1.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 9 i & Panto agt 124) are the material derivative and Laplacian operators in spherical coordinates. 1.3. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The preceding two principles—mass conservation and force balance—are in many cases sufficient for solving the flow part of the convective heat transfer a love + Stove) Ay] Ax | pne «Sinus | ae | L Figure 1.3 First law of thermodynamics applied to a control volume in two-dimensional flow (for work transfer, aee Fig, 1.2),40 1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES problem; note at this juncture the availability of four equations (mass conser- vation plus three force balances) for determining four unknowns (three velocity components plus pressure). The exception to this statement is the subject of Chapter 4, where the natural flow is driven by the heat administered to the flowing fluid. In all cases, however, the heat transfer part of the convection Problem requires a solution for the temperature distribution through the flow, especially in the close vicinity of the solid walls bathed by the heat-carrying fluid stream (Chapter 2). The additional equation for accomplishing this ulti- mate objective is the first law of thermodynamics or the energy equation. For the control volume of finite size Ax Ay in Fig. 1.3, the first law of thermodynamics requires that { rate of energy \ acenmulation in the (contro! volume 1 _ { net transfer of rs net heat transfer energy by fluid flow ), \ by conduction}, rate of internal net work transfer 4. | heat generation (e.g, } _ | from the control (1.25) electrical power volume to its ” dissipation) environment A 5 According to the energy flow diagrams sketched in Fig, 1.3, the groups of terms above are a (h = Ax dy 5 (pe) a a {+}, = —(Ax dy) [2 (pue) + — (no | ax ay1.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 11 where e, g!, g”, and q” are the specific internal energy, heat flux in the x direction. heat flux in the y direction, and dissipation rate or rate of internal heat generation. ‘The origin of the dissipation rate term {-}, lies in the work transfer effected by the normal and tangential stresses sketched in Fig. 1.2b. For example, the work done per unit time by the normal stresses o, on the left side of the Ax ‘Ay element is negative and equal to the force acting on the boundary (7, Ay) times the boundary displacement per unit time (u), which yields —uc, Ay. Similarly, the work transter rate associated with normal stresses acting on the right side of the element is positive and equal to [o, + (aoJax) Axllu + (gu/ax) Ax] Ay. The net work transfer rate due to these two contributions is {o,(au/ax) + u(aa,/ax)|(Ax Ay), as shown in the (+); term of eg. (1.25’). Three more work transfer rates can be calculated in the same manner by examining the effect of the remaining three stresses, 7,, in the x direction and G, and 7, in the y directiun. in the {-}s expression abuve, the cighi tenn brave been separated into two groups. It can be shown that the group denoted as (x reduces to —p(D/Dt)(u? + v*)/2, which represents the change in kinetic enorgy of the fluid packet; in the present treatment, this change is considered negligible relative to the internal energy change (e)/at appearing in {+}, Assembling expressions (1.25) into the energy conservation statement that preceded them, and using constitutive relations (1.15) and (1.16), we obtain De Dp ps (2s pow) =Veg" +g" — PVev + pb (1.26) where q’ is the heat flux vector (¢/.¢"") and ® is the viscous dissipation function, shown later in eq. (1.45a). The quantity between parentheses on the left-hand side of eq. (1.26) is equal to zero [cf. eq. (1.6)]. In the special case where the flow can be modeled as incompressible and two-dimensional, the viscous dis- sipation function reduces to o=2[(#) + (2) ]+(#+2) zn ox ay dy ax To express eq. (1.26) in terms of enthalpy, we use the thermodynamics definition h = e + (I/p)P; hence, 1DP_ P Dp Dh De, 1DP_P Dp (1.28) Di Dt In addition, we can express the directional heat fluxes g” and g! in terms of the local temperature gradients; that is, we invoke the Fourier law of heat conduction.12 1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES q=-k v7 (1.29) Then, combining eqs. (1.26), (1.28), and (1.29) in the manner desired, we obtain Dh DP. P (Dp ave VT) tg" +t po—— (Pa py a KVT) +q' 7 ta ( te v) (1.30) Finally, we learn from the mass conservation equation (1.6) that the last terms in parentheses in eq. (1.30) add up to zero; in conclusion, the first law of thermodynamics reduces to ava +g + es uw (31) In order to express the energy equation (1.31) in terms of temperature, it is tempting to replace the specific enthalpy on the left-hand side by the product of specific heat X temperature. This move is correct only in cases where the fluid behaves like an ideal gas (see the ideal gas model, Table 1.1). In general, the change in specific enthalpy for a single-phase substance is expressed by the canonical relation for enthalpy [3], dh =Tds + car (1.32) where 7’ is the absolute temperature and ds the specific entropy change, as os ds~(—) ar ~ i Is (2 )e + (2) @ (1.33) From the last of Maxwell’s relations 13. p. 173]. we have as ae] 1 (%) B =) =- =s() =-= (1.34) . [ Tl eh) ) where £ is the coefficient of thermal expansion, 1 (ap 8 (%), - Table 1.1 also shows that(x91 9y1 uy 2) ARouD yeusoqUy aM st pul 1 = 2 “ouMor oyroads 241 sta ‘uonPIoU sorWEUApoULION [eOHSSe}D a4 OF SUIPIODDY, © Ju sams ae pinby De dP + Lp? = up Up 2 = mp ajqissardwosuy 2 268 ap” ap a Le ay, 2 oe ms oe ty tau ly up = 4p apo = mp se8 wap 2 se L ap (“)\sve= » (2) +a “(ae L “(ae “(ae pes ae foe ap|a- (“{\r| + % =m souersqns amg a & IP =P | (2). |v "pap [« (#).] BP P eIsqns 93nd Le pt a+ PL = yp oP d — SPL =" oe Adyeyuy ABxoug jeuraquy Adonug, ‘Sjepoui pue ,suoRE|a! qMEUAPOULIEY) Jo AleWIUINS |" eIGeL14 1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES as Cs (4), = (1.36) Together, eqs. (1.32)-(1.36) state that 1 dh = cp dT + = (1 ~ BT) dP (1.37) Pp in other words, the left-hand side of the energy equation (1.31) is Dh DT DP 2 ee — + 0 - Bh 1.38 Pa, = Pee, + 1 ~ BN) (1.38) The “temperature” formulation of the first law of thermodynamics is there- fore bt ay me DP Pee De Mates) eg + AT >, + u® (1.39) with the following special forms: Ideal gas (B = I/T): DT DP Per Be = VKVT) +g" +O + wh (1.40) Incompressible liquid (B = 0): DT Carne ee a (41) Most of the convection problems addressed in this book obey an even sim- pler model: namely, constant fluid conductivity k, zero internal heat generation q”", negligible viscous dissipation p®, and negligible compressibility effect BT DPiDt. The energy equation for this model is DT =kVT 1. Pep, (1.42) or, in terms of specific coordinate systems (Fig. 1.1):1.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 15 Cartesian (x,y,z): ah or on or er (Stu tol two) an(S+ (Fu ey »Z) w( Cylindrical (7.0.2). ar, aT vat, , ar PENG 2 or 700 | or =n (12 (,%) 4127, et ato ~ ror or rae Oz) A3b) Spherical (14,0): aT AT vga vy at Pep | + Up + Ee 30 a arr Ob sind 80 5, |22(2%). 1 2) te SV Bar \" ar} ” sind ab \" ab)” Psinth 08 (1.43¢) If the fluid can be modeled thermadynamically as an incompressible liquid, then, as in eq. (1.41), the specific heat at constant pressure cp is replaced by the lone specific heat of the incompressible liquid, c (Table 1.1). When dealing with extremely viscous flows of the type encountered in lu- brication problems or the piping of crude oil, the model above is improved by taking into account the internal heating due to viscous dissipation, T Pep a =kVT + pw (1.44) In three dimensions, the general viscous dissipation function can be expressed as follows: (1.45a)16 1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES Cylindrical (7.0.2): (1.45b) Spherical (7,6,0): =2{[ (2). (1a ve? (_1_ ave , ¥ , vpcot s)"] UL\ar] *\r a6 7)” \rsind 08 | : i 7 a fv, lov, |) | 1|sing 0 v, 1 au, = et al ae i fe 8 —s wate) aL; 3(44)+-43%| a +e +2 (6) 3 (145) If the density does not vary significantly through the flow field, V-v = 0 eq. (1.6)] and the last term in each of expressions (1.45) vanishes. It is worth reviewing the constant-p approximation that led to eq. (1,8) and recognizing that it differs conceptually from the “incompressible substance model” of thermodynamics. The latter is considerably more restrictive than the “nearly constant” density model, eq. (1.8). For example, a compressible sub- stance such as air can flow in such a way that eq. (1.8) is a very good approx- imation of eq. (1.6). For the restrictive class of fluids that are “incompressible” from the ther- modynamic point of view, the specific heat at constant pressure cp can be replaced by the lone specific heat of the fluid, c, on the left side of eg. (1.39). Water, liquid mercury, and engine oil are examples of fluids for which this substitution is justified. There are even convection problems in which the mov- ing materials are actually solid (e.g., a roller and its substrate, in the zone of elastic contact). In such cases the cp = c substitution is permissible also. It is important to note that the specific heat at constant volume c, does not belong on the left side of eq. (1.39). This observation is important because Fourier [5,6], and later Poisson [7], who were the first to derive the energy equation for a convective flow, wrote c on the left side of eq. (1.39). They made this choice because their analyses were aimed specifically at incompress- ible fluids (liquids), for which ¢ happens to have nearly the same value as cp. Because of this choice, they did not have to account for the P dV type of work done by the fluid packet as it expands or contracts in the flow field. In the modern era, however, the use of c, instead of c, is an error.1.4. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 17 ‘The prethermodynamics (caloric conservation) origins of the science of con- vectian heat transfer are also responsible for the “thermal energy equation” label that some prefer to attach to eq, (1.39) without the BT DP/Dr term. This terminology is sometimes used to stress (incorrectly) the conservation of “ther- mal” energy as something distinct from “mechanical and thermal” energy. In classical thermodynamics, however, this distinction disappeared as soon as the first law of thermodynamics was enunciated, that is, as soon as the thermo- dynamic property “energy” was defined, which happened in the years 1850- 1851 (see Ref. 3, pp. 30-32). Equation (1.39) represents the first law of thermodynamics. This law pro- claims the conservation of the sum of energy change (the property) and energy interactions (heat transfer and work transfer). The suggestion that mechanical effects (e.g., work transfer) are absent from eq. (1.39) when the BT DP/Dt term is absent is erroneous. The presence of cp on the left side of the equation is the sign tina cach fluid packet expands ur conuacis (i, ii dues P d¥-lype work) as it rides on the flow. The terms q” and p® are work transfer rate terms also. 1.4 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Any discussion of the basic principles of convective heat transfer must include the second law of thermodynamics, not because the second law is necessary for determining the flow and temperature field (it is not, because it is not an equation), but because the second law is the basis for much of the engineering motive (objective, purpose) for formulating and solving convection problems. For example, in the development of knowhow for the heat exchanger industry, we strive for improved thermal contact (enhanced heat transfer) and reduced pump power loss in order to improve the thermodynamic efficiency of the heat exchanger. Guod heat exchanger design means, ultimately, efficient thermo- dynamic performance, that is, minimum generation of entropy or minimum destruction of exergy in the power/refrigeration system incorporating the heat exchanger [8-10]. For this reason, it is useful to review the second law and in this way to explain the commonsense origin of the engineering questions that led to today’s field of convective heat transfer. ‘The second law of thermodynamics states that all real-life processes are itreversible: In the case of a control volume, as in Fig. 1.1, this statement is Sau dH i o zh yt Ds >i (1.46) pens pens where S., is the instantaneous entropy inventory of the control volume, ris represents the entropy flows (streams) into and out of the control volume, and T, is the absolute temperature of the boundary crossed by the heat transfer18 1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES interaction q,* The irreversibility of the process is measured by the strength of the ineqnality sign in eq. (1.46), or hy the entropy generation rate S,.. defined as Su = Se —- PLD mst Sms 20 (1.47) : at T; inter outlet pes pos It is easy to show that the rate of destruction of useful work in an engineer- ing system, Wj,, is directly proportional to the rate of entropy generation [8-10], Wrs: = ToSgen (1.48) where 7, is the absolute temperature of the ambient temperature reservoir (1, = constant). Equation (1.48) stresses the engineering importance of estimating the irreversibility or entropy generation rate of convective heat transfer proc- esses: If not used wisely, these processes contribute to the waste of precious fuel resources. Based on an analysis similar to the analyses presented for mass conservation, force balances, and the first law of thermodynamics, the second law (1.47) may be applied to a finite-size control volume Ax Ay Az at an arbitrary point (x,y,z) in a flow field. Thus, the rate of entropy generation per unit time and per unit volume $”, is [8.9] Sm, = (1.49) where k and pz are assumed constant. In a two-dimensional convection situation such as in Figs. 1.11.3, the local entropy generation rate (1.49) yields & | (ory. (ory. se ete) (es = al (Z) + (5) due ava au, av\? +Fs2) (=) + (=) + (+5) Feo c50 { ie) Gi C | _ In the last two equations, T represents the absolute temperature of the point where $”", is being evaluated. The two-dimensional expression (1.50) illustrates the competition between viscous dissipation and imperfect thermal contact (finite-temperature gradients) in the generation of entropy via convective heat P-Bnad se nacitive into the control volume.1.8 RULES OF SCALE ANALYSIS 19 transfer. The two-sided character of entropy generation in convective heat trans- fer was illustrated most recently by Mahmud and Fraser [11] Equations (1.48) and (1.50) constitute the bridge between two research ac- tivities: fundamental convection heat transfer and applied thermodynamics (en- tropy generation minimization). Beginning with Chapter 2, we focus on the fundamental problems of determining the flow and temperature fields in a given convection heat transfer configuration. However, through eq, (1.50), we are invited to keep in mind that these fields contribute hand-in-hand to downgrading the thermodynamic merit of the engineering device that ultimately employs the convection process under consideration. The science of adjusting the convection process so that it destroys the least exergy (subject to various system con- straints) is the focus of entropy generation minimization; this activity has been reviewed in Refs. 8-10. The generation of flow configuration (geometry, ar- chitecture) for maximal performance under constraints is constructal theory and design 12-15]. 1.5 RULES OF SCALE ANALYSIS This section is designed to familiarize the student with the commonsense problem-solving method of scule analysis or scaling. This section is necessary because scale analysis is used extensively throughout the book; in fact, scale analysis is recommended as the premier method for obtaining the most infor- mation per unit of intellectual effort. Furthermore, this section is necessary because scale analysis is not discussed in the heat transfer and fluid mechanics textbooks of our time, despite the fact that it is a precondition for good analysis in dimensionless form. Scale analysis is often confused with dimensional anal- ysis or the often arbitrary nondimensionalization of the governing equations before performing a perturbation analysis or a numerical simulation on the computer, The object of scale analysis is to use the basic principles of convective heat transfer to produce order-of-magnitude estimates for the quantities of interest. This means that if one of the quantities of interest is the thickness of the boundary layer in forced convection, the object of scale analysis is to determine whether the boundary layer thickness is measured in millimeters or meters. Note that scale analysis goes beyond dimensional analysis (whose objective is to determine the dimension of boundary layer thickness, namely, length). When done properly, scale analysis anticipates within a factor of order one (or within Percentage points) the expensive results produced by “exact” analyses. The value of scale analysis is remarkable, particularly when we realize that the notion of “exact analysis” is as false and ephemeral as the notion of “exper- imental fact.” As the first example of scale analysis, consider a problem from the field of conduction heat transfer [16]. In Fig. 1.4 we see a plate plunged at ¢ = 0 into a highly conducting fluid, such that the surfaces of the plate instantaneously