Bandwidth Utilization:

Multiplexing and Spreading

Bandwidth Usage
• Bandwidth is always limited and expensive.
• Bandwidth utilization can be maximized by sharing
or pack more signals into it, to save cost.
• This type of sharing is called Multiplexing.
• There are many Multiplexing Methods:
– Some can be used on copper cables and wireless
transmission
– Some can only be used on specific transmission media
(fiber optics)
– Some are specific for wireless transmission only
Bandwidth Utilization
• Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available
bandwidth to achieve specific goals.

• While efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing;

privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved by
spreading.
Bandwidth Utilization
• Purpose: To wise use of available bandwidth
• How:
– Combine several low-bandwidth channels to make use of
one channel with a larger bandwidth (The goal is
efficiency).
– Expand the bandwidth of a channel to insert redundancy
(the goals are privacy and anti-jamming)
Multiplexing
• The link can be shared whenever the bandwidth of a
medium linking two devices is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices.
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across
a single data link.
• As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.
With Multiplexing

benefit
- save cost

6
Without Multiplexing
- a lot of channel (give direct access tapi higher cost)

7
Dividing a link into channels

Channel is the portion of a link that

carries a transmission between a
given pair of lines.
Multiplexing Techniques
• Analog techniques
– Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
– Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) mainly use in fiber optic

• Digital technique
– Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Frequency Division multiplexing (FDM)
• An analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
– Signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies (channel). change frequency depend on the channel
– Signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link.
– Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth – guard bands
to prevent signals for overlapping.
FDM Channel Guard Band

11
FDM: Multiplexing/Demutiplexing Process

To decompose the
multiplexed signal
into its constituent
signal
 FDM Application:

TM Streamyx (ADSL) Upstream and Downstream are for Digital

Data Signal

Voice signal

Composite Signal

Digital Data Signal

13
Example
• Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth
of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice channels
into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32
kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency
domain. Assume there are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different
bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the 20- to 24-kHz
bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for
the second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for the third
one. Then we combine them as shown in Figure below
Example
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to
be multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard
band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution - pernah kluar exam!!

For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.

This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in figure below.
Example
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1
Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-kHz
bandwidth. Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is
modulated such that each 4 bits is modulated to 1 Hz.
One solution is 16-QAM modulation. Figure below
shows one possible configuration.
Application:

The Analog carrier System: Analog hierarchy

1 cable can carrier many channels

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Designed to used the high data rate capability of fiber-optic cable.
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, excepts frequencies are
very high.
• Combine multiple light sources into one single light at multiplexer
and do the reverse at the de-multiplexer
WDM:
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing using Prisms
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
• A digital process that allows several low-rate channels to
share the high bandwidth of a link via time sharing.
– Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
• Two different schemes: synchronous and statistical.
Synchronous TDM
• Each input connection has an allotment (timeslot) in
the output even if it is not sending data.
• Data flow of each input connection is divided into
units, where each input occupies one input time slot.
– A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one
block of data.
• Duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than
the duration of an input time slot.
• If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s,
where n is the number of connections.
Synchronous TDM:

Time Slots and Frames

A round of data units
from each input
connection is
collected into a frame.

Output link is n times the data

rate of a connection to
guarantee the flow of data.
Synchronous TDM:

Empty Slots
• If a source does not have data to send, the
corresponding slot is the output frame is empty
 Example
In Figure above, the data rate for each input connection is 3
kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the
duration of
(a)each input slot,
(b)each output slot, and
(c)each frame?
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the
bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time slot is 1
ms (same as bit duration).

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time slot.
This means that the duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a frame
is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The duration of a frame is the same as the
duration of an input unit.
Example
Figure below shows synchronous TDM with a data
stream for each input and one data stream for the
output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit
duration, (b) the output bit duration, (c) the output bit
rate, and (d) the output frame rate.
 Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or ¼ μs.

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This
can also be deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as fast as any input
rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So the frame rate is 1,000,000
frames per second. Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can verify the
result of the previous question by multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per
frame.
Synchronous TDM:

Interleaving

Synchronized and rotate at

the
same speed, but in opposite
directions.
Example
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each
channel sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte
per channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the
size of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame
rate, and the bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in Figure below. Each frame carries 1 byte from
each channel; the size of each frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits.
Because each channel is sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte
from each channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second. The
bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
Data Rate Management
• Used when connection with different data rates
• Synchronous TDM would assume all input channels
have the same data rate.
• When connections with different data rate occurs, it
gives raise to a problem called TDM disparity
• Three strategies
– Multilevel multiplexing
– Multiple-slot allocation
– Pulse stuffing
Data Rate Management:

Multilevel Multiplexing
• A technique used when data rate of an input line is
a multiple of others.
Data Rate Management:

Multiple Slot Allocation

• Allocate more that one slot in a frame to a single input line
• Using serial to parallel convertor in the line to make two
inputs out of one
Data Rate Management:
Pulse Stuffing / bit padding / bit stuffing
• Used when bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of
each other.
• Solution:
– Make the highest input data rate the dominate data rate and add
dummy bits to the input lines with lower rate
Synchronous TDM:
Frame Synchronizing
• If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit
belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel.
• Solution: one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the
beginning of each frame (framing bits)
Example
We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per
second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data rate
of each source, (b) the duration of each character in each
source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each frame, (e)
the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the data rate of the
link.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2 kbps.
b. Each source sends 250 characters per second; therefore, the
duration of a character is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source, which means the
link needs to send 250 frames per second to keep the transmission
rate of each source.
d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note that the duration
of each frame is the same as the duration of each character
coming from each source.
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra synchronizing bit. This
means that each frame is
4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
Example
Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and another with
a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed. How this can be
achieved? What is the frame rate? What is the frame duration?
What is the bit rate of the link?
Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two
slots to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits.
The frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because
it carries 1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is
100,000 frames/s × 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.
Application: Digital Signal Service
• Telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy of
digital signals.
• DS-0, … DS-4 is name of the services , during the implementation of
these services they are named as T lines.
• Europeans use a version of T lines called E lines.
increase level, increase bandwidth
Digital Signal (DS) and T line rates
T-line is the digital carrier signal
Digital Signal
that transmits the DS signal
Scheme (Logical)
for digital Telephone Carrier
telephony System (Physical)
E-line rates
While T-line is the North American term, E-line is the European term.
They only different in term of number of channels.
The speed of each voice channel at E-0 is the same (64kbps) as in
T-line
New technology, ADSL, DSL have replaced them in recent years.

Actually 32 channels, 2 has been reserved.

45
Statistical TDM
• Slots are dynamically allocated to improve
bandwidth efficiency
• The number of slots in each frame is less than the
number of input lines.
• Multiplexer checks each input line in round-robin
fashion; it allocates a lot for an input line if the line
has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and
checks the next line.
Synchronous vs. Statistical Time-Division
Multiplexer
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing:

Issues
• Address
– no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs because there are no pre-
assigned or reserved slots
• Slot Size
– Ratio of the data size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission
efficient.
– For example, sending 1 bit per slot as data when the address is 3 bits cause an
overhead of 300 percent.
– In statistical TDM, a block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just a
few bytes.
• No synchronization bit because the time slot no longer be assigned

• Bandwidth
– The capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the capacities of each
channel.
– Why? Statistical TDM define the capacity of the link based on the statistics of the
load for each channel.
Limitations of FDM and TDM over Wireless
Medium
• FDM is limited by the bandwidth each user can get. Only a
small fraction of bandwidth can be allocated for one user.
• TDM requires strict synchronization between sender and
receiver as well as relatively complex to implement.
• As Wireless applications starts to grow rapidly, FDM and TDM
do not seem to be the good enough candidate as sharing
technique over wireless transmission.
• CDM (Code Division Multiplexing) has been introduced to
utilize all bandwidth of the channel and does not require time
synchronization to enable multiple users to transmit at the
49

same time.
• The technique in CDM /CDMA that allows multiple user access
is called Spread Spectrum.
Spread Spectrum
• A transmission technique used in wireless communication (Wireless
networks) that has features to prevent eavesdropping and
jamming.

• In spread spectrum (SS), redundancy code (spreading code) are

added to the carrier signal to spread the transmission to occupy a
larger bandwidth to enable the above features

• Spread spectrum in Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is using

50

mathematical approach to apply different spreading code for

different transmission / network
Spread Spectrum
• Signals from different sources are combined to fit into a larger bandwidth
and is designed to be used in wireless applications (LAN and MAN).
• The goals:
– To prevent eavesdropper and jamming from a malicious intruder.
• How:
– Redundancy by spread the original spectrum needed for each station.
Spread Spectrum Methods
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous
(DSSS)
Spread Spectrum
• The principal:
– Bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far,
larger than what is needed. This allows redundancy.
– Expanding of the original bandwidth with must be done
by a process that is independent of the original signal
using spreading code and spread the bandwidth.
• Two techniques: FHSS and DSSS
Spread Spectrum:

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• Use M different carrier frequencies that are modulated
by the source signal.
• Pseudorandom code generator, called as
pseudorandom noise (PN), create a k-bit pattern for
every hopping period Tn .
• Frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency
to be used for this hopping period and passes it to the
frequency synthesizer
• Frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of the
frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier
signal.
FHSS
 Hopping Sequence
FHSS Cycles 700KHz
900KHz
300KHz
200KHz
400KHz
800KHz
500KHz
600KHz
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Goals
• Intruder can only access a small piece of data
because:
– Not knowing about the spreading sequence to quickly
adapt herself to the next hop
– Anti-jamming because intruder only able send noise to
jam the signal for one hopping period, but not for the
whole period.
Interference in a FHSS transmission

Interference only
distort the
transmission for a
short period of
time
58
Bandwidth sharing in FHSS

59

Bandwidth for FHSS and FDM is the same, the difference is FDM has
fixed frequency, whereas FHSS frequency changes hop-to-hop
Spread Spectrum:

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

• Each data bit is replaced with n bits using a
spreading code.
– Each bit is assigned a code of n bits (chips), where the
chip rate is n times of the data bit.
DSSS Transmitter and Receiver
Narrowband
Noise

61

PRS = pseudo random sequence (the spreading code)

DSSS Example
• The spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000.
• If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N.
• This means that the required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than
the bandwidth of the original signal.
• The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code.
• It can provide immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.
Summary
• FHSS
– Using spreading code to hop the transmission using different
frequencies hence not easily jam.
– Good for very noisy environment.
• DSSS
– Using spreading code to create wideband signal with lower
power hence not easily detected by intruder and high
tolerance to narrowband noise. 63

– Good for noisy environment as the wideband demodulator will

flatten the narrowband noise.
– Good for multiple communications in same physical space by
using different spreading code.
Any Question?