Assessment

Process

Prepare the Candidate

assessment meeting/agreement

Conduct Assessment
written tests, simulations, oral
exams & practical

Evaluate & Judge

Evidence

Provide Feedback

Competent Not Yet Competent

Moderator Decision Appeal

optional

Re-Assessment
Certificate optional

Competent Not Yet Competent

Appeal to Seta

P a g e 2 | 42
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE
Introduction 9
Competent Person 9 – 10
Causes of Cave-in Accidents 10
Excavation and Trenching 11 – 15
Trenching and Shoring Training 16 – 17
Construction Equipment 17 - 19
Hazardous Atmospheres 19 – 26
Soil Classifications 27 – 32
Shoring Systems 32 – 35
Protective Systems 35 – 40
Terms and Terminology
Assessment and Evaluation 1hour
Estimated Time 7 hrs.

This is an outcome based learning program which means competence or not yet
competent depends on the evidence the candidate is able perform or produce
during the official assessment process.
 Specific outcomes or learning objectives will be given at the beginning of
each and every lesson for your convenience.
 The total passing mark for this course is 80% (written and practical).
Assessment methods are: Formative and Summative.

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 SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY
REGISTERED UNIT STANDARD:

Excavate a trench and install shoring

SAQA US UNIT STANDARD TITLE
ID
254061 Excavate a trench and install shoring
ORIGINATOR ORIGINATING PROVIDER
SGB Water Sector
QUALITY ASSURING BODY
-
FIELD SUBFIELD
Field 12 - Physical Planning and Construction Civil Engineering Construction
ABET UNIT PRE-2009 NQF NQF LEVEL CREDITS
BAND STANDARD LEVEL
TYPE
Undefined Regular Level 2 NQF Level 02 4
REGISTRATION STATUS REGISTRATION REGISTRATION SAQA DECISION
START DATE END DATE NUMBER
Reregistered 2012-07-01 2015-06-30 SAQA 0695/12
LAST DATE FOR LAST DATE FOR ACHIEVEMENT
ENROLMENT
2016-06-30 2019-06-30

In all of the tables in this document, both the pre-2009 NQF Level and the NQF Level is shown. In the text
(purpose statements, qualification rules, etc.), any references to NQF Levels are to the pre-2009 levels unless
specifically stated otherwise.

This unit standard does not replace any other unit standard and is not replaced by any other unit
standard.

PURPOSE OF THE UNIT STANDARD

A competent learner would be able to contribute the knowledge and skill gained in this unit standard
in this subfield and other related fields by:

 Planning to excavate a trench.

 Preparing the site.
 Excavating the trench.
 Clearing the site.

LEARNING ASSUMED TO BE IN PLACE AND RECOGNITION OF PRIOR LEARNING

It is assumed that learners are already competent in the following:

 Communication at NQF Level 1.

 Mathematical Literacy at NQF Level 1.

P a g e 4 | 42
UNIT STANDARD RANGE
Most range statements are included with specific outcomes as applicable.

Types of soil conditions:

 Sandy, clay, water logged, rocky, previously backfilled embankments/trenches, structures in

close proximity.

Specific Outcomes and Assessment Criteria:

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1
Plan and prepare to excavate the trench.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 1
Tools and equipment are identified and selected in accordance with job requirements.
ASSESSMENT CRITERION RANGE
Excavator, pick and shovel, blasting, jack hammers.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 2
Safety equipment are selected and prepared in accordance with safety policies and procedures.
ASSESSMENT CRITERION RANGE
Safety signs, personal protective equipment (PPE), Road signs, barricading, shoring.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 3
Equipment made available on site in accordance with job requirements.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 4
Documentation is correctly completed for stores in accordance with workplace procedure.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 2
Prepare the site.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 1
Possible risks are identified in accordance with safety requirements.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 2
Existing services are marked out in accordance with instructions.

P a g e 5 | 42
ASSESSMENT CRITERION 3
The location of the trench is marked out in accordance with instructions.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 4
The traffic and pedestrian barricades are set up according to site requirements and traffic
regulations.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3
Excavate the trench.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 1
Risks associated with digging are identified in accordance with safety policies and procedures.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 2
Safety requirements are identified and communicated in accordance with safety policies and
procedures and worksite requirements.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 3
Trenches are excavated in accordance with job requirements.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 4
Problems are identified in accordance with job requirements and environmental restrictions.
ASSESSMENT CRITERION RANGE
Groundwater, sandy conditions, rock formation, trees, traffic conditions, other services.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 5
Excavation soil is placed in accordance with site conditions.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 4
Install shoring where required.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 1
Identify the need for shoring in accordance with site conditions, job requirements and safety
regulations.

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 2
Ensure the availability of material and equipment in accordance with job requirements and workplace
procedures.

P a g e 6 | 42
ASSESSMENT CRITERION 3
Install the shoring as per workplace policies and procedures.

UNIT STANDARD ACCREDITATION AND MODERATION OPTIONS

 Anyone assessing a learner against this unit standard must be registered as an assessor
with the relevant ETQA.

 Any institution offering learning that will enable achievement of this unit standard must be
registered with the FE/HE Registrar.

 Any institution wishing to receive skill development grants must be accredited with the
relevant ETQA. Such an institution will also be registered with the relevant SETA.

 Moderation of assessment will be done by the relevant ETQA at its discretion.

UNIT STANDARD ESSENTIAL EMBEDDED KNOWLEDGE

Demonstrate knowledge of the relevant sections of:

 Current and relevant occupational health and safety legislation.

 Municipal Bylaws.
 Traffic Ordinance regulations.

UNIT STANDARD DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOME

N/A

UNIT STANDARD LINKAGES

N/A

Critical Cross-field Outcomes (CCFO):

UNIT STANDARD CCFO IDENTIFYING

Identify and solve problems in which responses display that responsible decisions using critical and
creative thinking have been made:

 Planning to excavate a trench; preparing the site; excavating the trench; and clearing the
site.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO WORKING

Work effectively with others as a member of a team, group, organisation, and community:

 Planning to excavate a trench; preparing the site; excavating the trench; and clearing the
site.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO ORGANISING

Plan, organise and manage oneself and one's activities responsibly and effectively:
 Planning to excavate a trench; preparing the site; excavating the trench; and clearing the
site.

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UNIT STANDARD CCFO COLLECTING
Collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information:
 Planning to excavate a trench; preparing the site; excavating the trench; and clearing the
site.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO COMMUNICATING

Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the form of oral and/or
written presentation:
 Planning to excavate a trench; preparing the site; excavating the trench; and clearing the
site.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO SCIENCE

Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment
and health of others:
 Planning to excavate a trench; preparing the site; excavating the trench; and clearing the
site.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO DEMONSTRATING

Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem-
solving contexts do not exist in isolation:
 Planning to excavate a trench; preparing the site; excavating the trench; and clearing the
site.

P a g e 8 | 42
 INTRODUCTION
To the untrained and inexperienced eye, a deep trench wall of seemingly firm clay
can be deceptive. But trench collapse can occur without warning, regardless of the
depth. Most trenching fatalities occur in trenches 5 to 15 feet deep. These depths
invite taking chances, tragedies can and do occur even in small excavations or
trenches. A trench just 4 feet deep can become a shallow grave. Many fatal
accidents have occurred in shallow trenches because the victims were working in a
bent-over or lying position when the trench sides collapsed. Even those who
manage to survive often suffer severe and lifelong disabling injuries because of the
crushing weight.

Tragically, hundreds of workers are killed and thousands are injured while doing
excavation work every year. When a person is trapped and caught by a cave-in, the
crushing pressure from the material gradually restricts breathing. Each time the
victim exhales a breath, the weight of the load restricts inhalation of the next
breath. A slow suffocation death usually follows, unless rescue is immediate. Most
rescue effort results are unsuccessful. There are too many things working against a
successful rescue — time, weight of the soil and restricted access to the site. Many
times, co-workers and rescue personnel also are exposed to additional cave-ins and
hazards.

Competent Person
The term "Competent Person" is used in many OHS standards and documents. As a
general rule, the term is not specifically defined. In a broad sense, a competent
person is an individual who, by way of training and/or experience, is:
 Knowledgeable of applicable standards;
 Capable of identifying workplace hazards relating to the specific operation;
 Is designated by the employer, and
 Has authority to take appropriate actions

The employer designates who will be the Competent

Person and is obligated to ensure that that person is
competent to perform the task and is trained to
recognize all hazards on the job site - this also applies
to all the workers on the job site. Again, a competent
person does not have to be a supervisor – however
the employer must ensure that the supervisor does
not try to supersede the authority of the Competent
Person. It is critical that management actively
support the Competent Person! A certificate does
not constitute a competent person – compliance with
the adopted definition does.

P a g e 9 | 42
What Makes a “Competent Person?”
− Knowledge
− Skill
− Training
− Education
− Expertise
− Authority

The Competent Person Must:

 Be in direct charge of safety on the trenching and excavation project.
 Plan or co-plan all phases of the project (the key is to be involved!)
 Perform both visual and manual soils testing
 Determine which form of trench protection is appropriate in accordance with
the standard, hazards and soil conditions.

Why Do Cave-ins Occur?

Undisturbed soil is kept in place by natural horizontal and vertical forces of the
nearby soil as well as cohesive properties of some soils. When we dig in the earth,
these natural forces are no longer able to hold back the soil left behind. With no
support, eventually the laws of gravity take over, and the soil from the excavation
walls move downward and inward into the excavation. The result is a cave-in.

Cave-ins are more likely to occur in unprotected excavations where:

− The excavation is dug in unstable soil, or in soil that has been dug in before;
− There is excessive vibration from construction equipment or vehicle traffic
around the excavation ;
− Too much weight near the sides of an excavation, most frequently from
equipment or the excavated material (spoil pile) too near to the edge;
− Water has collected in the excavation;
− Changes in weather conditions (freezing, melting, sudden heavy rain, etc.)

Other Causes of Deaths

1. Absence of Trench Protection:
 Employees may risk working in an unprotected trench to save time
and money, cut costs or even peer pressure. Risk – Reward systems
do not work!
2. Lack of Knowledge:
 Employees are often not aware of the hazards and precautions
required to minimize the risk of a cave-in. In addition, employees are
often not trained in trench safety techniques.
3. Poor Judgment:
 Misinterpreting trench stability, soil conditions, slope or using improper
trench protection methods

P a g e 10 | 42
 Excavations and Trenching

Definition
 An Excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the
earth‘s surface as formed by earth removal. This can include anything from
excavations for home foundations to a new highway.

 A Trench refers to a narrow excavation made below the surface of the

ground in which the depth is greater than the width-and the width does not
exceed 15 feet. Trenching is common in construction and utility work, where
underground piping or cables are being installed or repaired.

If an excavation is more than 5 feet in depth, there must be a protective

system in place while workers are in the excavation.

The Key to Protecting Yourself

1) Knowing the hazards you and your co-workers face while working in trenches
and excavations
2) Protecting yourself by using common sense, following established safe work
practices and adhering to accepted safety standards
3) Avoid taking risks!

There should be no excuse for an injury resulting from a cave-in, as cave-ins

are both predicable and preventable!

Preplanning
Pre-job or project planning is an extremely important aspect of a safe trenching and
excavation project. This is where many incidents can be avoided well before any soil
is excavated. The competent person must take an active role in the process.

Important tasks & considerations would include:

P a g e 11 | 42
Surface Encumbrance Assessment
Surface encumbrances are essentially any object or structure which could pose a
hazard during the project. Prior to beginning any project, all potential surface
encumbrances must be identified and addressed to ensure safety. Examples of
surface encumbrances can include but are not limited to:
 Trees • Boulders • Foundations • Adjacent structures • Buildings • Sidewalks
• Undermined pavement • Conduits • Telephone poles • Shear walls •
Construction materials

Note: adjacent utilities must be located, removed or supported to protect employees

from potential injury.

Utility Locations
All underground utilities must be located to determine their approximate location.
Remember, locators dispatched by utility companies can only provide approximate
locations of their lines and systems. By law, Under Ground Service Alert, Dig Alert or
any other underground utility locating service must be contacted at least two
working days prior to excavation.

P a g e 12 | 42
Emergency repair is generally exempted, but every effort must be made to safely
locate underground utilities. Many provinces have specific training requirements for
employees involved in utility location. Be sure any employees involved in this activity
are properly trained for the activity. Also be sure that any location services have
properly trained personnel as well.

Once the approximate location of utilities has been determined, the actual location
must be accomplished by carefully digging with hand tools. Avoid using metal
handled tools as they can provide a direct link for electrocution. Wood or fibre glass
handled tools are generally a good choice. If there is an electrical hazard, it's a good
idea to use lineman's gloves for extra protection.

Never use backhoes, breakers, digging bars or other metal tools to locate or work
around utilities due to the electrocution and spark hazard potential. While the trench
or excavation is being opened, utilities must be protected or supported or removed
to prevent injury to workers should a pole or other object happen to fall.

Access and Egress

Ladders, ramps and stairways must be provided in all excavations 4 feet or more in
depth. Secured ladders must be placed
every 25 feet of lateral travel. In
addition, ladders must 25 extend at
least 2-3 feet above the top of the
excavation. Employees must never be
allowed to climb in and out of the
trench by means of the shoring system.

Again be very careful as the type and

condition of the ladder you choose to
use. Due to electrical hazards metallic
ladders must be avoided, good choices
are fiberglass or wood ladders
maintained in good condition. Be sure
that the ladder is safely secured to a
stationary object to prevent the ladder
from tipping or slipping during use. Where employees are permitted to cross an
excavation, a walkway constructed with standard 42" guard rails must be provided.

P a g e 13 | 42
Open Trenches
Shafts, pits, wells etc., must be barricaded or covered when not in use and back
filled when the job is complete. In cases where employees may fall into the
excavation, a protection system must be employed. This is especially important to
also protect the public and children from an accidental fall.

P a g e 14 | 42
Traffic Control
Employees exposed to vehicular or construction traffic must wear orange vests. If
the lighting is poor or work is performed at night, reflectorized vests would be
required as well as appropriate lighting in order to work safely.

Flagging Operations
Employees used for flagging operations must be specifically trained for that activity.
 A person should be chosen to be a flagger because the supervisor feels the
person is physically able, mentally alert, and sufficiently commanding in
appearance to properly control traffic through construction, maintenance,
and utility work areas.
 A flagger‘s chief duties are to guide traffic safely through work areas, protect
fellow workers, prevent unreasonable delays for road users, and answer
motorist’s questions politely and knowledgeably.

P a g e 15 | 42
Manufacturer’s Tabulated Data
Any shoring material/equipment that is to be used on site must be accompanied
with current manufacturer’s tabulated data. Should a DoL Safety official or Inspector
ask to see the documentation; a citation will be issued if it is not readily available.

Training
Training Components
Many of the specific examples used in this manual came from material for UC Irvine.
The company or contractor must coordinate all trenching and shoring training and
provide a training program that will teach employees, who might be exposed to
Trenching and Shoring hazards, how to recognize such hazards and how to
minimize them.

Employee Training
Employees should be trained in the following areas:
a) The nature of Trenching and Shoring hazards in the work area;
b) The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining, disassembling, and
inspecting Trenching and Shoring protection systems;
c) The use and operation of Trenching and Shoring equipment;
d) The role of each employee in the Trenching and Shoring safety monitoring
system when the system is in use;
e) The limitations of safety equipment during the performance of work;
f) The correct procedures for equipment and materials handling and storage;
g) Employees‘ roles Trenching and Shoring Program; and
h) The details in the specific plan.

P a g e 16 | 42
Trenching and Shoring Training Details
Additional Trenching and Shoring training details:
a) The company or contractor will conduct all Trenching and Shoring training.
b) New employees should be trained with Trenching and Shoring Program in
force when they are employed.
c) All Facilities Maintenance employees will be trained in General Awareness
Level Trenching and Shoring training every three years.
d) All designated Competent Persons will sign off on all safety training related to
Trenching and Shoring.
e) Any employee who has not received appropriate training in the UC Irvine
Trenching and Shoring Program will not be allowed to work with Excavations
until the employee has been trained and understands the program.
f) The Trenching and Shoring Program is based on published standards and
these standards are considered to be a minimum program. The UC Irvine
Excavations Plan has been designed to exceed the minimum requirements.

Trainer:
The trainer must prepare a written certification that identifies the employee trained
and the date of the training. The trainer must sign the training certification record
for each employee. This certification record and training documentation are
evidence of an employee receiving Trenching and Shoring training. Completion of
this training equals competency in Trenching and Shoring activities.

Construction Equipment
Construction, by its nature, is an ever-changing environment and involves a
constant movement of personnel and materials. The use of mechanized equipment
poses significant crushing and striking hazards, particularly in excavation work.

Examples of Safe Work Practices

Below are some examples of safe work practices when working around mechanized
equipment:
 Mark off areas around the swing radius of digging equipment and move the
barriers with the progress of the work. This is particularly important when the
back-hoe is operating in close proximity to people, trees and other solid
objects such as sections of pre-cast. Most track-type back-hoes have a
serious blind-spot that‘s usually the rear of the machine on a diagonal to the
operator‘s position.
 Remember that loaders and backhoes are primarily earth-moving equipment.
Traveling with material suspended from buckets poses a special hazard.
Swinging loads may catch a worker between the suspended load and the
machinery or the worker may trip on uneven grade and be run over by the
equipment.

P a g e 17 | 42
  Back-up alarms and other warning devices tend to be "tuned out" over time.
In many pieces of equipment, the operators may only have a partially
unobstructed vision to the rear. Still other types of equipment, such as track
equipment and skid-steer loaders make it difficult for an operator to turn
completely around when backing up.
 Don‘t rely on back-up alarms as the sole warning of which direction a
machine is going to move.
 Always make sure the operator is aware of your position. You may not be
working next to an active motor way, but reflective vests or clothing is still a
good idea. Never assume an equipment operator can see you.
 When any load is brought under tension, regardless of the equipment being
used to hoist it, stay away! The load should be controlled with a tag line
while aloft and only after being positioned in the location of placement should
workers be anywhere near it.
 No one should have any part of their body under any portion of a suspended
load.

Construction equipment can present a number of hazards in and around trenching

and excavation projects. Moving equipment can be a hazard to workers while
traveling about the project. Vibrations transmitted by heavy equipment can weaken
trench walls, causing a cave-in. Allowing a vehicle to approach too closely the edge
of a trench, can cause a cave-in pulling in the vehicle and soil on top of employees.
Mobile equipment must be kept a safe distance from the edge of an excavation.

P a g e 18 | 42
Methods to Keep Equipment a Safe Distance from the Edge of an
Excavation
A number of methods can be employed to prevent equipment from approaching too
close:
 Stop Logs
Timbers or logs can be placed a safe distance from an excavation to prevent
vehicles from getting too close
 Barricades
Standard barricades and warning tape can also be employed to help warn
approaching drivers
 Hand Signals
Trained employees can be posted near the edge of an excavation to help
direct traffic well away from danger

Depending upon the size of vehicle, load and the trench depth, it is best to keep
equipment at least 10 feet or more away from the edge of a trench. If this is not
possible, sloping the grade away from the excavation may help.

Note: the standard does not indicate how far to keep equipment back, so good
judgment comes into play.

Hazardous Atmospheres
We often take the air we breathe for granted. However, many gases in the work
environment have no colour or smell, and we cannot tell if the air is dangerous
simply by looking at it. In excavations, these hazardous atmospheres may go
unrecognized by workers until it‘s too late. Then workers rush in to rescue their co-
workers and often become the victims as well. Indeed, 60% of all workers who die
from such atmospheres are the rescuers themselves.

P a g e 19 | 42
The OSHA standard states that when working in trenches deeper than 4 feet that
are dug in locations where hazardous atmospheres are likely to be present,
atmospheric testing, ventilation, and respiratory protection, must be provided. Areas
such as landfills, hazardous waste sites, chemical plants, refineries, and areas where
underground storage tanks are present are all locations which may produce
hazardous atmospheres. Planners who perform pre-construction site surveys should
look for potential atmospheric hazards as well as the physical conditions of the area
to be excavated.

Hazardous atmospheres include: Oxygen deficient environments, flammable,

combustibles, explosive and toxic environments. An oxygen-deficient atmosphere
means there is not enough oxygen in the space. Normal air has 20.8% oxygen.
Levels below 19.5 % are considered oxygen-deficient. Oxygen deficient
atmospheres are dangerous and can cause unconsciousness, brain damage, and
death.

Flammable/combustible/explosive atmospheres contain gases or vapours in a

certain concentration that can catch fire or explode if there is an ignition source.

Toxic atmospheres contain gases or vapours which, if breathed in, can make you
sick, or even die. Here are a few examples of the most common sources for
hazardous atmospheres in excavations:

 Oxygen deficient atmospheres:

In an open excavation, rain water passing over limestone, causes an acidity
reaction, and in turn produces carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a simple
asphyxiant which replaces oxygen in the air we breathe and can result in
death. Landfill gases can displace oxygen.

 Flammable/combustible/explosive atmospheres:
Volatile organic compounds found in petroleum products can move through
small spaces in soils and accumulate in excavations. This can create both a
fire and toxic hazard. Buried tanks next to an excavation site are a common
source of these compounds as well as leaking gas mains and services.
Another common flammable gas is Methane. Methane occurs naturally from
the breakdown of organic materials, such as sewage, leaves or weeds.

 Toxic atmospheres:
Carbon monoxide from vehicles or equipment too near the excavation can
accumulate and create a toxic environment for the workers. When dealing
with potential hazardous environments, early recognition is very important.
Years ago, miners had to rely on canaries to tell them if the air they were
breathing was hazardous. In today‘s world, testing equipment for
atmospheric hazards are compact and easy to use.

P a g e 20 | 42
 One instrument can be purchased to detect the three most common
atmospheric hazards found in excavation.

The competent person should understand and use these

direct reading instrument(s) that can detect the most
common atmospheric hazards found in excavations.
Continuous air monitoring is always a good idea because
of changing conditions that can occur at a construction
site.

In certain cases, an excavation may have the potential to

contain hazardous atmospheres.

Confined Spaces
Before any work is attempted in confined spaces, all employees must be thoroughly
trained in all aspects of the standard and safe work practices of confined space
entry. No employee may be allowed to work or enter without training and
understanding of Confined Space hazards.

Confined Space Examples

Hazardous Waste Old Dump Sites
Landfills Leaking Gas Stations
Cutting Operations Carbon Monoxide
Welding & Cutting Coating Applications
Cad-Welding

Conditions for a Confined Space

 A Confined Space means a space that:
Is large enough and so configured that an employee can
bodily enter and perform assigned work; and
 Has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (for
example: tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins, hoppers,
vaults and pits are spaces that may have limited means
of entry); and
 Is not designed for continuous employee occupancy.

P a g e 21 | 42
Confined Space Defined
A Confined Space is best defined a by the concurrent existence of the following
conditions:
 Existing ventilation is insufficient to remove dangerous air contamination
and/or oxygen deficiency with may exist or develop.
 Ready access or egress for removal of a suddenly disabled employee is
difficult due to the location and/or size of the opening(s).

Where oxygen deficiency or a hazardous

atmosphere exists or could reasonably be expected
to exist, such excavations such as in landfills and
where hazardous substances are stored nearby,
the atmospheres must be tested before employees
enter excavations greater than 4 feet in depth.

Adequate precaution must be taken to provide

ventilation, to prevent employee exposure to an
atmosphere containing a concentration in excess
of 10% of the lower flammable limit of that gas.

When engineering controls such as ventilation is

employed to reduce contaminants to a safe level,
re-testing must be conducted periodically to assure
the atmosphere remains safe.

Specialized confined space training, assignment of

an entry supervisor, emergency standby by and
emergency rescue equipment such as SCBA's,
safety harnesses and life line or basket stretcher
must be readily available where atmospheric
hazards exists or may be reasonably expected to
exist or develop during excavation work.

Should employees have to enter bell-bottom pier

holes or similar deep footing excavations, the
workers must wear a safety harness, with life line
attached as called for in the Confined Space Safety
Standard. The life line may not have any other
purpose other than rescue, such as tool and
equipment transfer.

P a g e 22 | 42
Where hazardous atmospheres may be present, the excavation must be tested in
accordance with Confined Space Safety Standards. A minimum of 19.5% oxygen
and safe levels of Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Combustibles or other
hazardous atmospheres are required to work safely in excavations which may
become a confined space.

TESTS MUST BE CONDUCTED TO ASSURE THAT THE ATMOSPHERE IS NOT:

 Flammable
 Explosive
 Toxic
 Oxygen Deficient

Any time fuel powers equipment or cutting or welding is performed in any

excavation; the atmosphere must be monitored and augmented by ventilation. If a
confined space condition exists all the provisions of the Confined Space Safety
Standards are required to be followed.

Overhead Loads
No employee should be permitted under loads handled by lifting or digging
equipment. It is recommended that loads which need personal control be directed
by the use of ropes or poles from a safe distance.

Under no circumstances are employees

allowed to work under an overhead
load. When a vehicle such as a dump
truck is depositing or picking up a load,
employees are required to stand away
from the vehicle to avoid being struck
or buried by spilled or falling materials.
Employees have been killed when the
material dropped by a dump truck
buried them or the weight of the
vehicle and load collapsed the trench.

P a g e 23 | 42
Water Accumulation
Employees may not work in an excavation where water has or is accumulating
unless adequate steps have been taken to de-water and properly support the trench
walls.

Methods of water control may include but not be limited to:

 Water removal pumps
 Well points
 Water diversion
 Shield systems

Water accumulation and removal must be supervised, monitored and inspected by

the job site Competent Person to assure proper operation and water control is
effective.

Heavy rain will require more frequent inspection and controls to assure safety. If
work interrupts natural drainage or water courses such as streams etc., methods to
divert the water must be applied such as the use of ditches, dikes, etc. to prevent
water from entering the work area.

In certain circumstances extra safety precautions may include but not be limited to:
− Special supports,
− Well points,
− Use of a safety harness,
− Lifeline and personal floatation device.

P a g e 24 | 42
Adjacent Structures
Excavations which may affect the stability of any adjacent structure such as a
building, wall, sidewalk, telephone pole, concrete conduits, undermined pavement,
etc. will require additional support systems such as shoring, underpinning or bracing
to ensure stability.

Employees must never be allowed to work below the base or level of the footing or
foundation of any excavation - except:
 Where a support system has been installed to provide structural stability and
safety for the employees, or
 The excavation is in stable rock; or
 A registered professional engineer has determined that such work will not
pose a hazard to employees

Protection from Loose Rock

Employees working in excavations must be protected from the hazard of loose rock
and soil falling from the face of a trench wall. Loose material must be controlled by
scaling the sides of the trench to remove loose material or installation of plywood to
help contain loose material.

Note: Plywood is only intended to prevent unravelling of loose material, the plywood
must be a minimum of 3/4 inch material meeting OSHA specifications for this
purpose. Excavated material and equipment must be kept at least 2 feet from the
edge of a 5 ‘trench. A clear pathway must be maintained at all times to:
A. Prevent material from being kicked onto workers
B. Prevention of accidental falls
IMPORTANT: Super-imposed loads (spoil, pipe, vehicles, equipment and material)
can affect trench stability. This will require that the distance soil or material is kept
from the edge of the trench, increases as the trench depth increases.

For example: In a 5 foot trench, material must be kept a minimum of two feet from
the edge of the trench. For every additional 5 feet the distance must be increased
by an additional 2-3 feet. If non-native material will be back filled and it is possible
to transport spoil away from the site, this option should be seriously considered.

Inspectors
The competent person must conduct frequent inspections of the excavation site
starting at the beginning of the day and periodically throughout the shift. Additional
inspections must also be performed after any hazard increasing event such as rain
storms, traffic, earthquake tremors, etc.

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Minimum Daily Inspections
Daily (Minimum) inspections by the Competent Person include:
 Trenches
 Soil
 Excavations
 Protective systems
 Water control systems
 Surrounding areas

The Competent Person must inspect the trench or excavation for any evidence of
any situation which could result in:
− Cave-ins
− Indications of a trench protective system failure
− Hazardous Atmospheres
− Other hazardous conditions

Where there is evidence of a potential cave-in or other hazardous condition, the

Competent Person must remove the affected employees until the necessary
precautions have been taken to assure safety.

Fall Protection
 In situations in which employees are permitted to cross over excavations or
trenches walkways or bridges equipped with standard guardrails must be
provided.
 In cases where there is other potential of falling into an excavation, the
general area must be protected by using guard rails or other method to
prevent falls.
 In cases where projects are in a remote location, all shafts, wells, pits, etc.,
must be barricaded or covered. Immediately upon completion of the job
requiring this type of excavation, the shaft, pit, well, etc., must be back filled.

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 Soil Classifications
Soil Mechanics
A number of stresses and deformations can occur in an open cut or trench. For
example, increases or decreases in moisture content can adversely affect the
stability of a trench or excavation. The following diagrams show some of the more
frequently identified causes of trench failure.

Tension Cracks
Tension cracks usually form at a horizontal distance of 0.5 to 0.75 times the depth
of the trench, measured from the top of the vertical face of the trench. See the
accompanying drawing for additional details.

Diagram Illustrating Tension Cracks

Sliding
Sliding or sluffing may occur as a result of tension cracks, as illustrated below.

Graphic Illustration Sliding or Sluffing

Toppling
In addition to sliding, tension cracks can cause toppling. Toppling occurs when the
trench's vertical face shears along the tension crack line and topples into the
excavation.

Graphic Illustrating Toppling

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Subsidence and Bulging
An unsupported excavation can create an unbalanced stress in the soil, which, in
turn, causes subsidence at the surface and bulging of the vertical face of the trench.
If uncorrected, this condition can cause face failure and entrapment of workers in
the trench.

Graphic Illustrating Subsidence and Bulging

Heaving or Squeezing
Bottom heaving or squeezing is caused by the downward pressure created by the
weight of adjoining soil. This pressure causes a bulge in the bottom of the cut, as
illustrated in the drawing above. Heaving and squeezing can occur even when
shoring or shielding has been properly installed.

Graphic Illustrating Subsidence and Bulging

Boiling
Boiling is evidenced by an upward water flow into the bottom of the cut. A high
water table is one of the causes of boiling. Boiling produces a "quick" condition in
the bottom of the cut, and can occur even when shoring or trench boxes are used.

Graphic Illustrating Boiling

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Unit Weight of Soils
Unit weight of soils refers to the weight of one unit of a particular soil. The weight
of soil varies with type and moisture content. One cubic foot of soil can weigh from
110 pounds to 140 pounds or more, and one cubic meter (35.3 cubic feet) of soil
can weigh more than 3,000 pounds.

Determination of Soil Type

Four Soil Types
OSHA categorizes soil and rock deposits into four types, as follows

Stable Rock
Stable Rock is natural solid mineral matter that can be excavated with vertical sides
and remain intact while exposed. It is usually identified by a rock name such as
granite or sandstone. Determining whether a deposit is of this type may be difficult
unless it is known whether cracks exist and whether or not the cracks run into or
away from the excavation.

TYPE A: Soils
Type A Soils are cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 1.5 tons
per square foot (tsf) (144 kPa) or greater. Examples of Type A cohesive soils are
often:
 Clay
 Silty clay
 Sandy clay
 Clay loam and in some cases,
 Silty clay loam and sandy clay loam.

Note: No soil is Type A if it is fissured, is subject to vibration of any type, has

previously been disturbed, is part of a sloped, layered system where the layers dip
into the excavation on a slope of 4 horizontal to 1 vertical (4H:1V) or greater, or has
seeping water.

TYPE B: Soils
Type B Soils are cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength greater
than 0.5 tsf (48 kPa) but less than 1.5 tsf (144 kPa). Examples of other Type B soils
are:
 Angular gravel;
 Silt;
 Silt loam;
 Previously disturbed soils unless otherwise classified as Type C; soils that
meet the unconfined compressive strength or cementation requirements of
Type A soils but are fissured or subject to vibration; dry unstable rock; and
layered systems sloping into the trench at a slope less than 4H:1V (only if the

P a g e 29 | 42
 material would be classified as a Type B soil).

TYPE C: Soils
Type C Soils are cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 0.5 tsf
(48 kPa) or less. Other Type C soils include:
 Granular soils such as gravel,
 Sand and loamy sand,
 Submerged soil, soil from which water is freely seeping, and submerged rock
that is not stable.
 Also included in this classification is material in a sloped, layered system
where the layers dip into the excavation or have a slope of four horizontal to
one vertical (4H:1V) or greater.

Layered Geological Strata

Where soils are configured in layers, i.e., where a layered geologic structure exists,
the soil must be classified on the basis of the soil classification of the weakest soil
layer. Each layer may be classified individually if a more stable layer lies below a
less stable layer, i.e., where a Type C soil rests on top of stable rock.

More on Soil Classifications

Soil is a mixture of sand, gravel, silts, clay, water, and air. The amount of these
ingredients determines its "cohesiveness", or how well a soil will hold together.

Cohesive Soil
Cohesive soil does not crumble. It can be moulded easily when wet, and is hard to
break up when dry. Clay is a very fine grained soil, and is very cohesive or “sticky”.
Calcium carbonate also may be present and it may provide a cemented property.

Granular Soils
Sand and gravel are course grained soils, having little cohesiveness and are often
called granular. Generally speaking, the more clay that is in the soil being
excavated, the better the trench walls will hold up.

Water Content of Soil

Another factor in soil cohesiveness is water. Soil that is filled with water is termed.
Saturated soil does not hold together well, and is particularly dangerous in
excavation work. However, the opposite can also be true. Another dangerous soil is
soil that has little or no water in it, or if oven dry can crumble easily, and will not
hold together when excavated.

P a g e 30 | 42
Weight of Soil
Soil is heavy. A cubic foot can weigh as much as 125 pounds, and a cubic yard can
weigh over 3,000 lb. As much as a pick-up truck:

Most workers don‘t realize the force that will hit them when a cave in occurs. A
person buried under only a few feet of soil can experience enough pressure in the
chest area to prevent the lungs from expanding. Suffocation can take place in as
little as three minutes. Heavier soils can crush and distort the body in a matter of
seconds. It‘s no wonder trench accidents involve so many deaths and permanently
disabling injuries.

Trench Protection Requirements

Diagram Illustrating Sloping and Benching with the Four Types of Soils

Protective systems are methods of protecting workers from cave-ins of material that
can collapse into an excavation. As mentioned earlier if an excavation is less than 5
feet deep, OSHA does not require a protective systems unless the competent
person sees signs of a potential cave-in. (It is important to remember that a
wall collapse in a trench four and 1/2 feet deep can still have serious results)

P a g e 31 | 42
For trenches between 5 feet and 20 feet deep, shoring and sheeting, shielding,
sloping and benching are all acceptable protective measures. It is up to the
planners of the construction project and the competent person to determine which
systems will work best. If an excavation is greater than 20 feet deep, a registered
professional engineer must design the protective system.

All employees must be protected from the hazard of a potential cave-in by the use
of trench protection systems designed in accordance with the standard. Except
when:
 The excavation is made entirely in stable rock. Be aware, cutting, blasting or
breaking rock can de-stabilize it.
 The excavation is less than 5 feet in depth and after examination by the
Competent Person is deemed safe and there is no potential for a cave-in.

Any excavation 5 feet or greater will always require the use of a protective system.
In certain circumstances excavations less than 5 feet may also require protection
depending upon the judgment of the Competent Person and soil stability.

REMEMBER: Protective systems in trenches or excavations greater than 20 feet in

depth will require design by a registered civil engineer.

Shoring Systems
Shoring systems are structures of timber, mechanical, or hydraulic systems that
support the sides of an excavation and which are designed to prevent cave-ins.
Sheeting is a type of shoring system that keeps the earth in position. It can be
driven into the ground or work in conjunction with a shoring system. Driven
sheeting is most frequently used for excavations open for long periods of time.
Another type of sheeting, in which plates or shoring grade plywood (sometimes
called Finland form) is used in conjunction with strutted systems such as hydraulic
or timber shoring.

These strutted systems are also referred to as active systems. The most
frequently used strutted system involves aluminium hydraulic shores which are
lightweight, re-usable and installed and removed completely from above ground.

Depending upon the soil classification, excavations will be sloped no greater than 3/4
horizontal to one vertical or 53 degrees, measured from the horizontal. Slopes and
benching systems will be selected and used by the employer and their designated
Competent Person or Registered Civil Engineer.

P a g e 32 | 42
Slopes 20 feet or greater designed by a professional engineer must be in written
form and include the following at a minimum:
I. The magnitude of slopes that were determined to be safe for the particular
project;
II. The configurations that were determined to be safe for the project;
III. The identity of the Registered Professional Engineer.

At least one copy of the design must be maintained at the job site while the slopes
are being constructed.

Sloping and Benching Systems

Sloping and benching are another means of protecting workers from cave-in
hazards. Sloping is a method of cutting back the trench walls at such an angle that
there is little chance of collapse. This is sometimes referred to as an "angle of
repose", and must be suitable to the type of soil.

Simple Slope Type A

Diagram Illustrating Simple Slope Type A

Benching is a process of stepping off the earthen walls of an excavation.

Diagram Illustrating Benching

P a g e 33 | 42
Sloping can be used as a system by itself or in conjunction with benching.

Diagram Illustrating a Combination of Sloping and Benching

In the real world, there are very few applications where sloping and/or benching
can be used. Why? Most often, the luxury of available space is the first
consideration. Many excavations are dug in right-of-ways where the presence of
other utilities and traffic become major considerations. Moreover, for every cubic
yard of soil that is removed, it is very likely that nearly the same amount of material
must be put back, and compacted as well.

Simple Slope in Type C Soil

Diagram Illustrating a Simple Slope in Type C Soil

If the location to be excavated has been previously disturbed, as it frequently is

along a right-of-way, the soil type will very likely be classified as "C". With Type C
soil, the excavation walls must be sloped back on each side of the excavation one
and one half feet for every foot of depth. Add all these factors up and it soon
becomes clear: sloping, even in conjunction with benching, may be desirable-but
not always very practical and economical.

A competent person must be familiar with the various sloping and benching
configurations available, should that be the choice for protecting workers. In sloping
and benching, important points to remember are the "weakest link" in determining
what type of soil is supporting what type. If type C is supporting type B or any other
type of combination, the sloping and benching configuration chosen must be in
accordance with the OSHA standard.

P a g e 34 | 42
 Maximum Allowable Slopes
STABLE ROCK VERTICAL 90 DEGREES
Type "A" Soil 3/ to 1 or 53 Degrees
4
Type "B" Soil 1 to 1 or 45 Degrees
Type "C" Soil 1 1/2 to 1 to 34 Degrees

Protective Systems
There are a number of ways to protect employees from the hazards of moving
ground. Shoring should be your last consideration, as other means of protection
should be considered first such as: Sloping and/or benching which cuts back the soil
to prevent a cave-in from occurring.

Shoring Types
Shoring is the provision of a support system for trench faces used to prevent
movement of soil, underground utilities, roadways, and foundations. Shoring or
shielding is used when the location or depth of the cut makes sloping back to the
maximum allowable slope impractical. Shoring systems consist of posts, wales,
struts, and sheeting. There are two basic types of shoring, timber and aluminium
hydraulic.

Components of a Shoring System Illustrating Sheeting, Posts, Wales, and Struts

P a g e 35 | 42
Timber
Timber used has been used for shoring material for centuries. Timber does have its
place in trenching and excavations work but can be costly and a laborious process.

Timber used may be used as a method of trench protection in excavations less than
20 feet in depth. Timber used may not be just any type of material purchased at the
local do it yourself store. It must meet certain criteria such as actual and not
nominal wood dimensions. In general, 4 inch material means four inch material, not
3 3/4 inch. Refer to the bending strength of wood for mixed oak and Douglas fir.

Timber may also be used in conjunction with or in place of other types of shoring
such as hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Generally timber is used in excavations
that are at least Type "A" or "B" soil. Be sure to refer to the tables provided by
CAL/OSHA for minimum size, dimension, wood type and placement of timber to be
used in a shoring system. (Refer to appendix C to section 1554.1) Though timbers
can provide very good trench protection, consideration must be given to the cost of
material, its working life, and the labour to construct to a shoring system.

Timbers can be used as typical shores, constructed into waler systems such as what
would be used for "tight sheathing" situations in saturated soil or other Type "C"
material.

Illustration of Timbers being used as Typical Shores

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Aluminium Hydraulic Shoring
The trend today is toward the use of hydraulic shoring, a prefabricated strut and/or
wale system manufactured of aluminum or steel. Hydraulic shoring provides a
critical safety advantage over timber shoring because workers do not have to enter
the trench to install or remove hydraulic shoring. Other advantages of most
hydraulic systems are that they:
 Are light enough to be installed by one worker;
 Are gauge-regulated to ensure even distribution of pressure along the trench
line;
 Can have their trench faces "preloaded" to use the soil's natural cohesion to
prevent movement; and
 Can be adapted easily to various trench depths and widths.
All shoring should be installed from the top down and removed from the bottom up.
Hydraulic shoring should be checked at least once per shift for leaking hoses and/or
cylinders, broken connections, cracked nipples, bent bases, and any other damaged
or defective parts.

Aluminium hydraulic shoring again is only to be used as a trench protection method

in excavations that do not exceed 20 feet in depth and only if the type of soil allows
the use. Aluminium hydraulic shoring is intended to be used in Type A and B soil
only, and in trenches that do not exceed 20 feet in depth. Like timber, this type of
shoring must also meet certain specifications for us in trenches.

Note: The width of the trench will dictate the cylinder diameter to be used. The soil
type and trench depth will also determine how far apart to space the shores.

Like timbers, this type of shoring can be used individually or in a waler system for
greater protection. Remember that the manufacturers‘ tabulated data must be on
site for this equipment. 2 inch cylinders must have a minimum of 2" inside diameter
with a safe working load of no less than 18,000 pounds compressive load.

3 inch cylinders must have a 3 inch inside diameter with a safe working load of no
less than 30,000 pounds. A hydraulic hand pump is required to apply the proper
pressures to the wall of the trench. Depending up the manufacturer, the pump is
charged into the green zone or about 750 psi – which causes the shoring to be
squeezed against the trench wall at about 2250 psi. The pump uses water and
water soluble oil for the hydraulic fluid.

Caution must be taken when working with aluminum hydraulic shoring as there are
several pinch points, therefore be sure to use only shoring with guards in these
areas. Shoring can be heavy and care must taken to avoid back injuries by using

P a g e 37 | 42
good lifting techniques and/or using help. Be sure to take advantage of the shoring
release tools provided with the equipment. Not only do they speed installation, but
make it safer.

Be sure to inspect the shoring prior to use to ensure that they are in good condition
and have no leaks.

Illustrations of Aluminum Hydraulic Shoring

P a g e 38 | 42
Screw Jacks
Screw jacks are generally used to hold and separate
uprights in a shoring system. Screw jacks must only be
used with the proper type of iron pipe (schedule 40) cut to
length to fit the trench opening.

The concern with screw jacks is that there is no means to

determine what pressures you are exerting upon the
trench sides. In addition, to install the shores it requires
that an employee enter the unprotected trench to apply Illustration of a Screw Jack
the screw jack to the timber. This flies in the face of trench safety recommendations
The safest method to install this jack would be to place the ladder in the middle of
the trench, stand on a ladder beginning at 2 feet from the top of the trench and
step down the ladder to within 2 feet of the bottom of the trench; tightening the
jack handle as you proceed down the ladder. Be sure to nail the feet of the screw
jack to the timber to prevent the jack from falling out when tightening the other
screw jacks.

Trench Shields
A Shield, also known as a trench box, is another common protective system used
by contractors. Trench boxes are not designed to prevent cave-ins, but rather serve
to "shield” excellent choice when placing continuous installations, as in pipe lying.
The box is placed in the trench and dragged along with the progress of the work.
A few important points about shields:
 Personnel should be out of the box and above
ground when the shield is being moved. You
could be caught between the moving box and
fixed object(s);
 Employees must remain in the confines of the
box when working
 The top of the shield should extend at least
eighteen (18) inches above the level of any
materials that could cave or roll into the
Diagram of a Trench Shield trench;
 Some shields are designed to be stacked, one on top of another. Never stack
shields that are not designed for that purpose, and do not stack shields from
different manufacturers, as they may not be compatible.
 The forces of a cave-in can literally push a box sideways, causing a crushing
hazard. After a box is positioned for the work, the voids between the box and
the trench wall should be filled with excavated material to prevent
displacement caused by a cave-in.
 Shielding should always be used according to manufacturer‘s tabulated data.

P a g e 39 | 42
Trench shields are an effective means of providing trench protection in poor soil
conditions. Shields allow employees to work safely in an enclosed area. Shields can
be very versatile allowing the units to be stacked for very deep trenches.
Remember: Be sure a Registered Professional Engineer approves systems for
trenches that exceed 20 feet in depth.

Shield systems must be designed to have the capacity to resist without failure all
loads that are intended or could reasonably be expected to be transmitted to the
trench protective system.

Combined Use
Trench boxes are generally used in open areas, but you can also use them in
combination with sloping and benching. Make sure the box extends at least 18
inches above the surrounding area if there is sloping toward excavation. You can
accomplish this by providing a benched area adjacent to the box. Earth excavation
to a depth of 2 feet below the shield is permitted, but only if:
 The shield is designed to resist the forces calculated for the full depth of the
trench;
 There are no indications while the trench is open of possible loss of soil from
behind or below the bottom of the support system.

Conditions of this type require observation on the effects of bulging, heaving and
boiling, as well as surcharging, vibration, adjacent structures, etc., on excavating
below the bottom of a shield.

Careful visual inspection of the conditions previously mentioned is the primary and
most prudent approach to hazard identification and control.

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 TERMS and
TERMINOLGY

Accepted engineering practices: are procedures compatible with the standards

of practice required of a registered professional engineer.

Adjacent structure stability: refers to the stability of the foundation(s) of

adjacent structures whose location may create surcharges, changes in soil
conditions or other disruptions that have the potential to extend into the failure
zone of the excavation or trench.

Competent person: is an individual capable of identifying existing and predictable

hazards or working conditions that are hazardous, unsanitary or dangerous to
employees. He or she has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to
eliminate or control these hazards and conditions.

Confined space: is a space that, by design and/or configuration, has limited

openings for entry and exit, has unfavourable natural ventilation, may contain or
produce hazardous substances, and is not intended for continuous employee
occupancy.

Excavation: is any man-made cut, cavity, trench or depression in an earth surface

that is formed by earth removal. A trench is a narrow excavation, in relation to its
length, made below the surface of the ground. In general, the depth of a trench is
greater than its width, and the width, measured at the bottom, is not greater than
15 feet or 4.6 meters. If a form or other structure installed or constructed in an
excavation reduces the distance between the form and the side of the excavation to
15 feet or 4.6 meters or less as measured at the bottom of the excavation, the
excavation is also considered a trench.

Hazardous atmosphere: is an atmosphere that by reason of being explosive,

flammable, poisonous, corrosive, oxidizing, irritating, oxygen deficient, toxic or
otherwise harmful may cause death, illness or injury to persons exposed to it.

Ingress and egress: mean entry and exit, respectively. In trenching and
excavation operations, they refer to the provision of safe means for employees to
enter or exit an excavation or trench.

Protective system: refers to a method of protecting employees during a cave-in

from material that could fall or roll from an excavation face or into an excavation,

P a g e 41 | 42
and from the collapse of adjacent structures. Protective systems include support
systems, sloping and benching systems, shield systems and other systems that
provide the necessary protection.

Registered professional engineer: is a person registered as a professional

engineer in the state where the work is performed. However, a professional
engineer who is registered in any state is deemed to be a “registered professional
engineer” within the meaning of OSHA’s standard 29 CFR 1926 subpart P when
approving designs for “manufactured protective systems” or “tabulated data” to be
used in interstate commerce.

Support system: refers to structures, such as underpinning, bracing and shoring

that provide support to an adjacent structure. It also refers to an underground
installation or to the sides of an excavation or trench.

Subsurface encumbrances: include underground utilities, foundations, streams,

water tables, transformer vaults and geological anomalies.

Surcharge: means an excessive vertical load or weight caused by spoil,

overburden, vehicles, equipment or activities that may affect trench stability.

Tabulated data: are tables and charts approved by a registered professional

engineer and used to design and construct a protective system.

Underground installations: include, but are not limited to, utilities, tunnels,
shafts, vaults, foundations and other underground fixtures, or equipment that
employees may encounter during excavation or trenching work.

Unconfined compressive strength: is the load per unit area at which soil will fail
in compression. Laboratory testing can determine this measure. You can estimate it
in the field using a pocket penetrometer, thumb penetration tests or by other
methods.

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