprogrammed in its entirety, not selectively.

 Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary memory can be used as if it
were a part of the main memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software to enable a computer to
compensate for physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage.

Motherboard

The motherboard serves to connect all of the parts of a computer together. The CPU, memory, hard drives,
and other ports and expansion cards all connect to the motherboard directly or via cables.

The motherboard is the piece of computer hardware that can be thought of as the "backbone" of the PC,
or more appropriately as the "mother" that holds all the pieces together.

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Phones, tablets and other small devices have motherboards, too, but they're often called logic boards
instead. Their components are usually soldered directly onto the board to save space, which means there
aren't expansion slots for upgrades like you see in desktop computers.

NoA computer's motherboard is also known as the mainboard, mobo (abbreviation), MB (abbreviation),
system board, baseboard, and even logic board. Expansion boards used in some older systems are called
daughterboards.

BUTTON AND PORTS ON A COMPUTER

Computer Buttons

Computer buttons are designed to be physically pressed by a human

finger or virtually pressed with a pointing device such as
a trackpad, stylus or mouse.

 The power button turns the computer on or off. On laptops,

this button can also be used to put the computer into sleep
mode.

 A reset button can restart a desktop computer without turning

the power off.

 The volume buttons on laptops and mobile computing devices are

used to adjust computer speaker

 Many keyboards have function buttons that can be pressed to

perform specific tasks like grabbing a screenshot.

Computer Ports

A computer port is a physical docking point on a computer that can be used to connect peripheral devices
to a computer with cables. Ports are characterized by their physical shape and size. This ensures that only
compatible cables and devices can be connected.

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  USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports are used to connect peripherals like keyboards, mice, external hard
drives, printers, and flash drives to a computer.

 HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) ports are used to transmit data from a computer to a
monitor, TV, or projector.

 Ethernet ports are used to establish wired internet connections.

 Auxiliary ports are used to connect headphones and external speakers or microphones to a
computer.

 The power port is a specialized input port designed to connect a computing device to a power
supply.

CHAPTER 3: Computer Software

Objectives: Understand the Basic computer software like App Software and google apps

Types of System Software

1. Operating System – an operating system is a software that controls how your hardware works,
which means it manages the computer's memory, processes, and all of its software and hardware.
2. Device Drivers – Device drivers are tiny programs that enable a computer to communicate with its
hardware devices, such as printers, scanners, and keyboards. Without device drivers, the hardware
you connect to your computer will not be working properly. For example, without device drivers,
your printer will not work properly. Device manufacturers provide most device drivers, but Microsoft
also provides some generic ones.
3. Firmware – is a type of software that is embedded in electronic devices, providing instructions for
how the hardware should operate. It is a set of instructions that are permanently stored in the
device's memory, controlling the device's basic functions and allowing it to perform specific tasks.
Firmware is essential for the functionality of devices such as smartphones, routers, and printers.
4. BIOS and UEFI
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. It is a firmware that is built into a computer's
motherboard. BIOS provides essential instructions and low-level control for the hardware
components of the computer, helping it start up and initiate communication between the operating
system and the hardware during the boot process. BIOS also allows users to configure basic
settings for their computer, such as the boot order of devices.

UEFI (unified extensible firmware interface) is a newer type of firmware that offers more features
than BIOS. UEFI is designed to be platform-independent and can be used with a variety of
operating systems. UEFI also supports a larger boot volume than BIOS and can boot from devices
with a 2TB or more capacity.
5. Programming Language Translator - Programming languages are like human languages in that they
are used to communicate instructions to a computer. However, unlike human languages,
programming languages are designed to be read and understood by computers, not humans. That
is where programming language translators come in.

Programming language translators are programs that convert code written in one programming
language into another programming language. This translator can be helpful when you want to take
code written in one language and run it on a machine that only understands another language. It
converts code from an older language into a newer one, making it easier to keep your code up-to-
date.

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 6. Utilities - Utilities are programs that help maintain and optimize a computer's performance.
Examples of utility programs include file managers, virus scanners, and disk defragmenters. Utility
programs are usually bundled with the operating system or can be downloaded from the internet.

Types of Software Piracy

Software piracy refers to the unauthorized use, reproduction, or distribution of software without the proper
licensing or permission from the copyright owner. There are various types of software piracy, each involving
different methods and actions.

1. End-User Piracy: Occurs when individuals or organizations use unauthorized copies of software.
For example, an individual or a company uses a single licensed copy of software on multiple
computers or devices without purchasing additional licenses.

2. Counterfeiting: Involves the production and distribution of fake or unauthorized copies of

software. For example, a company sells counterfeit copies of popular software at a lower price,
often through unauthorized channels.

3. Internet Piracy: Involves the unauthorized distribution of software over the internet, often
through file-sharing or torrent websites. For example, uploading and sharing cracked versions of
software on peer-to-peer networks for others to download without proper licensing.

4. Reseller Piracy: Occurs when authorized resellers sell software beyond the agreed-upon terms or
without proper authorization. For example, a software reseller sells more copies of a software
package than the licensing agreement permits.

5. Hard-Disk Loading: Involves pre-installing unauthorized copies of software onto computers

before selling them to customers. For example, a computer manufacturer installs pirated software
on new computers to reduce costs.

6. Corporate Software Piracy: Takes place within organizations when employees use unauthorized
copies of software on company-owned devices. For example, an employees install and use
unlicensed software on their work computers without the company's knowledge.

7. Online Auction Piracy: Involves the sale of unauthorized software through online auction
platforms. For example, someone sells pirated software licenses on an online auction site, claiming
them to be legitimate.

8. Trade Secret Theft: Occurs when individuals or organizations gain unauthorized access to a
software company's proprietary code or algorithms. For example, a former employee steals source
code from a software development company and uses it to create a competing product.

9. Educational Software Piracy: Involves the unauthorized use or distribution of educational

software within academic institutions. For example, a school or university uses software without
proper licensing or makes unauthorized copies for students.

10. License Key Generators: Involves the creation or distribution of tools that generate unauthorized
license keys for software. For example, a hacker creates a keygen tool that generates valid license
keys, allowing users to unlock software without purchasing it.

Business Application Software – Business software is any software or set of computer programs used
by business users to perform various business functions. These business applications are used to increase
productivity, measure productivity, and perform other business functions accurately.

Google Applications

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Google offers a suite of applications and services that cater to a wide range of user needs, both for
personal and business use. Here are some key Google applications and their common usages:

 Google Search – To find information on the internet by entering keywords or phrases. Google
Search is the most widely used search engine globally.

 Gmail (Google Mail) – For sending and receiving emails. Gmail is a popular web-based email service
with features such as labels, filters, and conversation view.

 Google Drive – For storing, sharing, and collaborating on documents, spreadsheets, presentations,
and other files in the cloud. Google Drive includes Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides.

 Google Docs – A web-based word processor for creating, editing, and collaborating on documents in
real-time. Multiple users can work on the same document simultaneously.

 Google Sheets – A web-based spreadsheet application for creating, editing, and collaborating on
spreadsheets. It is useful for tasks like budgeting and data analysis.

 Google Slides – A web-based presentation application for creating, editing, and collaborating on
slideshows. Ideal for presentations and visual storytelling.

 Google Calendar – To organize and schedule events, appointments, and meetings. Users can set
reminders and share calendars with others for collaborative scheduling.

 Google Meet – For video conferencing and online meetings. Google Meet allows users to connect
with colleagues or friends through video and audio calls.

 Google Contacts – To manage and organize contacts. Google Contacts syncs with other Google
applications and devices.

 Google Photos – For storing, organizing, and sharing photos and videos. Google Photos offers
automatic backup and various organizational features.

 Google Maps – To navigate, find locations, and explore maps. Google Maps provides directions,
traffic information, and points of interest.

 Google Chrome – A web browser for accessing the internet. Google Chrome is known for its speed,
simplicity, and synchronization with Google accounts.

 Google Translate – To translate text or speech from one language to another. Google Translate
supports a wide range of languages and translation methods.

 Google Keep – A note-taking application for creating and organizing notes, checklists, and
reminders. Notes can be accessed across devices.

 Google Classroom – Designed for educators and students, Google Classroom facilitates online
learning by providing a platform for assignments, communication, and collaboration.

These Google applications are designed to work seamlessly together, promoting collaboration, productivity,
and organization across various aspects of personal and professional life. Many of these applications are
available both on the web and as mobile apps, ensuring accessibility from different devices.

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CHAPTER 4: Operating System

Objectives: Understand how to setup and customizing computer windows and macOS. Understand how
important the specs of computer for application purposes. Also, understand how to install operating system
as well as disk defragment and installing/uninstalling application in a computer

Definition and History of Operating Systems

History

1950s
- Batch

Processing Systems:

 Early computers were operated using batch processing systems where users submitted jobs on
punched cards, and the computer processed them in sequence.

1960s - Multiprogramming Systems:

 Multiprogramming allowed the execution of multiple programs simultaneously, improving resource

utilization and overall system efficiency.

1960s - Time-Sharing Systems:

 Time-sharing systems enabled multiple users to interact with the computer concurrently. Users
accessed the system through terminals and shared resources.

1970s - Mainframe Operating Systems:

 Mainframe computers became prominent, and operating systems like IBM's OS/360 and OS/370
were developed to manage large-scale processing and storage.

1980s - Rise of Personal Computers:

 The emergence of personal computers led to the development of operating systems like MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating System) and Apple DOS, providing a user-friendly interface.

1980s - GUI and Windowing Systems:

 Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) became popular with operating systems like Apple's Macintosh
System Software and Microsoft Windows, making computing more accessible.
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 1990s - Networked Operating Systems:

 With the growth of computer networks, operating systems like Novell NetWare and Microsoft
Windows NT focused on networking capabilities and server-client architectures.

1990s - Open-Source Operating Systems:

 The Linux operating system, developed as an open-source project, gained popularity for its
stability, security, and versatility.

2000s - Mobile Operating Systems:

 The rise of smartphones led to the development of mobile operating systems, including Android,
iOS, and Windows Mobile, tailored for handheld devices.

2000s - Cloud Computing and Virtualization:

 Operating systems adapted to the cloud computing era, supporting virtualization and cloud-based
services. Examples include Linux distributions and Windows Server.

2010s - Integration of AI and IoT:

 Operating systems evolved to integrate Artificial Intelligence (AI) and support the Internet of
Things (IoT), enhancing connectivity and automation.

2020s - Continued Advancements:

 Operating systems continue to evolve, incorporating advancements in security, performance, and

compatibility with emerging technologies such as 5G, edge computing, and quantum computing.

Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating System

A batch operating system processes a set of
similar tasks, known as a batch job, without any
user interaction. It is commonly used in
environments where a large number of
repetitive tasks need to be executed
efficiently. Examples of batch operating
systems include IBM’s OS/360 and Unisys’
MCP.
2. Time-Sharing Operating System
A time-sharing operating system allows multiple users
to share a single computer simultaneously. It divides
the CPU time among multiple users, enabling them to
perform interactive tasks concurrently. Unix, Linux,
and Windows Server are well-known examples of
time-sharing operating systems. Generally, places like
universities, research institutions, and corporate
networks make use of time-sharing operating systems
to enable collaborative computing and maximize
resource usage.
3. Distributed Operating System
A distributed operating system is designed to run on
multiple interconnected computers working together as a
single system. It enables resource sharing and provides
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 a transparent view to users, allowing them to access and use resources from any connected
machine. Examples of distributed operating systems include Amoeba and Distributed Common
Object Model (DCOM).
A distributed operating system’s key features are perfect for domains such as cloud computing,
large-scale data processing, distributed databases as well as distributed artificial intelligence.

4. Network Operating System

A network operating system manages and
coordinates network resources, allowing multiple
computers to communicate and share data within a
network. It provides essential services like file
sharing, printer sharing, and network security.
Novell NetWare and Windows Server (with
Active Directory) are popular network operating
systems.
A network operating system incorporates security features such as encryption, access control by
user authentication, and authorization. It also supports more advanced authentication mechanisms,
such as biometrics and smart cards.
5. Real-Time Operating System
A real-time operating system prioritizes the timely execution of
tasks, often in microseconds or milliseconds. It is crucial in
applications where strict timing requirements are necessary, such
as industrial control systems, robotics, and aviation. Examples of
real-time operating systems include VxWorks and QNX.
The RTOS is suitable for domains that require precise timings and
immediate responsiveness, such as industrial automation, robotics,
avionics, medical devices, and telecommunications. Usually, these
systems need to meet stringent deadlines with safe and accurate
results, which can only be provided by a real-time operating
system.
6. Multiprogramming Operating System
A multiprogramming operating system allows multiple
programs to reside in the main memory simultaneously. It
efficiently switches the CPU's attention between
different programs, maximizing processor utilization.
IBM's OS/360 and Unix are examples of
multiprogramming operating systems. When one
program is waiting for I/O operations, other programs
can utilize the available memory and devices, which
makes the resource utilization mechanism much more
efficient.
7. Multiprocessing Operating System
A multiprocessing operating system utilizes multiple
processors or cores within a single computer to
execute tasks. It improves system performance and
enables concurrent execution of various processes.
Examples include Linux (with kernel support for
multiprocessing) and Windows (in certain editions).

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 Usually, multiprocessing operating systems are used in high-performance computing environments
since they provide immense computational power and can execute complex tasks in parallel while
speeding up the processing time.

8. Mobile Operating System

A mobile operating system powers smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices. It provides a
user-friendly interface, supports mobile hardware components, and allows access to various
applications. Popular mobile operating systems include Android, iOS, and Windows Mobile.
Typically, mobile operating systems are designed to support touch-based interaction and provide
user-friendly interfaces with icons, menus, and gestures to navigate the device. They also come
with app stores that offer a range of applications designed specifically for mobile devices that help
extend the functionality of devices.

Examples of Common Operating Systems

Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is a popular operating system used on personal computers, laptops, and tablets.
Versions like Windows 10 and Windows 11 offer a user-friendly interface, extensive software compatibility,
and a vast range of applications.

macOS
macOS is the operating system designed exclusively for Apple's Macintosh computers. It provides seamless
integration with Apple hardware, a sleek user interface, and a robust ecosystem of applications tailored for
creative professionals.

Linux
Linux is an open-source operating system widely used on servers, embedded systems, and as an
alternative to commercial operating systems. It offers flexibility, customization options, and a vast array of
distributions catering to diverse user needs.

Android
Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, primarily used on smartphones and tablets. It
provides extensive app support, customization options, and integration with Google services.

iOS
iOS is Apple's mobile operating system exclusively designed for iPhones, iPads, and iPods. It offers a secure
and tightly controlled environment, seamless integration with Apple's ecosystem, and a vast selection of
high-quality applications.

Chrome OS
Chrome OS is a lightweight operating system developed by Google, primarily used on Chromebooks. It
focuses on web-based applications and cloud storage, and it offers a simple and secure computing
experience.

FreeBSD
FreeBSD is a Unix-like operating system known for its stability, security, and server-oriented features. It is
widely used in cloud servers, networking devices, and embedded systems.

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Ubuntu
Ubuntu is a popular Linux distribution known for its user-friendly interface, extensive software repository,
and community support. It is widely used on personal computers and as a server operating system.

 Operating systems are essential components that enable users to interact with computers and
devices effectively. Each type of operating system serves a unique purpose and caters to specific
computing environments, ranging from batch processing to mobile devices. Whether you're using a
desktop computer, a smartphone, or a networked server, the operating system plays a vital role in
ensuring smooth and efficient operation.

Functions and Features of Operating Systems

 PROCESSOR MANAGEMENT: A process is a program in a state of execution. It is a unit of work for

the operating system. A process can be created, executed, and stopped. In contrast, a program is
always static and does not have any state. A program may have two or more processes running. An
operating system’s process management function manages the allocation of resources to processes in
an efficient way. During the construction and execution of a process, the allocation of resources
required by the
process is made.

 FILE MANAGEMENT: One of the most basic and crucial components of every operating system is file
management. The operating system of a computer system is used to manage its files. The operating
system is in charge of all the files with various extensions.

 BOOTING: Booting is a process that begins when a computer system turns on and runs a limited set
of instructions stored in the ROM to configure system hardware, test it, and load the operating system
so that the computer system may do additional tasks.

 DEVICE MANAGEMENT: An operating system (OS) controls device connection through drivers. This
programme keeps track of all the devices that are linked to the system. The Input/Output controller is
software that is responsible for all devices. Determines which processes are allowed access to a device
and for how long.

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 ERROR DETECTION: The operating system continually monitors the system in order to discover faults
and prevent a computer system from failing.

 Coordination Between Other Software and Users: Operating systems also organize and allocate
interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and other software to computer users.

Disadvantages of using Operating System

System Error

If the central operating system fails, the entire system will fail, and the machine will stop working.
Furthermore, a computer system cannot work without an operating system. If the central system fails, all
communication will be disrupted, and no further data processing will be possible.

Expensive

Some of the operating systems are more expensive than open-source platforms like Linux. While free
operating systems are available, they are often more difficult to operate than others. Furthermore,
operating systems with GUI functionality and other built-in features, such as Microsoft Windows, are
expensive.

Complex Structure

Operating systems are extremely complicated, and the language used to create them is not well defined.
Furthermore, if there is an issue with the OS that users do not understand, it cannot be fixed quickly.

Threats from Viruses

Operating system threats are worse since they are more vulnerable to viral attacks. Many users install
malicious software packages on their computers, which cause the operating system to stop working and
slow down.

Fragmentation

When stored memory in a computer splits, it is known as fragmentation. When the technique of processing
is larger than the memory size, internal fragmentation develops. When a method or process is eliminated,
external fragmentation happens.

Windows and Mac Keyboard Shortcut

When you use a Windows (PC) keyboard on a Macintosh computer, the keyboard shortcuts that you use
map to different keys. In particular, the primary key that is used in keyboard shortcuts in combination with
other keys is frequently different. The following are the primary key substitutions on the Windows
keyboard, and their Macintosh equivalents.

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Comparison Between Firmware and Operating System

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