Vibrations of Vertical Pressure Vessels

C. E. FREESE This paper is primarily concerned with the vibration of vertical pressure vessels
known as columns or towers.
Mechanical Engineer, The
Fluor Corporation, Ltd., Los
The procedure for estimating the period of first mode of vibration for columns which
Angeles, Calif. Mem. ASME are the same diameter and thickness for their entire length is outlined. A graph is
included for this purpose which recommends limits between vessels considered to be
static structures and those considered dynamic.
A method for designing vessels considered as dynamic structures is described as well
as a detailed procedure for estimating the period of vibration of multithickness (stepped
shell) vessels and/or vessels built to two or more diameters with conical transitions where
the difference in diameter is small.
There is a brief resume of the “Karman vortexes” effect and a discussion regarding
vibration damping by liquid loading and the benefit of ladders and platforms which help
reduce the effect of periodic eddy shedding.
The design procedure outlined will be useful to the practical vessel designer
confronted with the task of investigating vibration possibilities in vertical pressure
vessels.

Introduction
2 What is the most practical method for designing to meet
For many years it was customary to apply guy wires dynamic conditions?
to tall ,slender pressure vessels. In, recent years, refinery and 3 Does the method used produce consistent results and does it
petro-chemical officials have demanded self-supporting vessels provide additional strength to resist the force due to the mass-
from the standpoint of plant appearance and safety. acceleration resulting from the motion of the vessel ?
In order to design a self-supporting vessel of this type, the 4 Is the period of vibration of the dynamically designed vessel
following problems must be carefully analyzed: such that prevailing winds are not apt to cause excessive
movement?
1 When it is necessary to deviate from the common practice 5 Are the external attachments ( such as piping, ladders, and
of designing a vertical vessel as a static structure and consider it as platforms) distributed all around the vessel to guard against
a dynamic structure? resonance due to eddy shedding in the “Karman vortex trail” at
critical wind velocities?
Contributed by the Petroleum Division and presented at the ASME
Petroleum-Mechanical Engineering Conference, Denver, Colo., September These problems will be discussed during the outline of a design
21-24, 1958, of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL procedure presented in this paper.
ENGINEERS. Before proceeding, it should be pointed out that vessel
NOTE: Statements and opinions advanced in papers are to be vibrations induced by earthquakes are infrequent in occurrence
understood as individual expressions of their authors and not those of the and this paper is more concerned with vibrations induced by wind
Society. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, July 9, 1958. Paper or other forces which may occur every day or many times during
No. 58 - PET-13. the day may depending upon the location.

Nomenclature

f = lowest natural frequency of vibration, t = thickness of vessel shell, in k = Strouhal number

cycles per second h = t = thickness of vessel shell, ft  = end slope of element in bending as a
cantilever beam, radian4 (tan  = )
12
T = 1 = period of vibration, sec

y = distance from e. g. of vessel element or

f y = deflection of element or section, ft
P = internal pressure, psig
internal part (of weight w) to seam or
g = acceleration due to gravity S = allowable stress of vessel material, psi
W = total weight of vessel or vessel section M = moment about vessel seam or
horizontal plane under consideration, ft
above horizontal plane under construction, lb horizontal plane under consideration, lb - ft
F = seismic factor
3
WS = shear load at end of section, lb
E' = 4320 X 106 = modulus of elasticity for MT = moment at end of vessel section
w = unit weight; lb/ft
steel, Ib/ft2 resulting from weight of sections to the right
w' = weight of vessel element or internal
 3
E = welded joint efficiency section under consideration
part, lb
L = total length, ft D h C = corrosion allowance
I = 8 moment of inertia of vessel shell
l = length of element or section, ft R = Reynolds number
cross-sectional area, ft4
D = vessel diameter, ft
V = velocity, ft/sec
d = vessel diameter, in.

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1959 / 77

ustrg
Design shell is of constant diameter and thickness for its full length, the
period of vibration maybe easily found from the graph shown in
Procedure Fig. 1. This graph is plotted from the general formula for the
It is customary for most vessel designers to establish the
minimum vessel shell and trend thickness according to the period of the first mode of vibration of a cantilever beam [7]:
2  wL4 
pressure temperature conditions and then calculate the thickness
  
12

.  E ' Ig 
required at the bottom head seam due to bending moments T
imposed by wind or earthquake forces [9].' Stresses in the 352

 wL4 
.  
longitudinal direction are involved nod the following notation may
 1785
12

 E ' Ig 
be used to summarize the thickness required:
(3)
t    C
48 M
4 SE  0.8 P d 2 SE dSE
Pd W
(1)
For a steel cylindrical shell, equation (3) may be written:
 4
T  764
. x106  wL3 
12
The terms within the absolute value signs are positive for tensile
stresses and negative for compressive stresses. The first term gives  D h
(4)
the thickness required for the longitudinal stress resulting from
internal pressure and is positive for pressures above atmospheric By rewriting equation (4) in the form:

T  7.64 x106  L 

 wD 
and negative for pressures below atmospheric. The second term is 2 12
 
 h 
the thickness required to resist the longitudinal bending stress and (5)
D
both positive and negative values exist at the same time. The third
term is the thickness required for the weight of the vessel above the the variables (L/D) and (wD/h) are used as parameters to plot the
seam being investigated and, since this is a compressive stress, it graph in Fig. 1.
has a negative value. The combination giving the highest value One of the first graphs of equation (4) was issued by a major oil
establishes the thickness required to resist the longitudinal stresses. company for their refinery work. In its original form, all vessels
Consider equation (1) for a typical vessel operating at an having a period of vibration over 0.4 sec were ordered designed
internally pressure greater than atmospheric: as dynamic structures and those having a vibration period of 0.4

t  0.275  0.307  0.063  0.125

sec or less were ordered designed as static structures. Experience
has shown that a more practical limit for this division is a line
drawn from 0.4 sec at the extreme left of the graph to 0.8 sec at the
The required thickness within the absolute value signs will have extreme right and considering vessels having a period of vibration
two values; namely, +0.519 in. and -0.095 in. Therefore the above this line to require dynamic consideration and those below
minimum thickness required is 0.519 + 0.125 in. corrosion to require designing as a static structure. The reason for revising
allowance = 0.644 in. the former limit is the fact that many vessels having small (L/D)
Next consider equation (1) to appear as follows for the same ratios and large values of (wD/h) have given satisfactory service
vessel operating under vacuum conditions: although their period of vibration exceeded 0.4 sec. In general,
t  0123.  0.307  0.063  0.125 vessels having an (L/D) ratio less than 15 are not apt to be critical
from a vibration, standpoint. One exception to this statement,
For this case, the two values within the absolute value signs are unofficially reported to the author, involved two vessels operating
-0.493 and + 0.121 in. resulting in a minimum thickness of 0.493 near a railroad whereby they were vibrated by railroad equipment.
+ 0.125 in. = 0.618 in. Both vessels had a period of vibration considerably less than 0.4
As previously stated, the moment M is the longitudinal bending sec and their frequency probably coincided with the frequency of
moment due to wind or earthquake, either of which may be the exciting force, thereby causing resonance. This type of
combined with eccentric loads imposed by mounting heavy response is difficult, if not impossible, to predict accurately and
equipment on the vessel. All designers are accustomed to should be considered as a special case.
evaluating moments due to eccentric and wind loads, but there are If investigation indicates that the vessel should be designed as a
a few who may not be familiar with the method used for estimating dynamic structure, the method of seismic analogy is
moments due to earthquake. Therefore, the following brief outline recommended. This method consists of designing the vessel for
is presented because this method is recommended as a design earthquake conditions using a seismic factor F3 = 0.20, regardless
procedure for vessels where dynamic considerations are required. of the geographical location. In most cases, the vessel will have
The weight of each vessel element (shell, head, tray, or internal thicker shell and head material in the lower section. As an
part) is calculated. and then multiplied by the vertical distance example, consider a vessel 10 ft 0 in. diameter by 13/16 in. thick by
from the circumferential seam (or horizontal plane) under 190 ft 0 in. high which has an (L/D) ratio of 19, and period of
consideration to the center of gravity of the element. The vibration (after being designed as a static structure) of 1.65 sec.
summation of the moments so found is multiplied by the seismic This vessel, when designed as a dynamic structure by the method
factor for the area where the vessel is to operate, thereby yielding a of seismic analogy, resulted in a shell thickness of /16 in. for the
l3

moment due to earthquake or seismic disturbance. For vessels, the upper 137 ft 0 in. and three 1ower sections consisting of /8, /16,
7 15

seismic factor will usually have a value of 0.03 to 0.12, depending and 1-in. thick material (the supporting skirt increased from 1 to l
upon the geographical location. Expressed mathematically,
9
/16 in.). The period of vibration was reduced to approximately 1.4
sec.
Whereas the application of this method actually consists of trial
M  F3  w' y ' (2) and error, the experienced pressure vessel designer becomes very
proficient in estimating how far down the vessel he can utilize the
After the vessel has been designed in the regular manner material thickness which is based on pressure-temperature
(considered as a static structure) it should be investigated regarding requirements, as well as the length of successive sections of
its possible behavior under vibration conditions. If the vessel thicker material. It is usually unnecessary to carry the seismic
analogy into the design of the anchor bolts because this method is
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.
1

78 / FEBRUARY 1959 Transactions of the ASME

AS M E
 Fig. 1

applied only as a "yardstick" to provide reasonable protection with a vibration, they later revised their recommendations as follows:
minimum amount of additional material. However, anchor bolt
stresses should be held low (15,000-16,000 psi) for these vessels or, if
a higher stress is used, the design procedure outlined should be Natural period of vibration Earthquake coefficient
applied to them. Proper tightening of anchor bolts for vessels subject Less than 0.40 sec 0.20
to dynamic behavior is of utmost importance and it is recommended 0.40 sec to 1.0 sec 0.08 divided by period
that they should be pretightened to the predicted working stress to Greater than 1 sec 0.08
avoid stretching and loosening in service It is definitely unnecessary
Attention is again called to the fact that this paper is primarily
to apply this method to the design of the foundation unless the vessel
concerned with vibrations induced by wind or other forces which
is operating in a seismic area.
occur more frequently than earthquakes and it should be noted that the
The design procedure just outlined produces consistent results and
vessel reported as Case II under Field Data is well within the later
also provides additional material to resist the force due to
recommendations outlined here and vibration trouble was encountered.
mass-acceleration of the vessel in motion. A number of years ago,
It is agreed that the current practice is probably adequate for
approximate calculations indicated that the total force due to wind
earthquake design; however, all critical vessels (except the vessel
load plus the force due to mass acceleration was about 1.5 to 1.70
reported as Case II) designed and installed by our company have been
times the static force due to 30 lb/ft, wind load for several different
designed to the seismic analogy method using a 0.20 seismic factor.
size vessels. It was found that the recommended design procedure
Not all vessels designed as static structures have the same thickness
resulted in shell thicknesses within a few thousandths of an inch of
of shell for their entire length and some vessels are of more than one
those obtained by the more lengthy approximation. Many critical
diameter. These vessels, as well as many designed as dynamic
vessels have been successfully installed which were designed to the
structures cannot have their period of vibration estimated from the
seismic analogy method just described.
graph in Fig. 1 or equation (4). It is also desirable to know the change
The same company that produced the first graph of equation (4)
in the vibration period resulting from dynamic design. Of the several
tentatively recommended the seismic design method using a 0.20
methods referred to in reference books on vibration [1, 2, 3] the
seismic factor for their vessels requiring dynamic design in order to be
numerical integration of the equation
on the "safe side." Since this company was mainly interested in the
response of vessels and other structures to earthquake induced

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY I 959 / 79

   Wy2 
0.185 and is known as the Strouhal number [10]. It is assumed by
T  2   
(6)
 g Wy
some authorities to be within 0.18 to 0.27 and dependent upon the
 velocity of flow [4]. The reproduced graph shown in Fig. 2 gives the
variation of the Strouhal number with the Reynolds number as
is probably the easiest and safest method for the designer who is not a
obtained experimentally by Relf and Simmons [10]. Research
specialist in vibration to apply. This equation follows the Rayleigh
engineers, employed by the same company as the author, reported the
method of approximation for finding the fundamental period of
following values for k obtained from full size vessels after erection
vibration as applied to a shaft or loaded beam on too supports. It will
[12]:
be shown that this equation is reasonably accurate for estimating the
period of the first mode of vibration of vertical pressure vessels.
k = 0.133, for a 7.67 O.D. insulated vessel at a wind velocity of
Equation (6) will result in an estimated period of vibration slightly
39.6 ft/sec (27 mph)
lower than the actual period. The degree of accuracy is dependent
= 0.189, for a 3.0 O.D. vessel at a wind velocity of 32.25 ft/sec
upon the number of sections calculated in estimating the static
(22 mph)
deflections when the vessel is considered as a cantilever beam
deflecting under its own weight. As an example, the period of The difference between the values reported from field data and the
vibration of a cylindrical shell 3 ft 0 in. diam by 3/4 in. thick by 90 ft graph is probably due to the size of cylinders tested and the method of
0 in. high was estimated under two separate conditions. In order to support. When the velocity of the wind is such that the frequency f in
eliminate nonuniformly distributed masses, this shell was considered the equation corresponds to the natural frequency of the vessel,
to have tray sections at one-foot intervals from the top to the ground resonance occurs and the vessel will oscillate at an excessive
and the heads were omitted. When calculated to equation (4), the amplitude. Since aerodynamic stability theory and calculation methods
period of vibration was found to be 1.088 sec. Dividing the shell into are beyond the scope of this paper, the reader should refer to
nine sections, each 10 ft 0 in. long and calculating the period to Steinman's paper [10] and similar publications for additional
equation (6) resulted in an estimated period of 1.08 sec. which is information in this subject.
0.735 per cent low. On the other hand, when this same shell is divided One vessel, not designed to the seismic analogy method outlined
into five sections having lengths of 30 ft 0 in., 20 ft 0 in., 15 ft 0 in., herein, gave trouble due to wind induced vibration. This vessel is
15 ft 0 in., and 10 ft 0 in., the estimated period of vibration to equation identified as Case II under Field Data. It was found to be free from
(6) was 1.068 sec which is 1.84 per cent lower than the results from vibration when the wind was blowing from a direction such that
equation (4). Most vessels designed as dynamic structures have five to nearby equipment disturbed the flow pattern and it is conceded by
ten sections similar to the latter division and the weight is not always some individuals that the external attachments also helped to reduce or
uniformly distributed. Field test have shown the calculated period of nullify the effect of periodic eddy shedding. It is recommended that
vibration to be 1.5 to 4.5 per cent lower than the observed periods for any vessel, where possible vibration trouble is indicated, should have
several different size vessels. This is in good agreement for large the external appurtenances located around its circumference and not
structures and it is reasonable to assume that the period of vibration placed on only one or two sides as was done with this vessel. The
obtained by the numerical integration of equation (6) will be break in vertical ladder runs demanded by some states helps to
approximately 5 per cent lower than the actual period . accomplish this because intermediate platforms and ladders are
Equation (6) is not difficult to integrate numerically, but care must distributed circumferentially. The same vessel which gave trouble
be exercised to make certain that all factors affecting deflection are when empty has been satisfactory after liquid loading. Therefore the
included. Instead of following a complete numerical integration, some additional damping effect of liquid loading cannot be ignored - on the
designers prefer to estimate the deflections at the center of each other hand, neither can too much confidence be put in it as a cure-all.
section graphically by either the area-moment or conjugate beam Some engineers are also concerned regarding the possibility of the
method. The same results will be obtained. The choice of method vessel being vibrated at a frequency corresponding to its second mode
depends upon the personal preference of the individual. An outline for of vibration. The second mode of vibration for cantilever beam has a
the numerical integration of equation (6) when applied to vertical frequency of 6.37 times the frequency of the first mode [7]. This
pressure vessels is given in the Appendix of this paper. relationship will not necessarily hold true for multithickness and/or
multidiameter vessels and more involved methods of analysis for the
Discussion of Wind Effects second mode frequency have to be employed. The Ritz method [8]
which is a further development of Rayleigh's method can be used for
Tall, cylindrical structures such as pressure vessels and stacks are these cases. It is sometimes referred to as the Rayleigh-Ritz method
subject to being put in oscillatory motion by wind currents. The and should be applied by designers specializing in vibration problems.
motion is at right angles or normal to the direction of the wind. This For the average vessel, it is not unreasonable to assume that the second
phenomenon is usually referred to as resulting from the Karman mode frequency might occur between five to six times the frequency
vortex trail (4, 5, 6, 10). The relationship between wind velocity and of the first mode. If a wind velocity of thirty miles an hour has been
frequency of eddy shedding is given by the equation. estimated to induce vibration in the first mode, it is reasonable to
conclude that vibrations in the second mode will not be induced by any
wind less than one hundred fifty miles per hour. On the other hand, a

V 
vessel subject to vibration in the first mode by winds of only ten miles
fD D (7)
an hour might be vibrated in the second mode by winds of fifty to sixty
k Tk
miles per hour if external attachments do not interfere with the
Since we are primarily concerned with the resonant condition periodic eddy shedding. Surrounding structures and terrain will also
which occurs when the frequency of eddy shedding equals or is in the have some bearing on the considerations involved.
neighborhood of the natural frequency of vibration for the vessel the It is not the intention of this paper to overamplify the possibility of
symbols for the vessel frequency and period of vibration are shown in the second mode of vibration. Some engineers maintain that
equation (7). From this equation, we can estimate the critical wind vibrations in the second mode could be catastrophic; how
velocity for most vessels.
The value for k was first determined in 1878 by V. Strouhal as

80 / FEBRUARY 1959
Transactions of the ASME
ever, to the knowledge of this author no case of this type of failure has argued that the spring load of 800 to 1000 lb results in a horizontal
ever been recorded. In fact, no one has reported a second mode force of only about 200 to 300 lb at the top of the vessel and this small
vibration in a self-supporting vertical pressure vessel and vessels are force will have very little effect on a moving vessel weighing 50,000 to
in service which have (L/D) ratios in the neighborhood of 40:1. 300,000 lb. If the spring load is doubled, the resisting load at the top of
Steinman's paper refers to the Meier-Windhorst tests at the Hydraulic the vessel is still a small factor in reducing vibration or limiting the
Institute at Munich (1939) wherein the hydrodynamic oscillations of resulting deflection. However, if an accurate estimate can be made of
cylinders yielded sharply defined results for (a) the low velocity range, the vertical expansion for the operating temperature involved, the
(b) critical range, and (c) high velocity range, and further states that, spring could he designed and installed so that the assembly resulted in
"In these vortex induced oscillations, there is no 'catastrophic range' of full cable tension during operation. This in turn becomes a hazard
increasing amplification with unlimited increase of steam velocity" because of possible cable breaking which would endanger personnel. It
[13]. has been suggested that the spring could be entirely eliminated, but this
does not appear attractive due to the thermal expansion of the vessel
Discussion of Correction Methods during operation and the subsequent danger of cable breakage just
outlined. Carrying the wires over sheaves and then straight down to the
This paper would not be complete without a brief discussion of foundation as shown in Fig. 4 has similar drawbacks. Aerodynamic
possible remedies if trouble occurs. One of the first things done to the paneling similar to that used on the pipeline suspension bridge [6] has
vessel reported as Case II under Field Data was to try a spring loaded also been suggested, but is not always desirable from other standpoints,
damping device originally designed by a large process engineering such as appearance and easy access to all sections of the vessel. If
concern and shown in Fig. 3. This device had practically no effect on paneling is used, the sections should be attached by bolting them to
the behavior of the vessel. It can be clips which

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY I959 / 81

have elongated or oversize holes to provide differential expansion Whereas format data were not retained, the engineering records show
during operation. In some cases additional rolled plate can be applied that they found the period of vibration to be 1.67 sec. Calculating the
at the lower section which will increase the stiffness and lower the period of vibration by the Rayleigh approximation (6), using six
period of vibration. Vertical beams welded for the length of the vessel sections gives a period of vibration of 1.61 sec which is 3.6 per cent
could be used, but are not recommended because of their restraining lower than the observed period.
effect under thermal conditions and possible discontinuity stresses. Although the calculated wind velocity required to cause
One practical approach is to design the vessel so that there is a resonance is only 10-12 mph, this vessel has operated without any
separate section in the top which can he partially filled with liquid difficulty. The external attachments were well distributed about the
(water or mercury if high density is required). The action of the liquid circumference.
will rapidly dampen the vibration and help prevent excessive Case II 84 in. I.D. x 145 ft-6 in. high Vessel Shown in Fig. 6.
amplitude build-up, because at the instant the oscillatory motion has This vessel was not designed to the seismic analogy method. The
its maximum acceleration, the liquid is still moving in the opposite thickness of the shell was increased in the lower section to withstand a
direction thereby creating a damping effect. This is the same effect high wind loading. During the construction period, this vessel was
(only of greater magnitude) as observed from the tray liquid reported observed to be vibrating under certain wind conditions and, not only
in Case II under Field Data. Of course the choice of liquid and the was the amplitude great enough to be alarming, but the anchor bolts
possibility of using this type of damping is dependent upon the stretched and an adjoining reboiler was loosened at its foundation.
temperature involved. To date, it has not been necessary to resort to Research engineers were sent to the field and made a
any of these methods for vessels designed to the method outlined in comprehensive study of the installation. It was observed that
this paper. resonance occurred at wind velocities in the neighborhood of 27 mph.
As previously mentioned, critical vibration was induced when the
Field Data wind came from a certain direction and, although the vessel could be
Case I 54 in. I.D. x 146 ft-0 in. High Vessel Shown in Fig. 5. mechanically vibrated from any direction, the vessel was
This vessel was designed to the seismic analogy method described "frequency-polarized'' due to the orientation of the trays and welded
in this paper. Field engineers checked the period of vibration by downcomers. The maximum amplitude was 0.45 ft during resonance.
setting the vessel in motion and observing its frequency and amplitude The vibration was recorded by strain gage-oscillograph
with a surveyor's transit sighted on a target rod mounted horizontally equipment and accurate wind velocity readings were recorded at
at the top of the vessel. A stop watch was used to time the number of several different elevations. The recorded amplitude measurement was
cycles. This vessel could be oscillated by two men exerting a checked with a surveyor's target rod and transit as outlined under Case
back-and-forth motion at the top platform. I.

82 / FEBRUARY 1959 Transactions of the ASME

 During the investigation, the Strouhal number for this column (7.67 in Table l were taken before the insulation was applied. The average
ft O.D. of insulation) and another 3 ft D column was obtained. These observed period of vibration is 1.64 sec.
are reported in the Design Procedure section of this paper. The readings shown in Table II were taken after the insulation was
Using the term "per cent decrement," defined as each amplitude applied. The column was also pressurized at 210 psig and had a bottom
having a swing equal to a certain percentage less than that of its temperature of 340 F and a top temperature of 90 F. There was no liquid on
predecessor, this column was found to have a 31/2 per cent decrement the trays but there was about four feed of liquid in the bottom. Both sets of
when the vessel was empty and a 14 per cent decrement when the readings were taken in still air. The average observed period is 1.69 sec.
trays were liquid loaded The calculated period of vibration is only 1.83 per cent lower than the
The logarithmic decrement for this column is approximately 0.035 average from Table I and 4.15 per cent lower than the average from Table II.
without liquid loading and approximately 0.133 loaded with liquid. The numerical integration of equation (6) consisted of considering the
The calculated period of vibration of 1.42 sec is 4.05 per cent lower skirt to be 51 in. average diameter and the 42 in. D section as extending to
than the observed period of 1.48 sec. the top of the conical reducer. In addition, the upper 51 ft 9 in. consisting of
Case III 36 in. I.D. x 42 in I.D. x 131 ft-0 in. High Vessel Shown in 3/4 in. thick plate was divided into three sections as was the 46 ft 7 in. of
Fig. 7. 7/8 in thick plate of the 42 in. D section, making a total number of 9
This vessel, which was designed to the seismic analogy method, has sections.
a calculated period of vibration of 1.61 sec. Field readings were taken Calculations indicate a critical wind velocity in the neighborhood of 8-10
in the manner outlined under Case I. The readings shown mph for this vessel. No excessive movement has

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1959 / 83

 6 If vibration trouble does occur, careful analysis of any proposed
remedy must be made in order to avoid trouble from some other
TABLE I source.
Observer Time - Number of Amplitude at Amplitude at Period - Percent
Seconds Cycles Start - Feet Finish - Feet Seconds Decr’t. Acknowledgment
1 38 24 .15 .05 1.58 4.66
2 51.5 31 .20 .05 1.66 4.52 The author wishes to acknowledge and express his appreciation for
3 49 30 .20 .05 1.64 4.67 the co-operation of the Standard Oil Company of California, Salt Lake
1 67 40 .20 .03 1.67 4.75 Refining Company, and the Research Division of The Fluor
2 50.2 30 .20 .05 1.68 4.67 Corporation. The assistance of Mr. R. C. Baird as well as many
3 50.4 31 .20 .05 1.62 4.52
individuals of The Fluor Corporation helped to make this paper
Aver. 1.64 4.63
possible and is gratefully acknowledged.

References
TABLE II I J. P. Den Hartog, “Mechanical Vibrations," third edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Observer Time - Number of Amplitude at Amplitude at Period - Percent Company, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Seconds Cycles Start - Feet Finish - Feet Seconds Decr’t. 2 Stephen Timoshenko, “Vibration Problems in Engineering,” second edition. D.
3 31 19 .25 .05 1.63 8.55 Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, N.Y.
1 33.2 20 .30 .05 1.66 9.00 3 N.O. Myklestad, “Fundamentals of Vibration Analysis,” first edition, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, N.Y.
3 38.2 22 .30 .05 1.74 8.18 4 Reference [1], p.373
1 38.2 22 .30 .05 1.74 8.18 5 R. L. Solnick and R.H. Bishop, “Noise, Vibration, and Measurement Problems,
Aver. 1.69 8.48 Resulting from Fluid-Flow Disturbances,”TRANS,ASME, vol.79, 1957, pp. 1045-
1048.
6 R.C. Baird, “Wind-Induced Vibration of a Pipe-Line Suspension Bridge, and Its
been reported and here again, the external attachments are well Cure,”TRANS.ASME vol. 77, 1955, pp. 797-804.
distributed about the circumference. 7 References[1], p. 459
8 Reference [2], pp. 370 to 382 incl.
The increased per cent decrement in Table II is partly due to the addition 9 E.O. Bergman , “The Design of Vertical Pressure Vessels Subjected to Applied
of insulation which would have a more noticeable effect on a small Forces,” TRANS.ASME, vol. 77, 1955, pp. 863-867.
diameter column. Internal pressure is believed to increase the stiffness 10 D. B. Steinman, “Problems of Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic Stability,”
Proceedings, Third Hydraulic Conference, June, 1946, Univ. of Iowa Bulletin No. 31,
and probably was a contributing factor. Whereas the bottom liquid is Page 139. Graph shown in Fig.2 reproduced by permission.
near the base and would not be expected to contribute to the increase in 11 R.C. Baird , “Aerodynamic Vibration of Tall Cylindrical Columns,” Paper No. 58
-PET - 4.
per cent decrement, it could conceivably have some effect. 12 Report of Fluor Research, unpublished
The corresponding logarithmic decrements for the two conditions are 13 Reference [10] pp. 144 and 145.
0.045 and 0.082.

APPENDIX
Conclusion
1 Self-supporting vertical pressure vessels should always be
investigated regarding their possible behavior under vibrating I Estimating Period Of Vibration
conditions.
2 If the statically designed vessel has a period of vibration such The weights of the following items are used for estimating the
that it is necessary to consider it as a dynamic structure, it should be period of vibration when applying equation (4) (or the corresponding
designed to the seismic analogy method using a 0.20 seismic factor. graph of this equation ) or when numerically integrating equation (6):
It is not necessary to apply this analogy to anchor bolts, if they are
not stressed over 15,000-16,000 psi.
3 The period of vibration of multithickness vessels and most 1 Weight of Shell and Heads.
multidiameter vessels may be estimated by the numerical integration 2 Weight of Trays, Caps, and Internals.
of equation (6). The length of the sections used for solving equation 3 Weight of Manways and Nozzles.
(6) should not exceed twenty to twenty five feet in order to have the 4 Weight of Insulation and Fireproofing.
estimated period within approximately 5 per cent of the true period. The total weight (items 1 through 4) of the vessel or vessel section
Complicated units with long, conical transitions (making it is considered as a uniformly distributed load acting on the vessel
impractical to consider the cone as a straight shell having uniform when it is considered as a cantilever beam, i.e., a cantilever beam
properties) require more involved methods of approximation, or deflecting under its own weight. Note that equation (4) requires the
recognition that the estimated period for these units, if estimated to total weight to be divided by the total length in feet to obtain the Unit
equation (6), may be more than 10 per cent in error. loading in pounds per foot, whereas equation (6) and the deflection
4 The evaluation of wind velocity effects should include equations shown in Fig. 9 are based on the total weight of each
considerations pertaining to the distribution of external vessel section under consideration.
attachments as well as the surrounding equipment and terrain. It The numerical integration of equation (6) is accomplished by
should be borne in mind that liquid loading in vessels having trays dividing the vessel into the required number of sections - one section
will help dampen vibration, but should not be relied upon as a cure- for each different thickness of plate with no section exceeding twenty
all. or twenty-five feet in length, keeping in mind that the greater the
5 Anchor bolts must be properly pretightened to a torque which number of sections, the more accurate will be the estimate.
will prestress them an amount equal to their estimated working After determining the weight and moment of inertia for each section,
stress, otherwise they may stretch sufficiently to affect the period of estimate the deflection at the e.g. of the section either
vibration and possibly work loose.

84 / FEBRUARY l 959 Transactions of the ASME

graphically or by the numerical procedure outlined herein. When those who do not regularly use graphical methods. Actually either
applying the numerical procedure, it is necessary to find for each method requires about the same amount of arithmetic except those
section (except the last one at the free end) the deflection at the center, working graphically usually do not keep a detailed record of their
the deflection at the end, and the end slope due to (a) the uniformly areas and moments.
distributed load W, (b) the end moment, and (c) the shear load. These
are found from the standard deflection equations shown in Fig. 9. The II Determination of Per Cent Decrement
last section at the free end requires only the deflection at its center due
to its own weight. Reference to Fig. 8 will immediately disclose that Let X = amplitude of first swing.

 % decrement 
the last section on the free end does not have an end moment MT or a
A  1  
 
shear load Ws to take into consideration and the end deflection and the
end slope are not required to find the total deflection at the center. The 100
center of gravity of each section is considered to be at its midpoint.
Note: A five per cent decrement
Before proceeding with the deflection estimate, the designer should
means that each swing is 5 per
find all of the shear loads and end moments as shown in Fig. 10.
cent less than its predecessor.
It is then a simple matter to find the total deflection of each
section, square the deflection, and then tabulate the weight times the
Then:
so that they may be added to find Wy and Wy2 as shown in Fig. 11.
deflection and the weight times the deflection squared for each section,

Equation (6) may be written first swing amplitude = X

second swing amplitude = AX
third swing amplitude = A2X

  Wy 2 
1 or
. 
T  1108 
2
A(N-1)X
  Wy 
(8) Nth swing amplitude =
and
per cent decrement = 100(1-A)
to further simplify the arithmetic after the weight-deflection data are
found.
As previously mentioned, many designers prefer to graphically The term per cent decrement is of value when comparing the damping
estimate the deflection, but the numerical method is suggested for effect of different loading conditions for the same column.

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1959/ 85

86/FEBRUARY 1959 Transactions of the ASME
 DISCUSSION
(10)
  1 .7 6 E
2 D Am
M. Ludwig
L2
This paper deals with a problem that has long challenged this writer
and his associates. His recommended procedure for calculation of or

  5.81  10  6 E
dynamic wind forces can, however, lead to much more costly designs C D3 (11)
S In  BtL
than we have found to be necessary. The author is primarily concerned 2 2
with the possibility of forced resonant vibrations stimulated by in which
transverse cyclic wind forces associated with the Karman vortex trail
Am = maximum vibration amplitude at top of column
and, to deal with this possibility, suggests that flexible vertical
B = ratio of total mass per foot to mass per foot of steel shell
pressure vessels be designed to resist a lateral force equal to 20 per
C = coefficient for peak periodic wind force - given as 1.71 by
cent of the gravity force. This lateral force is, for most flexible vessels
Steinman (reference [10] of the paper)
(those with shell thicknesses greater than 0.4 in. if the total mass is
D = diameter of shell
twice the mass in the shell) greater than our customary design for
E = modulus of elasticity of steel
either wind or earthquake. The justification for use of this seismic
L = height of column
force is not presented, either as factor for a seismic design or for
S = Strouhal number
avoiding wind-induced vibrations.
 = amplitude ratio for two successive maxima, for free oscillations
t = thickness of shell
An anomalous feature of the author's “seismic analogy” method of
In = natural logarithm of  . (This is the "logarithmic decrement."
design is that it logically leads to the conclusion that a simple vertical
cylindrical shell, such as a steel smokestack up to 0.8 in. thick,
The "damping ratio" or ratio of actual to critical damping
requires no special consideration because of possible wind vibration,
 = peak vibratory stress at base of column
is equal to the logarithmic decrement divided by 2)
whereas a fractionating column of the same thickness and diameter
must be strengthened because of the added mass due to the insulation,
Any consistent set of units may be used in these equations.
trays and fluid thereon, ladders, piping, and other appurtenances. Such
As a numerical example, let
a conclusion cannot be supported by past experience; excessive
C = 1.71
vibration of steel stacks has occurred, whereas vibration of
S = 0.20
fractionating columns has seldom been a problem. The author notes
B = 2.00
one case of fractionating column vibration but this stopped when the
D = 4.00 ft
column was put into operation; either the liquid on the trays provided
L = 150 ft
adequate damping or the added mass of the liquid increased the
t = 1 in. or 1/12 ft
natural period to a less critical value.
E = 30 x 106 psi or 4320 x 104 psf
Our own experience is that the fractionating columns can be safely
In = 0.10 (damping ratio = 0.10/2 = 0.0159)
designed for static wind loads alone. The possibility of excessive
From equation (l0) or (11),  = 1270 psi.
Then, from equation (9), Am = 0.135 ft or 1.62 in.
wind vibration simply appears too remote to justify any added expense
to prevent such vibration. Strengthening of the steel shell, by adding
The possible deflection and stress calculated here are hardly large
thickness, merely reduces the natural period of vibration and increase
enough for concern. The assumed damping is reasonably small but
the wind velocity necessary to produce forced oscillations; it is not at
could be much less without serious results. As a matter of further
all safe to assume that it would eliminate or reduce the amplitude of
interest, the natural period of vibration for this column is 2.39 sec, the
vibrations that might otherwise occur.
wind velocity for resonant vibrations is 8.4 fps, and the Reynolds
Why is it that tall vertical pressure vessels, such as fractionating
number for this wind velocity is 214,000. This is within the region
columns, are far less severely affected by wind vibration than are
where C should be around 1.71 and S around 0.20, as was assumed. A
self-supporting steel smokestacks? The greater mass per unit of gross
value of 1.71 for C is probably the maximum obtainable. It actually
cross-sectional area cannot alone be responsible since large
determines the peak value of the periodic force, which probably
above-ground oil pipelines have been observed to vibrate in the wind.
includes higher harmonics; the coefficient for the fundamental
There will be added aerodynarnic damping because of attached
frequency component may be substantially less. Also the coefficient
platforms, piping, etc., but it can be shown that the energy absorbed
will be less if the column is not a true circular cylinder or if the
by this form of damping is probably not enough to limit the vibration
Reynolds number is greater than 500,000.
amplitude to reasonable values. The external irregularities due to
Note especially, as shown by equation (11), that the bending stress
platforms, piping, etc., could, however, reduce the applied periodic
is, for a given damping ratio, proportional to the cube of the diameter,
wind force.
inversely proportional to the square of the height, inversely
A sound theoretical analysis for forced vibration of the resonant
proportional to the shell thickness, and inversely proportional to the
frequency will answer the question raised in the previous paragraph.
mass ratio B. The greater values of the thickness and mass ratio for
Actual numerical values for the possible vibration amplitude and
pressure vessels, as compared to steel smokestacks, are particularly
resulting stress can be evaluated if the damping constant for the
important in minimizing the seriousness of possible wind-excited
column can be determined or estimated. The detailed analysis,
vibration. Thus, both experience and theory lead to the conclusion
although straightforward, is too lengthy for inclusion in this brief
that vertical pressure vessels, such as fractionating columns, are not
review, but the final equations are listed. It is assumed that the vessel
nearly as likely to vibrate excessively in the wind as are
vibrates in a sustained wind as a uniform cantilever beam in the
self-supporting steel smokestacks.
fundamental mode.

Am  3.30  106
C D2
S In Bt
(9)
2

2
Standard Oil of California, San Francisco, Calif.

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY I 959 / 87

 3 4
Earl J. Hicks and J. R. Sellers supporting soil is relatively soft, the actual condition tends to
approach the second assumption. Past observations on various stacks
The author implies that the vibration of a tall vessel is a case of have indicated reasonably close agreement between the observed
forced vibration, with resonance occurring when the Karman vortex frequency and the calculated frequency, the latter being based on the
trail frequency corresponds with the natural frequency of the vessel. fixed cantilever beam assumption. If the frequency of a vessel is
This is supported by Baird [14] 5 in. his investigation of a pipeline determined, assuming a fixed cantilever beam, and the supporting soil
bridge vibration. We have had a similar experience with a pipeline is soft, the error would be on the unsafe side; that is, the calculated
bridge in which a critical wind velocity was observed. A search of the critical wind velocity would be high.
literature finds an exception to this with experimental data to support The method of design suggested for wind induced vibration appears
the claim that tall stacks vibrate as self-excited vibrational systems to be arbitrary and most likely finds justification in the number of
with no critical wind velocity causing forced vibrational response. successful towers. It would be desirable to have a more analytical
Ozker and Smith [15] make the following statements in the summary approach to the problem. Apparently, any relation between the wind
and conclusions portion of their paper which are contrary to this induced vibration and the 0.2 seismic factor is purely coincidental.
paper: (1) “The stack structure under wind action constitutes a self-- It appears a more realistic approach would be to equate the energy
excited vibration system": (2) “The vibrational frequency is the natural input in terms of amplitude to the energy dissipated in terms of
frequency of the structure and remains constant for all wind amplitude and solving for the amplitude where the energy input is
velocities'': (3) “The stack is at resonance at all times”; (4) “There is equal to the energy dissipated. The vibrations at this point would be
no critical wind velocity in the sense of forced vibrational response”; an undamped steady-state free vibration and the resulting amplitude
and (5) “The amplitude increases with increasing wind velocities.” If would be a maximum. Knowing the maximum deflection, the
this were found to be true for a stack, could it not also be true for a tall maximum stress could be readily calculated. If the resulting stresses
vessel? The bulk of the data seems to support the theory of forced are excessive, then other methods to dissipate the energy would have
vibration excited by the Karman vortex trail, but there is this one to be used.
notable exception. There may be others. This method would require reasonably accurate knowledge of the
The basic assumption in calculating the natural frequency of a tall
. Only meager information on the numerical value of these
coefficient of lift CL, the Strouhal number S, and damping decrement
cylindrical vessel is that the base is fixed at the top of the foundation.
This implies that the horizontal displacement or deflection is due to coefficients is available at this time. It appears desirable to study the
the elastic deformation of the vessel and that the horizontal loads and dynamic response in a series of wind tunnel tests. Does the
displacement due to the elastic deformation of the soil is negligible. author know of any such studies?
This means that the vessel would act like a true cantilever beam fixed Aerodynamic paneling, liquid loading on trays, and liquid chambers
at one end. This is one extreme assumption. are practical solutions. One other worth mentioning is that of tieing
The opposition extreme assumption would be that the vessel and adjacent vessels and structures together. Vessels arranged in a triangle
foundation is a rigid structure resting on an elastic subgrade. This or square with common ties have a different vibrational mode and a
implies that the horizontal displacements of the tower are negligible higher resonant frequency than a single tower. In addition, more
compared to the deflection due to deformation of the soil. damping is introduced. A single vessel tied at an immediate level to
Assuming the latter assumption to be correct, it can be shown for a an adjacent structure will vibrate in a different mode and higher
vessel on an octagonal foundation resting on an elastic subgrade that frequency. These can be used as safeguards for vessels claimed as
the natural frequency of vibration is equal to the following: critical.
The liquid chamber suggested is one form of Frahm dynamic
B d 
1 absorber system.. A word of caution should be given on this
f  0.232  s 
2

H q
application. The Frahm dynamic absorber system has two resonant
frequencies and one frequency of zero amplitude. A properly sized
liquid chamber would decrease the amplitude to zero at one frequency,
where reduce it over a limited range of frequencies, but amplify it at two
frequencies outside this range. In other words, at certain frequencies
B = short diameter of the base in feet the liquid may not slosh to oppose vibration, but instead be in phase to
H = distance between the base and the center of gravity of the amplify it. Frahm antiroll tanks for ships are dealt with in Den
Hartog’s book [17]. A liquid chamber appears to be an energy
foundation and vessel
absorber of this same type.
ds = coefficient of dynamic subgrade reaction
In Case III, no excessive movement has been reported although the
q = static soil pressure per unit of area
critical wind velocity is in the neighborhood of 8-10 miles per hour.
From this equation the following conclusions can be drawn. The In Case I, the vessel has operated successfully with a calculated wind
softer the supporting soil, the lower is the natural frequency and the velocity to cause resonance of 10-12 miles per hour. Both of these
frequency may be raised by increasing the area if the foundation base vessels were designed to the seismic analogy method. In Case II
[16]. where the seismic analogy method of the design was not used, the
In general, observed frequencies have been lower than the vessel vibrated during the construction period. Does the author imply
calculated frequencies. This is probably due to the vessel and that since Case III and I were dynamically designed and Case II was
not that this was the main reason that vibration did not occur or could
foundation acting together in a manner somewhere in between the two
it be that the ladders and platforms were distributed around the former
extreme assumptions. If the supporting soil is relatively strong, the
two vessels such that the formation of the Karman vortex trail does not
first assumption is more nearly correct. If the materialize? It appears that the ladders, platforms, piping, and
insulation might be the major factor in preventing vessels from
3
Engineering Department, Phillips Petroleum Company, Bartlesville, Okla. Mem. ASME. vibrating. No doubt there are many vessels with a height to diameter
4
Engineering Department, Phillips Petroleum Company. ratio greater than 20 which are operating
5
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of this discussion.

88 / FEBRUARY 1959 Transactions of the ASME

 7
satisfactorily and have not been designed as recommended by the Donald J. Bergman
author. The author implies that any vessel with a period which falls
above the line shown in Fig. I should be designed dynamically. Would This paper is particularly interesting because it includes some actual
this be true for vessels whose heights are less than 100 or 75 or 50 ft? field data which have been extremely difficult to get. It seems
In general, is there some approximate height regardless of the H/D important to note that minor changes in resonant frequency have little
ratio where vessels below this height would not have to be effect on the over-all situation as this merely results in a slightly
investigated? different wind velocity to reach resonance. It was much more
Although the author does not say specifically that the vessel should important to note how greatly the liquid on the trays of a column
be designed such that the "critical wind velocity" is high enough to increased the damping effect. This absorbs the energy of the wind
exclude the possibility of the second mode of vibrations it is forces and cuts down the magnification factor, decreasing the
mentioned. If this item is not critical, then why is it necessary to use maximum. amplitude of vibration.
such an accurate and time consuming method to determine the period We had several instances of stack vibration starting in 1938, all far
when it could probably be estimated by other methods. Apparently, removed and all solved by use of permanent guys. The first key to the
the designers were not concerned in Cases I and III about the low causes came from Sir James Jeans’ book "Science and Music." Here
critical wind velocity since they were designed dynamically. the comment was made that a set of eddies broke off from a cylindrical
The author's paper is very timely indeed and is viewed with surface every 5.4 diam along the wind stream and that these eddies
considerable interest since the trend in pressure vessel design is to caused a push from side to side. The example was given of a ship with
increase their height and decrease the internal pressure. We wish to 1/2 in. rigging at sea in a 40-mile gale where the frequency comes out
compliment him on a very excellent paper and also thank him for to correspond to middle "C" on a piano.
stimulating our interest in the subject. The policy of providing light guys and spreaders was adopted for
columns with high L/D ratios and springs were provided to take care
References of column elongation by heat. Several hundred columns were thus
14 R. C. Baird, "Wind-Induced Vibration of a Pipe-Line Suspension Bridge, and Its equipped over past years without having one case of resonant
Cure," TRANS. ASME, vol. 77, 1955, pp 797-804. vibration. Perhaps this was just fortuitous because of presence of
15 M. S. Ozker and J. O. Smith. "Factors Influencing the Dynamic Behavior of Tall ladders, platforms, etc., to interfere with resonance, and absence of
Stacks Under the Action of Wind," TRANS. ASME, vol. 78, 1956, pp. 1381-1391. critical winds. Most of these columns were within the critical range as
16 Karl Terzaghi, “Theoretical Soil Mechanics,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New defined by the author.
York, N. Y., pp. 454-457. Later study indicated the same conclusions that the author reached:
17 J. P. Den Hartog, “Mechanical Vibrations,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., That the guys and springs were probably not effective and,
New York, N. Y., second edition, pp. 129-135. consequently, about a year ago provision of these guys was abandoned.
18 W. L. Dickey and G. B. Woodruff, “The Vibrations of Steel Stacks,” Trans. Since then one tower was found to have a resonant period with the
ASCE, vol. 121, 1956, p. 1088. wind and permanent guys were added.
19 E. A. Dockstader, W. F. Swiger, and E. Ireland, “Resonant Vibration of Steel Perhaps it should be noted that the elasticity of fixed guys actually
Stacks,” Trans. ASCE, vol. 121, 1956, p. 1088. makes them springs with a very high constant. Limiting the movement
of the tower is the desired result, and this the guys do by resisting the
wind forces.
6
L. Acquaviva The lateral forces resulting from the action of the Karman eddies
seem to be somewhat greater than the normal wind drag for any wind
The proposed criteria for dynamic design of pressure vessels velocity. With a low decrement, or high magnification, say, 20, only a
appears to yield more conservative results than the method we have relatively small force, 1 lb/sq ft, is required to give the deflection
been using for many years. It appears that the seismic coefficient of obtained when designing for a 100-mile per hour wind at 20 lb/sq ft,
0.20 applied on all vessels with height to diameter ratio exceeding 15 on the projected area of the column.
or natural period exceeding 1.0 sec may be too conservative based on The lateral forces generated on cylinders were actually utilized
our experience. For example, as an extreme case, there is a tower shortly after World War I by the German Flettner rotor ship which
within the Esso interests which is 173 ft high., topmost 40 per cent of cruised from Germany to New York using two 10 x 60-ft cylinders
height is 6 ft 6 in. in diameter and lower 60 per cent 5 ft 0 in. in mounted on the deck and rotated in order to furnish a fixed instead of
diameter. The approximate L/D ratio is 30, natural period of vibration an oscillating force.
3.7 sec and critical wind velocity 6.5 miles per hour for the top Rouse’s book “ Engineering Hydraulics” on page 130 gives formulas
section. The tower is on pile foundations and has given no vibration for an approximation of the aerodynamic lift caused by the Karman eddies
difficulties even though subjected many times to the critical wind on fixed and rotating cylinders. Additional information for higher
velocity for the top section; nor has there been any tendency to vibrate Reynolds numbers was obtained from Prof. L. Landweber of the Iowa
at its second mode for which the critical wind velocity is about 40 Institute of Hydraulic Research by correspondence. For the 7.67-ft column
miles per hour. The bottom section shell thickness for this vessel is which gave trouble with a 27-mph wind, I calculate a loading of 9.1 lb/ft or
7/8 in. The thickness required to conform with proposed dynamic 1.18 lb/sq ft of projected area. Stiffening a column and increasing its
design would be 1 3/8 in. frequency will decrease the deflection for a given load, but the wind forces
Unlike steel stacks, for which there are many instances of excessive increase as the square of the wind velocity.
vibration reported in technical literature, Case II in the paper is the Some comment was made regarding the second mode of vibration. This
first example to our knowledge of such occurrence in vertical pressure will always require a very much higher wind velocity than the first mode,
vessels. In this case, the maximum amplitude of 0.45 ft during but the column is so much more stiff because of the complicated second
resonance does not appear to be of sufficient magnitude to cause mode curve that it is probable that the vibration is not noticeable if it does
excessive stresses in the vessel shell. It would be of interest to know occur.
if an remedial measures were taken in this case.

6
Esso Research and Engineering Company, Linden, N. J. 7
Engineering and Development Department. Universal Oil Products Company, Des Plaines, III.
Mem. ASME.
Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY I 959 / 89
 Patent no. 2604838, dated July 29, 1952, to W. B. Traver, of mph, and apparently used a 4-ft 0-in. diam with his selected Strouhal
Standard Oil Company of Indiana, teaches provision of a roughened number of 0.20. Adding 3 in. of insulation, and using a Strouhal number
surface near the top of a stack either by small strips ranging from 1/4 of 0.18 (based on field data for two vessels reported in the paper) gives a
to 1 in. depth, or by the use of steel grating. This increases the skin critical velocity of 7.1 mph for the vessel as originally outlined and 7.8
resistance on the surface of the cylinder to prevent formation of mph for the design as recommended in the paper. (The period of vibration
Karman eddies. However, it does not seem to be a very practical decreased from 2.39 to 2.19 sec.) It is agreed that the recommended
remedy because of the cost of attaching the large number of small design does not materially affect the critical wind velocity for most vessels.
strips to the stack. It is also agreed that stacks may cause more trouble from vibration than
vessels, because they do not have liquid loading and are usually lighter in
Author's Closure weight. However, the inference pertaining to ignoring a stack of 0.8 in.
Before replying to specific questions or comments, the author thick should be further clarified, because the L/D ratio would determine
wishes to thank the discussers for their review and comments whether or not the stack should be designed for vibration. Also, there is no
pertaining to the design of vertical vessels subject to vibration. mention of stacks in this paper and it is not recommended that this design
It is hoped that sufficient interest has been stimulated in this subject procedure should be applied to them. Since processing is not involved,
to result in obtaining more field data than we presently have at our stack designers usually increase the resistance to vibration by a generous
disposal. Up to the present time very little has been done to obtain conical section in the lower zone which sometimes runs from
information pertaining to tall, slender vessels. If no complaint was ¼ to 1/3 the height of the stack. The pressure vessel designer can seldom
received from the operators, it has been assumed that no critical resort to this because of internal construction. In order to clarify the
vibration would ever occur. This is a normal and expected attitude; statements concerning stacks, the following tabulation is based on Mr.
however, it has not contributed to our knowledge of vessel behavior as Ludwig's definition of a flexible vessel; i.e., one with a shell thickness
heights have increased. greater than 0.4 in. if the total mass is twice the mass in the shell:
As pointed out in this paper and described more in detail in the
paper given by Mr. Baird, we have had definite experience with one
vessel which did give trouble and, after completing this paper the
author was informed that this vessel still has to have anchor bolts Vessels
retightened at intervals which indicates that some excessive vibration Diam, Shell th, wt/ft,a Max L,
may still be taking place. in. in. lb L/D ft
The author does not agree with Mr. Ludwig that we can generalize 36 7/16 360 20 60
regarding the relationship of total mass to the mass of the shell itself. 48 7/16 480 18 72
Mr. Ludwig's use of a mass equal to twice the mass of the shell in his 60 7/16 600 17 85
4-ft 0-in. diam X l-in. thick example would result in very heavy 72 7/16 720 15 90
internals. To me, each vessel should be considered individually during a
This is double the wt/ft for 7/16-in. plate.
the design stage. Obviously, there will be those where conditions of
terrain and prevailing winds will cast doubt regarding the justification
of added cost to the vessel. Vessels
The cost angle of designing to the method recommended in this Diam, Shell th,b wt/ft, Max L,
in. in. lb L/D ft
paper has been overemphasized. Taking Mr. Ludwig's example and
36 7/16 180 24 72
designing it to the 0.2 seismic analogy results in the following
48 7/16 240 21 72
thicknesses:
60 7/16 300 19 84
Top 104 ft — 1-in. plate (orig. thickness) 72 7/16 360 18 108
Next 16 ft — 1 1/8-in. plate b
L/D and max L values for stacks actually are independent of shell thickness
Next 8 ft — 1 1/4-in. plate because the value of the abscissa (wD/h) of the graph shown in Fig. 1 does not change
Next 8 ft — 1 3/8-in. plate as the material thickness is changed ( w and h are proportional).
Next 8 ft — 1 7/16-in. plate A comparison will show that the 36-in-diam vessel can be considered
Skirt 6 ft — 1 7/16-in. plate as a static structure if not over 60 ft high, whereas the 36-in. stack could
This represents an increase of only 7,500 lb added to a vessel be considered as a static structure up to 72 ft high, regardless of its
originally designed as 146,000 lb (when l6,000 lb is subtracted for thickness. Similar values are shown for other diameters. As previously
insulation). This approximation is based on ASTM A-212-B Material, mentioned, it was not intended to apply the graph shown in Fig. 1 to
S.R. and x-rayed, and includes 1/8-in. corrosion allowance in the l-in. stacks. However, there does not appear to be a great discrepancy in this
plate, which means that this vessel would have 7/8-in. thickness for respect when it is realized that all of the metal put in the stack may be used
resisting pressure in the hoop direction. We then have 7/16 in. of for structural strength since there is no internal pressure.
material available to resist the bending in the longitudinal direction. Stacks are frequently built using the thinnest calculated material
Mr. Ludwig ignores the pressure stress when he reports his bending thickness, and sometimes local buckling has occurred due to warpage
stress due to his estimate of the maximum amplitude of vibration. and/or external forces. I do not believe a true comparison between stacks
Costwise, this vessel would represent an investment of approximately and vessels can be made.
$36,500 as originally outlined. The added material and labor would be The calculation of the periodic force and resulting amplitude is difficult
approximately $1350 which is an increase of only 3.7 per cent. In to make with any degree of accuracy, because we lack field data on
this case, the added material accomplishes two things; first, it vessels. Past attempts to apply some of the data from Reference [10] in
increases the section of the vessel where bending stresses occur and the paper have not always give results consistent with the field data taken
will reduce the possibility of failure from fatigue, a condition which to date. This does not mean the approximations of this nature should not
could exist if the critical wind velocity was prevalent; second, it gives be made, but we cannot place too much reliance in them.
more resistance to bending if a harmonic condition occurs. Mr. Ludwig’s bending stresses are very low because he included all of
Mr. Ludwig reported a critical wind velocity of 8.4 fps or 5.7 the shell material for bending, whereas in actual design work we have to
combine the pressure stresses with the bend-
90/ FEBRUARY 1959 Transactions of ASME
 ing stresses. Also, Mr. Ludwig's stress is based on his estimate of the might have been satisfactory if designed to the seismic analogy
amplitude and ignores the fact that a deflection exceeding the normal method, but there is no proof of this. Recognition is given to the
amplitude might result if resonance occurs, as reported for the vessel desirability of distributing ladders, platforms, and other accessories
outlined as Case II and reported by Baird. circumferentially about the vessel to reduce the effect of periodic eddy
Mr. Hicks and Mr. Sellers discuss the possibility of the foundation shedding.
and soil-bearing capacity as contributing to the flexibility of the The heavy reference line shown in Fig. 1 is independent of height
system. This possibility has not been ignored. However, there has and considers L/D ratios more important than height. A vessel 30 in.
been no observation to justify this assumption. A check into the effect in diameter and 90 It 0 in. high can be more critical than a 200-ft
of anchor bolt stretch did not affect the period of vibration estimate 0-in-high vessel of a larger diameter. This reference line from 0.4 sec
sufficiently to bother with it—other than to require pretightening to on the left to the 0.8 sec on the right of the graph is empirical. There
reduce elongation during vessel deflection. When the total mass of certainly are vessels having periods of vibration above this line which
concrete and the surface charge of earth is considered, it is difficult to were not designed as recommended that are satisfactory. This line at
agree that they materially influence the natural frequency. If the soil one time was a horizontal line at 0.4 sec, and experience indicated that
bearing capacity is low, it is usually necessary to drive piles to support it could be safely changed as shown. Future data may result in another
vessels and similar heavy equipment. revision for this limit.
The desire for analytical approach is appreciated. However, The method outlined in the paper for numerically estimating the
pressure vessels do not always lend themselves to a true scientific period of vibration for a vessel having a shell varying in thickness is
analysis. In this case, so many variables exist that assumptions made intended for designers who are not experts in vibration. We are
in order to solve equations are apt to produce misleading results. The programming this work for computing machines along with our other
fact that a number of successful vessels have been built using this vessel program, but computing machines are not always available, and
sornewhat empirical approach is reasonable justification for its other methods of approximation are not very reliable unless performed
consideration. If we cannot justify a design method on the basis of by experts in the field of vibration. It is not always necessary to
successful operation, then we would be forced to discard many of our estimate this period and frequently it can be approximated by using
practices which are based on experience, including earthquake design. the graph in Fig. 1. It is up to the designer to decide the degree of
It is also noted that some reviewers are equally positive that it is accuracy he wishes to attain.
unnecessary to take any precautionary measures because they have not The column described by Mr. Acquaviva has considerable difference in
experienced any difficulty in the past. Therefore, we have one more the diameter of the top and bottom section. Our experience has been that
instance where the variables are too many to draw a definite vessels of this type are not as critical as tall, slender columns which are the
conclusion and data pertaining to location, terrain, wind currents, same diameter for their entire length. I have some reservation regarding
detail vessel design, and vibration for each case are not available. If the accuracy of estimating critical wind velocities for this type of vessel
we had at our disposal sufficient data taken from existing units, we when the diameter difference exceeds 6 to 12 in.
probably could work out a more analytical approach. Here is another example of experience and each individual will
To my knowledge there have been no wind-tunnel tests pertaining have his own idea of :a correct solution.
to vertical vessels except those mentioned in Reference [10]. If I were compiling data pertaining to existing vessels, I would
Investigation of testing models for tall, slender columns will definitely attempt to include all possible information on surrounding
immediately reveal that, in order to obtain reliable data for L/D ratios structures, wind currents, and geological data, in addition to details of
of 30 and 40 to one, the model size will be difficult to work with, vessel construction. A successful installation in one locality may not
because the diameter is so small in order to avoid excessive height. be trouble free in another.
Some of the larger wind tunnels could probably handle models large The vibration dampener shown in Fig. .3 in the paper was applied
enough to be practical, but the cost would be very high. to the vessel which vibrated at an excessive amplitude. This had
Connecting critical vessels to nearby structures of to adjacent practically no effect on the behavior of the vessel, but was not
vessels is always desirable if the location of the equipment permits. removed. Liquid loading helped to prevent excessive amplitude
This cannot be accomplished in many instances. build-up, but as previously mentioned, it was recently discovered that
I do not agree that the use of a single liquid chamber is comparable the anchor bolts have to he retightened at frequent intervals.
to Frahm antiroll tanks. The type of motion differs and I believe that My reply regarding cost of designing to a 0.2 - seismic factor was
there is very little possibility of the liquid amplifying vibration. included with the reply to Mr. Ludwig’s comments.
However, as pointed out in Conclusion No. 6 in the paper, any Mr. Fred Ruud's statement that the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation
proposed remedy must be carefully analyzed to avoid additional uses a seismic analogy method for some of their tall vessels is
trouble from some other source. particularly interesting in view of the fact that seismic factors of 0.25
The paper does imply that the vessel reported under Case II to 0.30 were mentioned, and the author wishes to thank Mr. Ruud for
his interest and express regret that he did not have the opportunity to
prepare written discussion on this paper.

Journal of Engineering for Industry FEBRUARY 1959 / 91