Chap 1.

Systems of Linear
Equations and Matrices
 1. Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices
 1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
 1.2 Gaussian Elimination
 1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations
 1.4 Inverses; Algebraic Properties of Matrices
 1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for finding A-1
 1.6 More on Linear Systems and Invertible Matrices
 1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric Matrices
 1.8 Matrix Transformation
 1.9 Applications of Linear Systems (skip)
 1.10 Leontief Input-Output Models (skip)

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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
❑ Linear equations

❑ Example

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Example 1

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 General Linear Equations
❑ General Linear Equations

❑ Solution

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 Linear Systems in Two Unknowns

▪ 1. The lines may be parallel and distinct, in which case there is no

intersection and consequently no solution.
▪ 2. The lines may intersect at only one point, in which case the system
has exactly one solution.
▪ 3. The lines may coincide, in which case there are infinitely many points
of intersection (the points on the common line) and consequently
infinitely many solutions.

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 Linear Systems in Three Unknowns

❑ Every system of linear equations has zero, one, or

infinitely many solutions. There are no other possibilities.
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Example 2

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Example 3

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Example 4

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 Augmented Matrices
❑ Linear system

❑ Augmented matrix

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 Augmented Matrices
❑ The augmented matrix of

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 Elementary Row Operation
❑ Algebraic operations on the system that do not alter the
solution set
▪ 1. Multiply an equation through by a nonzero constant.
▪ 2. Interchange two equations.
▪ 3. Add a constant times one equation to another.

❑ elementary row operations on a matrix

▪ 1. Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant.
▪ 2. Interchange two rows.
▪ 3. Add a constant times one row to another.

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Example 6

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Example 6 (Cont.)

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Example 6 (Cont.)

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 1.2 Gaussian Elimination
❑ Echelon Forms

❑ Reduced row echelon form

▪ 1. If a row does not consist entirely of zeros, then the first nonzero
number in the row is a 1. We call this a leading 1.
▪ 2. If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then they are
grouped together at the bottom of the matrix.
▪ 3. In any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of zeros, the
leading 1 in the lower row occurs farther to the right than the leading 1
in the higher row.
▪ 4. Each column that contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else in
that column.
❑ A matrix that has the first three properties is said to be in
row echelon form.
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Example 1

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Example 2

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Example 3

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Example 4

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Example 4 (Cont)

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Example 4 (Cont)

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Elimination Methods

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Elimination Methods (Cont)

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Elimination Methods (Cont)

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Elimination Methods (Cont)

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 Elimination Methods (Cont)
❑ The procedure (or algorithm) we have just described for
reducing a matrix to reduced row echelon form is called
Gauss–Jordan elimination.
❑ This algorithm consists of two parts, a forward phase in
which zeros are introduced below the leading 1’s and a
backward phase in which zeros are introduced above
the leading 1’s.
❑ If only the forward phase is used, then the procedure
produces a row echelon form and is called Gaussian
elimination.

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Example 5

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Example 5 (Cont)

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Example 5 (Cont)

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 Homogeneous Linear Systems
❑ Homogeneous linear systems

❑ Every homogeneous system of linear equations is

consistent because all such systems have x1 = 0, x2 = 0,
. . . , xn= 0 as a solution. This solution is called the
trivial solution; if there are other solutions, they are
called nontrivial solutions.

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 Homogeneous Linear Systems
❑ Because a homogeneous linear system always has the
trivial solution, there are only two possibilities for its
solutions:
▪ The system has only the trivial solution.
▪ The system has infinitely many solutions in addition to the trivial solution

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Example 6

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Example 6 (Cont)

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Free Variables in Homogeneous Linear
Systems

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Free Variables in Homogeneous Linear
Systems

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Example 7

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Example 7 (Cont)

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Example 8

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Example 8 (Cont)

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1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations

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Matrix

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Matrix Notations

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Matrix Notations

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Operations on Matrices

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Matrix Addition and Subtraction

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Scalar Multiples

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Matrix Product

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Matrix Product

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Example 6

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 Partitioned Matrices
❑ For 3x4 matrix A

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Matrix Multiplication by
Columns and by Rows

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Example 7

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Matrix Products as Linear
Combinations

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Example 8

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Example 9

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Matrix Form of a Linear System

Augmented matrix

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Transpose of a Matrix

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Trace of a Matrix

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1.4 Inverses; Algebraic Properties of Matrices

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Zero Matrices

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Examples 3 and 4

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Identity Matrices

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Inverse of a Matrix

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Properties of Inverses

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Example 7

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Properties of Inverses

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Powers of a Matrix

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Example 11

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Matrix Polynomials

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Properties of the Transpose

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1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for
Finding A−1

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Elementary Matrices

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Inverse Row Operations

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Inverse of Elementary Matrices

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EquivalenceTheorem

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A Method for Inverting Matrices

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Example 4

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Example 4 (Cont)

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1.6 More on Linear Systems and Invertible
Matrices

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Example 1

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Equivalence Theorem (Revisited)

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Invertibility

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1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric
Matrices

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Triangular Matrices

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Example 3

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Symmetric Matrices

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Product of Symmetric Matrices

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 Invertibility of Symmetric Matrices

❑ Products AAT and ATA are Symmetric

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 1.8 Matrix Transformation
❑ standard basis vectors for Rn
▪ let ei denote the vector in Rn with a 1 in the ith position and zeros
elsewhere

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 Functions and Transformations

❑ function is a rule that associates with each element of a

set A one and only one element in a set B
❑ b is the image of a under f or that f(a) is the value of f at
a.
❑ The set A is called the domain of f and the set B the
codomain of f.
❑ The subset of the codomain that consists of all images of
elements in the domain is called the range of f.
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Transformation

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 Matrix Transformations

❑ matrix transformation (or matrix operator

in the special case where m = n)

▪ We call the transformation TA multiplication by A.

▪ TA maps x into w.

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Example 1

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Examples 2 and 3

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Properties of Matrix Transformations

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Linear Transformation

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 Linear Transformation
❑ The additivity and homogeneity properties in Theorem
1.8.2 are called linearity conditions.
❑ A transformation that satisfies these conditions is called
a linear transformation.

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Linear Transformation

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 Linear Transformation

❑ There is a one-to-one correspondence between m × n

matrices and matrix transformations from Rn to Rm
▪ in the sense that every m × n matrix A produces exactly one matrix
transformation (multiplication by A) and every matrix transformation
from Rn to Rm arises from exactly one m × n matrix;

❑ We call that matrix the standard matrix for the

transformation

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 A Procedure for Finding Standard Matrices
❑ The standard matrix for a linear transformation
is given by the formula

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Example 4

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