INFORMATION SECURITY

Program Security
By Prof. Krishna Samdani
SECURE PROGRAMS

■ Security implies some degree of trust that the program

enforces expected confidentiality, integrity, and
availability.
■ How can we look at software component and assess its
security?
■ One way is to ask user to define security aspects.

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Fixing Faults

■ Software that has many faults early on is likely to have many others
still waiting to be found.

■ Early computer security work used “penetrate and patch” method

where analysts searched for and repaired faults

■ The test was considered as proof: if the system withstood the attacks, it
was considered secure.

■ Often patch efforts made system less secure because they introduce
new faults frequently, there are four reasons why:
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Fixing Faults

■ Pressure to repair encourages a narrow focus on the fault and not its
context.

■ The fault often had nonobvious side effects

■ Fixing one problem often caused a failure somewhere else.

■ Fault could not be fixed properly because it will cause performance

problems.
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UNEXPECTED BEHAVIOR
■ Compare program requirements with behavior to identify any unexpected behavior
called as program security flaws
■ Flaw is either a fault or failure
■ Vulnerability is a class of flaws (e.g. buffer overflow)
■ Need to determine how to prevent harm caused by possible flaws
■ Program security flaws can derive from any kind of software fault.
■ Program flaws:
○ Inadvertent human flaws
○ Intentionally induced flaws
■ Hindrances for eliminating program security flaws
○ How do we test for what a program shouldn’t do?
○ Programming and software engineering techniques evolve more rapidly than
computer security techniques
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TYPES OF FLAWS

■ Intentional
○ Malicious
○ Non-malicious
■ Inadvertent
○ Validation error (incomplete / inconsistent): permission checks
○ Domain error: controlled access to data
○ Serialization and aliasing: program flow order
○ Inadequate identification and authentication: basis for
authorization
○ Boundary condition violation: failure on first or last case
○ Other exploitable logic errors
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NON-MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS

■ These errors cause program malfunctions but do not lead

to more serious security vulnerabilities

■ We consider three classic error types:

○ Buffer overflows
○ Incomplete mediation
○ Time-to-check to Time-to-Use Errors

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NON-MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS – Buffer Overflow

■ A buffer is a space in which data can be held. A buffer’s capacity is

finite.
■ The programmer must declare the buffer’s max. size so that the
compiler can set aside that amount of space.
■ char sample[10];
■ The compiler sets aside 10 bytes to store this buffer.
■ sample[10]=‘B’
■ The subscript is out of bounds
■ sample[i]=‘B’
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NON-MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS – Buffer Overflow

Example:
char sample[10];
for (i=0; i<=9; i++)
sample[i] = ‘A’;
sample[10]=‘B’
All programs and data are in memory during execution, sharing space with the OS,
other code.
There are 4 cases to consider in deciding where ‘B’ goes.
■ Buffer may overflow into (and change):
○ User’s own data space
○ User’s program area
○ System data space
○ System program area
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NON-MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS – Buffer Overflow

User’s Data
Memory A A A A A A A A A A B

a) Affects user’s data

User’s Program
User’s Data code
Memory A A A A A A A A A A B

b) Affects user’s code

NON-MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS – Buffer Overflow
User’s Data System data

Memory A A A A A A A A A A B

c) Affects system data

System Program
User’s Data code

Memory A A A A A A A A A A B

d) Affects system code

NON-MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS – Buffer Overflow

■ Buffer Overflows Security Implication:

○ Attacker replaces code in the system space and takes control back
from the operating system
○ Attacker uses the stack pointer or return register to execute other
codes
○ Parameter passing to web server
● http://www.somesite.com/subpage/data&parm1=(808)55
5-1212&parm2=2004Jan01
● What if one of the parameters is made longer?
■ Microsoft's Phone Dialer contains a buffer overrun that allows
execution of arbitary code
NON-MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS

Incomplete Mediation (data checking)

■ http://www.somesite.com/subpage/data&parm1=(808)555-1212&parm2=2004Jan01
○ What if parm2 is 1800Jan01 or 2004Feb30…
○ Use dropdown lists to force the input, test ranges
○ Even then, the user could send incorrect data to the server
■ Security Implication
○ Easy to exploit
Time-of-Check to Time-of-Use Errors
■ Concerns Mediation that is performed with a “bait and switch” in the middle
(synchronization flaw)
■ Security Implication
○ to avoid checking one action and performing another – use digital signatures and
certificates
MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS

■ Malicious code is the general name for unanticipated or

undesired effects in programs or program parts caused by
an agent intent on damage.

■ the agent is the writer of the program or a person who

causes its distribution.
MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS

■ Computer Virus can slow down your computer by displaying useless messages.

■ might corrupt your system files.

■ might make some programs faulty or corrupt.
■ might damage your boot sector creating problems when you boot into the windows.
■ might steal important information from your computer and send to some other person.
■ might change the power ratings of your computer and could blast the system.
 MALICIOUS PROGRAM ERRORS
TYPES OF FUNCTION
MALICIOUS CODE

Virus Code that attaches to another program and copies itself to other programs.
• Transient virus – life depends on life of its host
• Resident virus – locates inside memory
Trojan Horse malicious effect is hidden from user (Ex: login script)

Logic viruses triggered by an event and goes off when specific condition occur
Time viruses triggered by a time or date
Trapdoor (backdoor) feature that allows access to program other than through normal channels
Worm program that spreads copies of itself through a network, can be stand alone program

Rabbit virus/worm that self-replicates without bound. Overtime, so many copies of Rabbit
would be running that it would clog the system, making it run slow and making it
more difficult to remove the program.
News 2012: SpyEye Trojan Horse
■ Crimeware steals passwords from your browser
■ Cyber criminals use your debit card details to drain your account
■ When you visit your banking site, it adjusts figures so the criminal
transactions don't appear
■ Attack has been used in U.S. and UK
NEWS 2015: DUUZER – A new Backdoor targeting South Korean Organizations

■ Security researchers at Symantec have uncovered a new Backdoor Trojan that grants
hackers remote access and some control over infected machines.
■ "Duuzer," as dubbed by the researchers, has been targeting organizations in South
Korea and elsewhere in an attempt to steal valuable information.
■ The Trojan is designed to infect both 32-bit and 64-bit computers running Windows 7,
Windows Vista, and Windows XP.
■ Duuzer gives attackers remote access to the compromised computer, allowing them to:
○ Collect system and drive information
○ Access, modify and delete files
○ Upload and Download additional files
○ Execute malicious commands
○ Steal data from infected system
NEWS 2015: DUUZER – A new Backdoor targeting South Korean Organizations

■ According to Symantec Researchers, the most obvious routes are Spear Phishing
campaigns and Watering Hole attacks.
■ Once infected, Duuzer checks if the system is running on a virtual machine like VMWare
or Virtual Box to ensure that security researchers are not analyzing the malware before
performing its malicious routines.
■ Duuzer's first sets up a backdoor on the machine, allowing attackers physical access to
the system.
■ The attackers then manually run commands through the backdoor on affected
computers. They can perform a variety of operations mentioned above.
HOW VIRUSES ATTACH

■ A virus is attached to a “program”

■ The virus is activated by executing the program
■ Most common viruses today are attached to e-mail; when the attachment is
opened, virus is active
Three ways:
■ Appended
■ Surrounds programs
■ Integrated viruses and replacements
APPENDED VIRUSES

■ A program virus attaches itself to a

program; then, whenever the program is
run, the virus is activated. This kind of
attachment is usually easy to program.
■ This kind of attachment is simple and
usually effective.
■ The virus writer does not need to know
anything about the program to which the
virus will attach, and often the attached
program simply serves as a carrier for the
virus.
VIRUSES THAT SURROUND A PROGRAM

■ An alternative to the attachment is a

virus that runs the original program
but has control before and after its
execution.
■ This is done so as to prevent its
detection.
INTEGRATED VIRUSES AND REPLACEMENTS

■ A third situation occurs when the virus

replaces some of its target, integrating itself
into the original code of the target.
■ The virus writer has to know the exact
structure of the original program to know
where to insert which pieces of the virus.
■ Finally, the virus can replace the entire target,
either mimicking the effect of the target or
ignoring the expected effect of the target and
performing only the virus effect
HOW VIRUSES GAIN CONTROL

■ The virus V has to be invoked instead of the target (T).

■ Essentially, the virus either has to seem to be T or the virus has to push
T out of the way and become a substitute for T.
■ Virus (V) modify/overwrite the program (T) in storage
■ Virus can change file pointer in file table for itself to be located instead
of T.
HOW VIRUSES GAIN CONTROL
HOME FOR VIRUSES

■ It is hard to detect.
■ It is not easily destroyed or deactivated.
■ It spreads infection widely.
■ It can reinfect its home program or other programs.
■ It is easy to create.
■ It is machine independent and operating system independent
TYPES OF VIRUSES

■ One time execution

■ Boot sector viruses
■ Memory resident viruses
■ Document virus
ONE TIME EXECUTION

■ The majority of viruses today execute only once, spreading

their infection and causing their effect in that one
execution.
■ A virus often arrives as an e-mail attachment of a
document virus. It is executed just by being opened
BOOT SECTOR VIRUSES

■ A special case of virus attachment

■ When a computer is started, control begins with firmware that
determines which hardware components are present, tests them, and
transfers control to an operating system.
■ The operating system is software stored on disk. Code copies the
operating system from disk to memory and transfers control to it; this
copying is called the bootstrap (often boot) load
BOOT SECTOR VIRUSES

■ To allow for change, expansion, and uncertainty, hardware designers reserve

a large amount of space for the bootstrap load.
■ The boot sector on a PC is slightly less than 512 bytes, but since the loader
will be larger than that, the hardware designers support "chaining," in which
each block of the bootstrap is chained to (contains the disk location of) the
next block.
■ The virus writer simple breaks the chain at any point, inserts a pointer to the
virus code and reconnects the chain after the virus has been inserted.
BOOT SECTOR VIRUSES

The boot sector is an

appealing place to
house a virus. The
virus gains control
before most
detection tools are
active, so that it can
avoid detection. The
virus code is not
noticed by users.
MEMORY RESIDENT VIRUSES

■ Some parts of the operating system and most user programs execute,
terminate, and disappear, with their space in memory being available
for anything executed later.
■ For very frequently used parts of the operating system and for a few
specialized user programs, it would take too long to reload the
program each time it is needed.
■ Such code remains in memory and is called "resident" code.
■ Virus writers like to attach viruses to resident code because the
resident code is activated many times while the machine is running.
Each time the resident code runs, the virus does too.
DOCUMENT VIRUSES

■ It is implemented within a formatted document, such as a written

document, a database, a slide presentation, or a spreadsheet.
■ These documents are highly structured files that contain both data
(words or numbers) and commands (such as formulas, formatting
controls, links).
VIRUS SIGNATURES

■ A virus cannot be completely invisible.

■ Code must be stored somewhere, and the code must be in memory to
execute.
■ Moreover, the virus executes in a particular way, using certain
methods to spread.
■ Each of these characteristics yields a pattern, called a signature, that
can be found by a program that knows to look for it.
VIRUS SIGNATURES

■ The virus's signature is important for creating a program, called a

virus scanner, that can automatically detect and, in some cases,
remove viruses.
■ The scanner searches memory and long-term storage, monitoring
execution and watching for the signatures of viruses.
■ When the scanner recognizes a known virus's pattern, it can then block
the virus, inform the user, and deactivate or remove the virus.
However, a virus scanner is effective only if it has been kept up-to-date
with the latest information on current viruses
VIRUS STORAGE PATTERNS
■ Most viruses attach to programs that are stored on
media such as disks. The attached virus piece is
invariant, so that the start of the virus code becomes
a detectable signature. The attached piece is always
located at the same position relative to its attached
file.
■ A virus may attach itself to a file, in which case the
file's size grows. Or the virus may obliterate all or
part of the underlying program, in which case the
program's size does not change but the program's
functioning will be impaired. The virus writer has to
choose one of these detectable effects.
■ The virus scanner can use a code or checksum to
detect changes to a file. It can also look for suspicious
patterns, such as a JUMP instruction as the first
instruction of a system program
EXECUTION PATTERNS

■ A virus writer may want a virus to do several things at the same time,
namely, spread infection, avoid detection, and cause harm.
■ Unfortunately, many of these behaviours are perfectly normal and
might otherwise go undetected. For instance, one goal is modifying the
file directory; many normal programs create files, delete files, and
write to storage media. Thus, there are no key signals that point to the
presence of a virus.
Virus effect How it is caused
Attach to executable program Modify file directory
Write to executable program file
Attach to data or control file Modify directory, rewrite data, append to data, append data
to self
Remain in memory Intercept interrupt by modifying interrupt handler address
table
Load self in nontransient memory area
Infect disks Intercept interrupt
Intercept OS call (eg., to format disk)
Modify system file
Modify ordinary executable program
Conceal self Intercept system calls that would reveal self and falsify result
Spread infection Infect boot sector, infect systems program,
Infect ordinary program
Infect data ordinary program reads to control its execution
Prevent deactivation Activate before deactivating program and block deactivation
Store copy to38reinfect after deactivation
TRANSMISSION PATTERNS

■ A virus is effective only if it has some means of transmission from one

location to another. As we have already seen, viruses can travel during
the boot process, by attaching to an executable file or travelling within
data files.
■ The travel itself occurs during execution of an already infected
program. Since a virus can execute any instructions a program can,
virus travel is not confined to any single medium or execution pattern.
POLYMORPHIC VIRUSES
■ A virus that can change its appearance is called a polymorphic virus. (Poly
means "many" and morph means "form".) A two-form polymorphic virus can
be handled easily as two independent viruses.
■ Therefore, the virus writer intent on preventing detection of the virus will
want either a large or an unlimited number of forms so that the number of
possible forms is too large for a virus scanner to search for.
■ A simple variety of polymorphic virus uses encryption under various keys to
make the stored form of the virus different.
■ These are called encrypting viruses.
■ This type consists of 3 distinct parts: a decryption key, the encrypted object
code of the virus and the unencrypted object code.
PREVENTION OF VIRUSES INFECTIONS
■ Use only commercial software acquired from reliable, well-established
vendors
■ Test all new software on an isolated computer
■ Open attachments only when you know them to be safe
■ Make a recoverable system image and store it safely
■ Make and retain backup copies of executable system files.
■ Use virus detectors daily and update them regularly
TRUTHS AND MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT VIRUSES

■ Viruses can infect only Microsoft Windows systems – FALSE

■ Viruses can modify “hidden” or “read-only” files – TRUE
■ Viruses can appear only in data files, or only in Word documents, or
only in programs – FALSE
■ Viruses spread only on disks or only in e-mail – FALSE
■ Viruses cannot remain in memory after a COLD BOOT – TRUE
■ Viruses cannot infect hardware – TRUE
■ Viruses can be malevolent, benign, or benevolent - TRUE
TARGETED MALICIOUS CODE
■ Another class of malicious code is written for a particular system, for a
particular application, and for a particular purpose.
■ Examples:
○ Trapdoor – undocumented entry point to a module
○ Salami Attack (Ex. Interest computation)
○ Covert Channels: programs that leak information (Ex. Hide data in
output)
TRAPDOORS
■ A trapdoor is an undocumented entry point to a module. The trapdoor
is inserted during code development, perhaps to test the module, to
provide "hooks" by which to connect future modifications or
enhancements or to allow access if the module should fail in the
future.
■ In addition to these legitimate uses, trapdoors can allow a programmer
access to a program once it is placed in production.
TRAPDOORS
Causes of trapdoors:
• Forget to remove them
• Intentionally leave them in the program for testing
• Intentionally leave them in the program for maintenance of the finished
program
• Intentionally leave them in the program as a covert means of access to
the component after it becomes an accepted part of a production system
SALAMI ATTACK
■ A salami attack merges bits of seemingly inconsequential data to yield
powerful results.
■ For example, programs often disregard small amounts of money in
their computations, as when there are fractional pennies as interest or
tax is calculated.
■ These small amounts are shaved from each computation and
accumulated elsewhere, it is unlikely to be noticed for an individual
case.

■ Examples : refer textbook

COVERT CHANNELS
■ Programs that communicate information to people who should not
receive it using extraordinary paths of communication called covert
channels.
■ There are two type of covert channels:
○ Storage channels
○ Timing channels
COVERT CHANNELS
Storage channels:
■ They pass information using the presence/absence of objects in storage.
■ Example: file lock channel
■ In multiuser systems, files can be locked to prevent two people from writing to
the same file at the same time.
■ A covert channel can signal one bit if information by whether or not a file is
locked.
Timing channels:
■ They pass information by using the speed at which things happen.
■ These are shared resource channels in which the shared resource is time.
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ There are many ways a program can fail and many ways to turn
the underlying faults into security failures.
■ It is better to focus on prevention than cure; how do we use
controls during s/w development to find and eliminate the faults.
■ Three types of controls:
○ Developmental controls
○ Operating system
○ administrative
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ Developmental controls:
■ Many controls can be applied during s/w development to fix problems.
■ The nature of s/w development:
○ specify
○ Design
○ Implement
○ Test
○ Review
○ Document the system
○ Manage
○ maintain
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ Modularity, Encapsulation and information hiding:
■ A key principle of SE is to create a design or code in small, self-contained units
called components/modules, when a system is written this way, it is called
modular
■ If a component is isolated from the effects of other components, then
○ it is easier to trace a problem to the fault that caused it
○ easier to maintain the system
○ Easier to see where vulnerabilities may lie
■ This isolation is called encapsulation
■ Information hiding is another characteristic of modular s/w.
■ When information is hidden, each component hides its implementation from
others, so that when a change is needed, the overall design can remain intact.
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ Modularity:
■ Modularization is a process of dividing a task into subtasks.
■ The goal is to have each component meet 4 conditions:
■ Single-purpose: performs one function
■ Small: consists of an amount of information for which a human can
readily grasp both structure and content.
■ Simple: is of a low degree of complexity so that a human can readily
understand the purpose and structure of the module.
■ Independent: performs a task isolated from other modules.
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ Modularity:
■ Advantages:
○ Maintenance
○ Understandability
○ Reuse
○ Correctness
○ Testing

■ A modular component has high cohesion and low coupling

CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
Modularity:

■ Cohesion: all elements of a component have a logical and functional

reason; every aspect of the component is tied to the component’s
single purpose.
○ A high cohesive component has high degree of focus on purpose
○ Low degree cohesion means that component’s are unrelated.

■ Coupling: refers to the degree with which a component depends on

other components in the system
○ Thus, low coupling is better than tight coupling.
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ Encapsulation:
○ It hides a component’s implementation details, but it does not
necessarily mean complete isolation.
○ The sharing is documented so that a component is affected only in
known ways by others.
○ Sharing is minimized so that fewest interfaces possible are used.
■ Information hiding:
○ Component is a black box with certain well-defined inputs and
outputs and well-defined function.
○ Other components do not need to know how the module completes
its function.
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ Peer Reviews
■ Hazard Analysis – set of systematic techniques to expose potentially
hazardous system states
■ Testing – unit testing, integration testing, function testing,
performance testing, acceptance testing, installation testing,
regression testing
■ Good Design
○ Using a philosophy of fault tolerance
○ Have a consistent policy for handling failures
○ Capture the design rationale and history
○ Use design patterns
CONTROLS AGAINST PROGRAM THREATS
■ Prediction – predict the risks involved in building and using the
system
■ Static Analysis – Use tools and techniques to examine characteristics
of design and code to see if the characteristics warn of possible faults
■ Configuration Management – control changes during development
and maintenance
■ Analysis of Mistakes
■ Proofs of Program Correctness – Can we prove that there are no
security holes?
OPERATING SYSTEM CONTROLS ON USE OF PROGRAMS

■ Trusted Software – code has been rigorously developed and analyzed

○ Functional correctness
○ Enforcement of integrity
○ Limited privilege
○ Appropriate confidence level
■ Mutual Suspicion – assume other program is not trustworthy
■ Confinement – limit resources that program can access
■ Access Log – list who access computer objects, when, and for how long
ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS
■ Standards of Program Development
■ Standards of design
■ Standards of documentation, language, and coding style
■ Standards of programming
■ Standards of testing
■ Standards of configuration management
■ Security Audits
■ Separation of Duties
Study Materials

■ Matt Bishop,“ Introduction to Computer Security ”,

Pearson Education,2005.
■ Charles P. Pfleeger, “Security in Computing”, fourth
edition

Please Note : PPT’s are for Reference Only , NOT AS A

STUDY MATERIAL
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 Contact
Krishna Samdani
[email protected]
Mobile- 9920407045
Seating – 401 Faculty Area MPSTME Building

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Thanks!
Any questions?

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